Solid-State Welding

Processes

Text Reference: “Manufacturing Engineering and

T h l
Technology”,
” K
Kalpakjian
l kji & S Schmid,
h id 6/
6/e, 2010
Chapter 31
 Solid-State
Solid State Welding Processes
• Joiningg takes p
place without fusion at the
interface
• No liquid or molten phase is present at the joint
• Two surfaces brought together under pressure
• For strong bond, both surfaces must be clean:
– No oxide films
– No residues
– No metalworking fluids
– No adsorbed layers of gas
– No other contaminants……
 Solid State Bonding
g
Involves one or more of:
• Diffusion: the transfer of atoms across an
interface
– Facilitated by heat
• Friction
• Electrical-resistance
• Induction
• Pressure:
P
– The higher the pressure, the stronger the interface
– May combine pressure & resistance heating
• Relative interfacial movements
– Create clean surfaces
– Even small amplitudes improve bond strength
 Cold Welding
• Pressure is applied to the workpieces
through dies or rolls
• Plastic deformation
• Requires
R i att lleastt one ((preferably
f bl b both)
th)
mating parts be ductile
• Prepare surfaces by pre-cleaning
• Best bond strength g occurs with two similar
materials
FIGURE 31.1 Schematic illustration of the roll bonding, or cladding,
process.
process
FIGURE 31.2 (a) Components of an ultrasonic-welding machine for
making lap welds. The lateral vibrations of the tool tip cause plastic
deformation and bonding at the interface of the workpieces
workpieces.
(b) Ultrasonic seam welding using a roller as the sonotrode.
 Ultrasonic Welding
g
• Process is versatile and reliable
• Used with wide variety of metallic & non-
metallic materials
– Including dissimilar metals (bimetallic strips)
• Useful for:
– Joining plastics
– Packaging with foils
– Lap welding of sheet
sheet, foil
foil, thin wire
– Seam welding if one material is:
• sheet, foil, p
polymer-woven
y material
• Moderate operator skill
 FIGURE 31.3 Sequence of operations in the friction-welding process:
(1) The part on the left is rotated at high speed; (2) The part on the right is
bro ght into contact with
brought ith the part on the left under
nder an a
axial
ial force
force; (3) The a
axial
ial
force is increased, and the part on the left stops rotating; flash begins to form;
(4) After a specified upset length or distance is achieved, the weld is
completed.
p The upset
p length
g is the distance the two p pieces move inward during g
welding after their initial contact; thus, the total length after welding is less than
the sum of the lengths of the two pieces. The flash subsequently can be
removed by machining or grinding.
FIGURE 31.4 Shape of the fusion zones in friction welding as a
function of the axial force applied and the rotational speed
speed.
 Inertia Friction Welding
• A modification of Friction Welding
• The necessary energy is supplied by the kinetic
energy of a rotating flywheel

Linear Friction Welding

- Use linear reciprocating motion (not rotational)
- Process suitable for welding square or
rectangular parts
- Metals or plastics
 FIGURE 31.5 The principle of the friction-stir-welding process.
Aluminum-alloy
y plates
p up
p to 75 mm ((3 in.)) thick have been welded by
y
this process.
 Resistance Welding (RW)
• The heat required for welding is produced by
means of electrical resistance across the two
joining components
• Process does not require:
– Consumable electrodes
– Shielding gasses
– Flux
• Bond strength depends on surface roughness &
cleanliness
• Requires specialized machinery (generally non-
portable)
• Many facilities now automated
• Low operator skill level
 FIGURE 31.6 (a) Sequence of events in resistance spot welding.
(b) Cross section of a spot weld
weld, showing the weld nugget and the indentation
of the electrode on the sheet surfaces. This is one of the most commonly
used processes in sheet-metal fabrication and in automotive body assembly.
FIGURE 31.7 Two electrode designs for easy access to the
components to be welded.
 FIGURE 31.8 Spot-welded (a) cookware and (b) muffler.
(c) An automated spot-welding machine. The welding tip can move in
three principal directions. Sheets as large as 2.2 × 0.55 m (88 × 22 in.)
can be accommodated in this machine with proper workpiece supports.
Source: Courtesy of Taylor–Winfield Corporation.
FIGURE 31.9 Test methods for spot welds: (a) tension-shear test, (b)
cross tension test,
cross-tension test (c) twist test
test, (d) peel test (see also Fig
Fig. 32.9).
32 9)
FIGURE 31.10 (a) Seam-welding process in which rotating rolls act as
electrodes. ((b)) Overlapping
pp g spots
p in a seam weld. ((c)) Roll spot
p welds
and (d) Mash seam welding.
FIGURE 31.11 Two methods of high-frequency continuous butt
welding of tubes
tubes.
 FIGURE 31.12 (a) Schematic illustration of resistance projection
welding.
g ((b)) A welded bracket. ((c)) and ((d)) Projection
j welding
g of nuts or
threaded bosses and studs. (e) Resistance projection welded grills.
FIGURE 31.13 (a) Flash-welding process for end-to-end welding of
solid rods or tubular p
parts. (b)
( ) and ((c)) Typical
yp p
parts made by
y flash
welding. (d) and (e) Some design guidelines for flash welding.
FIGURE 31.14 The sequence of operations in stud welding commonly
used for welding
g bars, threaded rods, and various fasteners onto metal
plates.
FIGURE 31.15 The relative sizes of the weld beads obtained by
tungsten arc and by electron-beam
tungsten-arc electron beam or laser-beam
laser beam welding.
welding
 FIGURE 31.16 Schematic illustration of the explosion-welding
process: (a) constant-interface clearance gap and (b) angular-interface
clearance ggap.
p ((c)) Cross section of explosion-welded
p jjoint: titanium
(top) and low-carbon steel (bottom). (d) Iron–nickel alloy (top) and low-
carbon steel (bottom).
 Diffusion Bonding
• A process in which the strength of the joint results from
– diffusion (primarily), and
– plastic deformation of the faying surfaces
• Diffusion is the movement of atoms across the interfaces
• Temperatures about 0.5 Tm (absolute)
• The bonded interface has the same physical & mechanical
properties as the base metal
• Strength of bond depends on:
– Pressure
– Temperature
– Time (duration) of contact
– Cleanliness of faying
y g surfaces
• Bonding may be facilitated by use of a filler metal at the
interface
• For some materials,, brittle intermetallic compounds
p mayy form
at interface
– Prevented by electroplating the surfaces
 Diffusion Bonding
g
• Use high pressure autoclaves for complex parts
• Suitable for joining
j g
– Dissimilar metals (most common)
– Reactive metals (e.g. Titanium, Beryllium)
– Metal-matrix
Metal matrix composite materials
• An important PM sintering mechanism
• Relativelyy slow process
p
– To allow time for diffusion
• Automation enables economic production in
moderate volumes;
– Aerospace, nuclear, electronics
• Requires
q skilled operator
p
FIGURE 31.17 Aerospace
p diffusion bonding
g applications.
pp
 FIGURE 31.18 The sequence of operations in the fabrication of a
structure by the diffusion bonding and superplastic forming of three
originally flat sheets
sheets. See also Fig
Fig. 16
16.48.
48 Sources: (a) After D
D. Stephen
and S.J. Swadling. (b) and (c) Courtesy of Rockwell International Corp.
 FIGURE 31.19 The Monosteel® piston. (a) Cutaway view of the
piston, showing the oil gallery and friction-welded sections; (b) detail of
the friction welds before the external flash is removed by machining;
note that this photo is a reverse of the one on the left.