I (s’ )

^
s’

^
s

r
r’
C(r)
Origin

Fig. 11 Thin-wire segment for MoM-based calculations. Current is confined to the wire axis,
and the tangential electric field on the surface of the wire is set to zero.

jη ⎛ 2 ∂2 ⎞
− ŝ ⋅ E inc ( r ) = ∫C I ( s ′ )⎜⎜ k ŝ ⋅ ŝ ′ − ⎟g ( r , r ′ )ds ′ (13)
4πk ⎝ ∂s∂s ′ ⎟⎠
⎛ − jk r − r ′ ⎞ µ0
where g( r , r ′ ) = exp⎜ ⎟, k = ω µ0 ε 0 , η =
⎜ r − r′ ⎟ ε0
⎝ ⎠

ω is the angular frequency, µ0 is the permeability of vacuum, and ε0 is the permittivity of vacuum. Other quantities in
eq.(13) are the same as those in eq.(12). Current distribution along the lightning channel can be obtained numerically
solving eq.(13).
This method allows lossy ground and wires in lossy ground (for example, grounding of a tall strike object) to be
incorporated into the model. The commercially available numerical electromagnetic codes [56], [57], are based on the MoM
in the frequency domain.

(3) Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) Method

The FDTD method [58] employs a simple way to discretize Maxwell’s equations in differential form. In the Cartesian
coordinate system, it requires discretization of the entire space of interest into small cubic or rectangular-parallelepiped cells.
Cells for specifying or computing electric field (electric field cells) and magnetic field cells are placed relative to each other
as shown in Fig. 12. Electric and magnetic fields of the cells are calculated using the discretized Maxwell’s equations given
below.

n⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 − σ (i, j, k + 1 2) ∆ t [2 ε (i, j, k + 1 2) ] n −1 ⎛ 1⎞
E z ⎜ i, j, k + ⎟ = × E z ⎜ i, j, k + ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ 1 + σ (i, j, k + 1 2) ∆ t [2 ε (i, j, k + 1 2) ] ⎝ 2⎠
⎡ n− 1 1
⎤
H y 2 (i + 1 2 , j, k + 1 2)∆y − H y 2 (i − 1 2 , j, k + 1 2)∆y ⎥
n−
∆t ε(i, j, k + 1 2) 1 ⎢ (14)
+ ×
1 + σ(i, j, k + 1 2)∆t [2ε(i, j, k + 1 2)] ∆x∆y ⎢ 1 1 ⎥
⎢⎣− H x 2 (i, j + 1 2 , k + 1 2)∆x + H x 2 (i, j − 1 2 , k + 1 2)∆x ⎥⎦
n− n−

n+
1
⎛ 1 1⎞ n− ⎛
1 1 1⎞ ∆t 1
Hx 2 ⎜ i, j − , k + ⎟ = H x 2 ⎜ i, j − , k + ⎟ + (15)
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠ µ(i, j − 1 2 , k + 1 2) ∆y∆z
⎡− E z n (i, j, k + 1 2)∆z + E z n (i, j − 1, k + 1 2)∆z ⎤
×⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣+ E y (i, j − 1 2 , k + 1)∆y − E y (i, j − 1 2 , k )∆y⎥⎦
n n

Equation (14) , which is based on Ampere’s law, is an equation updating z component of electric field, Ez(i, j, k+1/2),
at point x=i∆x, y=j∆y, and z=(k+1/2)∆z, and at time t=n∆t. Eq. (15), which is based on Faraday’s law, is an equation
updating x component of magnetic field, Hx(i, j-1/2, k+1/2), at point x=i∆x, y=(j-1/2)∆y, and z=(k+1/2)∆z, and at time
t=(n+1/2)∆t. Equations updating x and y components of electric field, and y and z components of magnetic field can be
written in a similar manner. Note that σ(i, j, k+1/2) and ε(i, j, k+1/2) are the conductivity and permittivity at point x=i∆x,
y=j∆y, and z=(k+1/2)∆z, respectively, µ(i, j-1/2, k+1/2) is the permeability at point x=i∆x, y=(j-1/2)∆y, and z=(k+1/2)∆z. By
updating electric and magnetic fields at every point using eq.(14) and (15), transient fields throughout the computational
domain are obtained. Since the material constants of each cell can be specified individually, a complex inhomogeneous
medium can be analyzed easily.
In order to analyze fields in unbounded space, an absorbing boundary condition has to be set on each plane which
limits the space to be analyzed, so as to avoid reflections there. The FDTD method allows one to incorporate wires buried in
lossy ground, such as strike-object grounding electrodes [59], and nonlinear effects.

L1-11
 E-field cell
Ez (i, j, k+1/2)
∆y
E-field cell
∆x Hy (i-1/2, j, k+1/2) Ey (i, j-1/2, k+1)
Ez (i, j-1, k+1/2)
Hx (i, j+1/2, k+1/2)
∆z Hx (i, j-1/2, k+1/2) Hx (i, j-1/2, k+1/2)

Hy (i+1/2, j, k+1/2) Ez (i, j, k+1/2)

Ey (i, j-1/2, k)

H-field cell H-field cell

Fig. 12 Placement of electric-field and magnetic-field cells for solving discretized
Maxwell’s equations using the FDTD method.

measured result

simulation result
(a) (b)
Fig. 13 Simulation of the transient response of a
grounding electrode by the FDTD method.

B. Application Examples
(1) A transient response on a grounding electrode
The impedance and admittance of a given electrical circuit are essential to analyze its steady and transient
characteristics by a circuit-theory based approach such as the Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP) [1, 2]. Sunde’s
formula of the admittance of a grounding electrode [60] is well-known and has been widely used in the world. However, the
formula is only for a steady state. Sunde also proposed impedance and admittance formulas for a transient, but those require
iterative calculations and the accuracy is found not satisfactory enough [61].
An electromagnetic interference due to mutual coupling between a grounding mesh and a control cable becomes a
significant subject in power stations and substations [4, 62-64]. To analyze this problem, a transient impedance and
admittance are indispensable. Unfortunately no formula is available, and numerical identification from a measured result
looks only a promised method presently as far as the circuit-theory based approach concerns, although many grounding
electrode models have been proposed [65]. On the contrary, an NEA approach requires no impedance and admittance,
because those are evaluated as a part of an NEA calculation.
Fig.13 (a) illustrates the geometrical configuration of a tested grounding electrode and the experimental circuit, where
only geometrical and physical parameters are required in the NEA calculation [37]. Fig.13 (b) is a comparison of an FDTD
simulation result with the measured one. A satisfactory accuracy of the FDTD method is confirmed from the results. This
example shows that the numerical electromagnetic analysis can solve a problem of which the impedance and admittance are
not known, for the method requires no circuit parameter. Also, the mode of wave propagation may not be TEM, while the
circuit-theory based approach is restricted only for the TEM propagation. Also, it should be noted that the phenomenon is
three-dimensional as is clear from Fig.13 (a).

(2) Partial-discharge pulse propagation in a gas-insulated bus

Fig.14 (a) presents the geometrical configuration of a gas-insulated bus in which a pulse is generated due to a partial
discharge. It should be clear in the figure that a part of the conductor is perpendicular to the remaining part. Such a
conductor can not be handled by the EMTP. Furthermore, the phenomenon in this system involves a radial wave propagation
other than axial one. Fig.14 (b) shows a simulation result by MoM, which reproduces the reflection from the corner of the
L1-12
 (a) (b)
Fig. 14 Simulation of partial-discharge pulse propagation in a gas-insulated switchgear by MoM.

voltage reference wire PG current injection wire

measurement point
of tower-top 21.7 V
77 m 600 ns
voltage rise 1.37
A

67.8 V
600 ns
(a) injected current (b) tower-top voltage rise

(a) Test configuration for a tower (b) Field test result

0
0
voltage [V]
current [A]

−20

−1 −40
1.37 A
1.5 A −60
69.2 V
−2 −80
0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800
time [ns] time [ns]
(c) FDTD simulation result
Fig. 15 Simulation of tower-top voltage rise of a 500-kV transmission tower

bus due to electromagnetic wave scattering. The scattering at the corner can not be simulated by a circuit-theory based
method. The approach is applied to develop life estimation of a power apparatus [5].

(3) Step response of a transmission tower for lightning overvoltage studies

Fig.15 (a) illustrates the configuration of a pulse test for obtaining the step response of a 500 kV transmission tower for
lightning overvoltage studies. Fig.15 (b) shows the measured result of the pulse test, where a voltage-rise waveform at the
tower top when a step current is injected into the tower top is measured. Fig. 15(c) shows the corresponding simulation
result by FDTD method. The calculated waveforms closely reproduce the measured ones. In this problem, the tower in
Fig.15 (a) is modeled three-dimensionally [7, 59]. It is hard to analyze a three-dimensional phenomenon by a conventional
circuit-theory approach. Also, the transient at the wavefront might involve non-TEM coupling within the tower structures
which will be demonstrated in the next example.

V. Comparison of EMTP and NEA Simulations

The theory and simulation results of the EMTP and numerical electromagnetic analysis methods (NEA) have been
explained in the previous sections. A comparison of simulation results by the both methods will be presented in this
section.

A. Transient Responses of a Grounding Electrode

Fig. 16 illustrates a model circuit of a grounding electrode for an EMTP simulation of which the parameters are given
in the following equations [22].
C1 = C s − C 0 , G 1 = G s , C 2 = nC1
C s = πε e x / A, G s = πx / ρ e A, A = An (2 x / e 2d ⋅ r2 ) (16)
C 0 = 2πε 0 / An (r2 / r1 )
where r1: radius of a bare conductor
L1-13
 (a) A distributed line (b) Yg for a horizontal conductor
Fig. 16 Grounding electrode model

150
measured
FDTD

voltage [V]
100

50

0
0 100 200 300 400 500
time [ns]
(a) EMTP simulation (b) FDTD simulation
Fig. 17 Comparison of measured and simulation results
r1=1mm, d=0.2m, x=8m

d: buried depth of the conductor

r2: r1+∆: radius of an artificial outer insulator
εe: earth permittivity, ε0: free space permittivity
ρe: earth resistivity, e=2.718…, n≈5
Cs and Gs in the above equation is well-known Sunde’s formula [60] of a steady-state capacitance and conductance of
a horizontal grounding electrode.
Fig. 17 shows a comparison of EMTP and FDTD simulation results with a measured result [66]. The simulation
results in Fig. 17 show a reasonable agreement with the measured result.
It should be noted that the EMTP simulation result is quite dependent on the parameters adopted in the simulation
which is a function of geometrical and physical constants of a conductor as is clear in eq (16). On the contrary, an FDTD
simulation depends very much on the analytical space, absorbing boundary, cell size and time step. The above observation
has indicated that the EMTP has been numerically completed quite well, while the FDTD requires a further improvement of
its numerical stability.

B. Transient responses of a tower

Fig. 18 illustrates an experimental circuit of a gas tower system, which is an 1/30th scale model of a real system, and a
measured result [67]. The circuit is the same as that of a wind generation tower if there is no pipeline connected to the gas
tower, and also the same as that of a transmission tower if the tower is represented by a cylindrical conductor [28] and
ground and phase wires are added.
(1) EMTP Simulation
The tower in Fig. 18 is represented as a distributed-parameter line with a surge impedance Z0 and a propagation
velocity c of which the values are evaluated by the impedance and the admittance formulas derived in Reference [28]. Fig.
19 shows a simulation result by the EMTP.
(2) FDTD simulation
Fig. 20 shows a simulation result by the FDTD.

It is observed that the simulation results in Fig.19 by the EMTP and in Fig. 20 by the FDTD agree reasonably well
with the measured result in Fig. 19. A difference observed between the measured and the EMTP simulation results is
estimated due to mutual coupling between the tower, the pipeline and measuring wires. Also, the frequency-dependent
effect of the conductor affects the difference. A difference between the measured and the FDTD simulation results seems
to be caused by a perfect conductor assumption of the FDTD method.

C. Archone voltage during a back-flashover

The electromagnetic field around a transmission tower hit by lightning changes dynamically while electromagnetic
waves make several round-trips between a shield wire and the ground. During this interval, the waveforms of archorn
voltages vary complexly. For a tall structure such as an EHV twin-circuit tower, the contribution of the tower surge
characteristic to the archorn voltages becomes dominant because the travel time of a surge along the tower is comparable to
the rise time of a lightning current. Particularly in the case of a back-flashover at such a tall tower, a powerful
electromagnetic impulse is produced since the archorn voltage of several MV is chopped steeply. The electromagnetic
impulse expands spherically and couples with the other phase lines. Such electromagnetic coupling is different from the
TEM coupling and it may influence significantly the archorn voltages of other phases. This issue, however, has been paid
little attention in analyzing a multiphase back-flashover.
L1-14
 Fig. 18 Experimental setup: RP=150Ω

160 60
EXP
120 EMTP
40
80
Voltage[V]

Voltage[V]
40 20
0
0
-40 EXP
EMTP
-80 -20
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time[ns] Time[ns]

(a) Tower top (b) Pipe sending end

60 40

20
40
Voltage[V]

Voltage[V]

0
20
-20
0
EXP -40 EXP
EMTP EMTP
-20 -60
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time[ns] Time[ns]

(c) Pipe receiving end (d) control line receiving end

Fig. 19 Measured EMTP simulation result

160 80
FDTD FDTD
120
40
Voltage[V]

Voltage[V]

80

40
0
0

-40 -40
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time[ns] Time[ns]

(a) Tower top (b) Pipe sending end

60 40
FDTD FDTD
20
40
Voltage[V]

Voltage[V]

0
20
-20
0
-40

-20 -60
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time[ns] Time[ns]

(c) Pipe receiving end (d) control line receiving end

Fig. 20 FDTD simulation results

L1-15
 29.0m
r = 20mm
4 5
8.0m
4.0m
Measured [6] 4 Measured [6]
16.0m 11.2m 3 Calculated Calculated
3

Voltage [MV]

Current [kA]
11.6m 4.0m 2
12.0m 2
12.0m 4.0m 1
80.0m 1
r = 0.373m
0 (1) (2)
44.0m 0

-1 -1
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Time [µs] Time [µs]

(a) The structure of a model tower subject to analysis. (b) Measured waveforms of the voltage of a 3 m gap
and the current flowing through it [2], and those
computed with the TWTDA code including
Motoyama’s flashover model. (1) Voltage. (2) Current.

Upper phase 6 Upper phase

6 Middle phase
Middle phase
Lower phase Lower phase

Voltage [MV]
Voltage [MV]

4 4

2 2

(1) (2)
0 0

0 1 2 0 1 2
Time [µs] Time [µs]

(c) Waveforms of archorn voltages computed by (1) TWTDA and by (2) EMTP, in the
case of a middle-phase back-flashover. ( 150 kA, 1.0 µs ramp current injection )
Fig.21 Archorn voltages during a back-flashover

To analyze such a very-fast transient electromagnetic field around a three-dimensional conductor system,
electromagnetic modeling codes are appropriate. Among many available codes, the Thin-Wire Time-Domain Analysis
(TWTDA) code [52, 68] based on the method of moments [53] is chosen in the present work, for this code allows to
incorporate nonlinear effects into the analysis [6].
In this section, archorn voltages of a simulated 500 kV twin-circuit tower in Fig.21 (a) hit by lightning, in the case of
one-phase back-flashover, are analyzed by a modified TWTDA code that includes a recently proposed flashover model [69,
70]. A similar analysis is also carried out by EMTP [1], and the results are compared with those computed by the modified
TWTDA code.
Fig.21 (b) shows measured waveforms of the voltage of a 3 m gap representing an archorn and the current flowing
through it [70], and those computed by the TWTDA code. Fig.21 (c) are the archorn voltages computed by (1)TWTDA and
(2)EMTP. In the EMTP simulation, the multistory tower model [13] is used, and Motoyama’s flashover model is represented
by a general-purpose description language ‘MODELS’ [71] in EMTP. The archorn voltages computed by EMTP agree well
with those computed by TWTDA before the back-flashover on one phase. On the other hand, after the back-flashover, the
archorn voltages of the other two phases computed by EMTP decay more steeply than those computed by TWTDA, and
they deviate from the results computed by TWTDA during about 1 µs after that. The deviation is noticeable particularly in
the case of the middle- or the lower-phase back-flashover although the settling values of both results are in good agreement.
One of the reasons for these discrepancies may be attributed to somewhat high lumped resistors of the multistory
tower model, which are employed to reproduce the peak values of archorn voltages for step current injection into the tower
top. A very steep wave, injected into the top of this tower model, propagates downward without reflection at nodes, but an
upward propagating wave, which may be a reflected wave at the ground or the associated with the middle- or lower-phase
back-flashover, attenuates much at these nodes. The difference of induction or coupling between the actual dynamic
electromagnetic field around a tower struck by lightning and the TEM mode, which is a basis of an EMTP multiconductor
model, must be another reason.

VI. Conclusion
This paper has presented a lightning surge analysis by the EMTP and by numerical electromagnetic analysis methods.
Because the EMTP is based on a circuit theory assuming TEM mode propagation, it can not give an accurate solution
for a high frequency transient which involves non-TEM mode propagation. Also, the EMTP can not deal with a circuit of
which the parameters are not known.
On the contrary, a numerical electromagnetic analysis method can deal with a transient associated with both TEM and
non-TEM mode propagation. Furthermore, it requires not circuit parameter but geometrical and physical parameters of a
given system. However, it other results in numerical instability if the analytical space, the boundary conditions, the cell
size etc are not appropriate. Also, it requires a large amount of computer resources, and existing codes are not general
enough to deal with various type of transients especially in a large network.
L1-16
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A. Ametani, (M’71-SM’84-F’92-LF’10) received the Ph.D. degree from the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, Manchester, U.
K., in 1973. Currently, he is a Professor at Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan.

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