EARTH SURFACE PROCESSES A N D LANDFORMS, VOL.

19,777-787 (1994)

GPS, GIS A N D GEOMORPHOLOGICAL FIELD WORK

S. C. CORNELIUS
Department of Environmental and Geographical Sciences, The Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, U.K .
D. A. SEAR
Department of Geography, The University of Southampton, Southampton, U.K.
S . J. CARVER
School of Geography, The University of Leeds. Leeds. U . K
AND
D. I . HEYWOOD
Department of Environmental and Geographical Sciences, The Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, U.K.

Received 10 January 1994

Revised 26 May I994

ABSTRACT
This paper introduces the Global Positioning System (GPS) and considers its role as a technique for use in geomorpho-
logical field work. Although valuable on its own, it is apparent that the utility of GPS in geomorphology is enhanced
when used alongside Geographical Information Systems (GIS) technology in the field. This paper reviews GPS, con-
sidering what it is, the methods available and their relative accuracies, the potential and problems of the technology
and its relationship with GIs. Particular attention is given to the application of GPS in geomorphological and related
case studies. Examples are presented of the successful use of GPS and GIS to study hydrology and snow patch regime
from the recent GeoAltai expedition to Southern Siberia.

KEY WORDS Global Positioning System Geographical Information Systems

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

Overview
The use of Global Positioning System (GPS) technology is becoming rapidly more widespread throughout
disciplines with a requirement for geographical information. From its origins in the American military, the
use of GPS has spread to the point where it is widely recognized as a tool for the rapid creation and updating
of geographical databases.
GPS is described by Barnard (1992) as a set of satellites and associated control systems that allow a
suitable receiver to determine its location anywhere on earth 24 hours a day. They are all-weather systems
which offer varying degrees of accuracy and include the Russian GLONASS and the U.S.A.'s GPS. It is the
GPS system which is discussed here. GPS is based on the constellation of 24 NAVSTAR (Navigation System
with Time and Ranging) satellites, four of which are visible at any time from any point on the Earth's surface
(Lang and Speed, 1990; Barnard, 1992). The full operational configuration is expected by late 1994 (Yunck,
1993).
Each satellite transmits two carrier signals at frequencies of 1575-42MHz (known as L1) and
1227.60 MHz (L2). These carriers are phase modulated by binary code signals which contain time informa-
tion, termed C/A (coarse acquisition) and P (precise acquisition). Each satellite has unique C/A and P codes.
CCC 0197-9337/94/090777-11
0 1994 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
778 S. C. CORNELIUS, D. A. SEAR, S. J. CARVER AND D. I. HEYWOOD

Satellite 2

Satellite 1 Satellite 3

Figure 1. Knowledge of the positions of three satellites, together with the time delay of signals arriving from these, permits calculationof
the receiver’s location

The C/A signals are available for general use, whereas access to the P codes is restricted (Bannister et al.,
1992; Cannon, 1990). One of the features of GPS necessary for accurate positioning is very accurate time
measurement (Scherrer, no date).
Using this system to obtain positions is, in theory, straightforward. If you know the positions of three
satellites and distances from these to an unknown position, it is possible to calculate the three-dimensional
position of the unknown location (Figure 1). On the ground a GPS receiver unit calculates its position by
measuring the time delay of signals arriving from several satellites. Using the constant and known speed
of radio waves, the time delay measured can be converted into distance to each satellite which, together
with a knowledge of the satellites’ positions, allows the receiver to calculate its own position (Barnard,
1992). The method of acquiring signals from the satellites is known as satellite ranging. Multiplying travel
time by the speed of light determines a ‘range measurement’ (Lang and Speed, 1990).
There are three methods of obtaining a position ‘fix’ using GPS receivers either singly or in combination
(Table I). First there are ‘absolute techniques’ which yield position directly. Such methods require only one
receiver and are frequently used for instantaneous navigation where accuracy of tens of metres is acceptable.
Pseudorange measurements are obtained using one receiver, and up to 1990 these could be achieved with

Table I. A comparison of GPS methods

Receivers
Technique Number cost Accuracy Speed Applications
lOOm Seconds Navigation
Reconnaissance
Mapping
Differential or Two $1 ooo+ 2- 15m relative accuracy; Seconds-minutes General
semi-kinematic cn-m with corrections
Static Two $20 000 5mm Minutes Engineering
(geodetic receivers required) 1 cm in 10 km Surveying
Sources: Ashkenazi, 1994; Ashkenazi and Dobson 1992; Barnard, 1992; Dobson and Haines-Young 1993
 GPS, GIS AND GEOMORPHOLOGICAL FIELD WORK 779
accuracies of 15m in the horizontal plane and 25 m vertically. More recently, accuracy has been affected
by selective availability (SA) (Ashkenazi and Dobson, 1992). SA is the intentional degradation of the posi-
tioning accuracy available to unauthorized users. Currently this downgrades accuracy to about 50-60 m.
However, this can be overcome using differential techniques (Yunck, 1993).The advantages of absolute tech-
niques are ease of measurement, data which are robust and easy to process, and the ability to accommodate
temporary loss of signals from the satellites. This method is appropriate for many applications including
regional or reconnaissance mapping and navigation.
The second method of GPS operation is using ‘differential techniques’ which counter selective availability
to some extent. These methods exploit the fact that the errors on two receivers will be similar and can be used
to cancel each other out. Thus greater accuracy can be achieved (up to 2- 15m). These methods are also
known as ‘semi-kinematic’(Ashkenazi and Dobson, 1992) since one receiver will remain at a base station
at a known location whilst the other moves around the study area to obtain fixes for points of interest.
With post-processing to calculate differential corrections and the addition of sub-metre equipment, up to
2cm accuracy has been reported (Yunck, 1993). Gilbert (1993) recommends the use of two receivers and
differential corrections where accuracies of between centimetres and 2-5 m are sought. Using differential
techniques in Snowdonia, Roberts et al. (1993) achieved accuracies better than 5 m for monitoring sheep
movements at 1 min intervals.
For even higher accuracy the third option is to use a slower static method. For example, the use of two
receivers stationary for more than 30min can achieve 5mm accuracy (Barnard, 1992) or, according to
Ashkenazi and Dobson (1992), accuracies of a few centimetres.
For the majority of geomorphological mapping applications and the location and refocation of
sampling sites, it would seem that absolute and differential techniques offer a cost effective and appro-
priate solution. However, for applications requiring high levels of accuracy, such as geo-engineering or
surveying to centimetre accuracy, the extra investment in static methods is necessary. Whichever method
is used, there are many advantages of GPS over traditional surveying and mapping techniques. For
example, visibility between recording sites is not necessary, nor is there a need for measurements to
be selected in a ‘network’ framework. Thus, measurements can be taken where and when they are
needed and there is no need to climb to a trig point at the top of a mountain to obtain readings at
visible stations. Additionally, GPS will function independent of the weather and time of day. GPS is,
therefore, an ideal tool for field mapping and surveying. In demanding terrain in Nepal, for example,
Ahearn et al. (1990) have used Geographical Information Systems (GIS), GPS, remote sensing and data-
bases for the development of a conservation database. They used GPS for the collection of coordinates
for new elements in the database, recognizing the advantage of recording locational information at the
same time as other data.
Problems and potential
The major difficulty with GPS is its military sensitivity. GPS allows anyone to find their position with a
single receiver, using the CIA codes, to within approx 40 m horizontally and 60 m vertically, whilst those with
military receivers accessing P code signals can achieve much better accuracy. By introducing selective
availability, the U.S. government have effectively downgraded the signals, so that with a single receiver
GPS positions obtained are within lOOm of truth 95 per cent of the time (Gilbert, 1993). Obviously the
use of differential GPS and the application of correction algorithms can overcome some of the problems
of accuracy; however, as Yunck (1993) comments, this is costly and clumsy and considerably more nuisance
than using a single direct GPS.
Other problems for general users are the current cost of receivers (from around €1000 for a single data
logging receiver to tends of thousands of pounds for a complete centimetre accuracy differential or static
set-up), and the inability of the satellite signals to penetrate, for example, walls, soil and water (Lang and
Speed, 1990). Signals can also be obstructed by trees, steep terrain and buildings. For example, Gerrard
(1993), experimenting with GPS in the Himalayas, found that the ‘window’ to satellites was restricted in
narrow valleys. Gibbons (1993) outlines some additional ‘challenges’for GPS including the education of
a rapidly expanding user group, the compatibility of data, and compatibility with GIs.
780 S. C. CORNELIUS, D. A. SEAR, S. J. CARVER AND D. I. HEYWOOD

A number of trends can be identified in GPS development, which are likely to affect users over the coming
years. First, the portability of equipment is improving and power needs decreasing. Coupled with the
development of standards and interfaces for the use of GPS with palmtop and penpad computers, this is
a very useful trend for field mapping and data collection (Gibbons, 1993; Barnard, 1992). The need for
small, rugged, flexible and easy-to-use systems has been highlighted by military applications such as during
the Gulf War, and these are being adapted to civilian applications such as forest fire-fighting (Schulman,
1991) and the ground truthing of satellite data (Dobson, 1994).
Secondly, the technology itself is likely to develop further, offering a decrease in the observation times
necessary to obtain a positional fix and an increase in measurement precision (Gibbons, 1993). At the
same time, competition for the U.S.A.’sGPS system is emerging. One example is the ‘Pinpoint’ satellite
system covering the area around Los Angeles, which has been recently advertised in the GIS trade magazines.
The integration of GPS with other sensors such as video cameras, and the improved integration of GPS
with technologies such as GIS and CAD, is an important third trend. Development is moving towards
products which display GPS locations on a calibrated map base rather than screen displays of latitude
and longitude readings (Barnard, 1992). In turn, this will improve the ‘user friendliness’ of systems and
facilitate infiltration into new application areas (Gibbons, 1993). Already GPS is becoming a geceral
consumer product with the inclusion of GPS-based navigation systems into some new cars and the
advertisement of compass/GPS systems for walkers and ramblers at prices as low as f500. As this trend
continues, the civilian use of GPS will outstrip military use in terms of numbers of users and economic
importance (Yunck, 1993).

THE INTEGRATION O F GPS AND GIS

The trend towards the convergence of GPS and GIS technologies is clear. Some of the advantages of GPS
for GIS users underpin these developments and include cost effectiveness for a wide range of applications
and the promise of an accurate source of raw geographical information (Ashkenazi and Dobson, 1992;
Goodchild, 1991). Many GIS applications require the creation and maintenance of an up-to-date database
(Lang and Speed, 1990). GPS offers a quick method of data collection for such applications, and allows
repeated data gathering. GPS will also provide accurate upgrades for existing data (Lachapelle et al., 1987)
for applications such as vehicle tracking and shipments, emergency response and resource management.
Fisher (1991) recognized the way in which the links between GPS and GIS would develop when he stated
that GPS, if combined with data loggers and field computers, may provide a full location and attribute
gathering station in the future. Maguire and Dangermond (1991) and Rhind et al. (1991) also saw GPS
as a tool for primary data collection for GIS and for updating existing databases, causing fundamental
changes in data collection and map-making methods, which would revolutionize surveying practice,
generate many more GIs-type applications and bring an end to routine map digitizing.
There are challenges for the integration of the two technologies. Some of these relate to the overlaying of
GPS data onto map data. Maps are abstractions of reality, produced using techniques such as generaliza-
tion, elimination and enhancement. The level of generalization, for example, is determined by the scale
and purpose of the map and the overlay of precise GPS data may be inappropriate. Additionally, there is
potential for serious inconsistencies due to differences in the geodetic datum used for map data and GPS
data (Dobson and Haines-Young, 1993). For instance, Ordnance Survey map data are based on the datum
OSGB36 or OS(SN)80. The datum for GPS data is usually WGS84. Thus, there is a need for correction of
the GPS data to the map datum, or the treatment of GPS data separately (Dobson and Haines-Young, 1993;
Ashkenazi, 1994). Dobson and Haines-Young (1993) consider the problems of relating coordinates obtained
from GPS to survey data in some detail.
Goodchild (1991) recognizes that the accuracy offered by GPS is already better than that of the best base
mapping available in most countries. Thus, as Rhind et al. (1991) state, the routine use of GPS may lead to
problems because the readings obtained could be more accurate than the maps to which the data can be
compared. GPS can, therefore, also have a role in testing the accuracy of maps (Chrisman, 1991). For
instance, GPS and GIS have been used to improve the accuracy of data used for assessment of the
 GPS, GIS AND GEOMORPHOLOGICAL FIELD WORK 78 1
environmental impacts of mining (Rodbell, 1993). This work aimed to improve on the poor accuracy of
maps interpreted from aerial photographs and to reduce the costs of expensive manual surveys followed
by digitizing of survey information. The omission of small but ecologically significant areas from aerial
photograph interpretation was a concern, as were errors introduced through the digitizing of survey
information. GPS coordinates were fed directly into a laptop computer and descriptive information typed
into the system in the field. Background maps were displayed and progress was viewed on screen to check
that the right territory had been covered. Direct conversion to GIS format allowed digitizing errors to be
overcome. Rodbell stresses the advantages of the method which enabled 5000 acres of rugged terrain to
be mapped in detail and 40000 acres in general over 2 weeks. In addition, the ability of the system to
relocate survey points is highlighted as an important advantage.
For users new to GPS the desire to obtain accuracy can be overemphasized. In many cases centimetre
accuracy, or even accuracy of a few metres, will not be important to the final data users. This, and the
unintentional misuse of GPS by ‘measurement lay persons’ (those with no training in coordinate systems,
accuracy estimation and error propagation), are problems recognized by Lachapelle et al. (1987) which
may lead to incorrect assumptions, inconsistencies and error. Chrisman (1991) also recognizes that GIS
users will need to know more about geodesy to use and integrate GPS and GIS effectively. An understand-
ing of basic survey methodology is another useful skill which will facilitate the effective use of GPS.

USING GPS AND GIS IN GEOMORPHOLOGICAL FIELD WORK

It has already been suggested that GPS, if combined with data loggers and field computers, can provide a full
location and attribute gathering station (Fisher, 1991). For geomorphological applications, including
mapping, field data collection and the construction of GIS databases, this combination is irresistible.
However, there are few documented examples of the application of the techniques specifically in geo-
morphology. A cursory survey of U.K. geomorphologists working with GPS revealed some interesting

Table 11. GPS field work applications

Field site -
applications GPS method Problems encountered Accuracy obtained Reference
Nepal Absolute Obtaining fixes in steep Horizontal good, Gardner (1994)
- sampling locations mountain valleys, especially vertical resolution poor
on valley sides

Nepal Differential No radio communication Horizontal f 5 0 m, Gardner (1994)

- sampling locations permitted, thus difficulties vertical f 5 m
coordinating differential
measurements

Antartica Absolute None Tens of metres Sugden ( 1993)

- site location
Scotland
-navigation

Jordan Absolute None Horizontal loom, Allison (1 993)

- mapping vertical resolution poor
Himalayas Absolute Restricted window to Vertical resolution poor Gerrard (1993)
satellites in narrow valleys

Namibia Absolute Technical fault with one Not available Eckhardt (1993),
- ground truthing receiver Walden (1 993)
- site location
782 S. C. CORNELIUS, D. A. SEAR, S. J. CARVER AND D. I. HEYWOOD

applications relating to the ground truthing of remotely sensed data, navigation and mapping (Table 11). For
example, GPS has been used in Africa, in the Gravel Desert and Namib Sand Sea in Namibia, to provide
ground control points for the geometric correction of a Landsat scene (Walden, 1993; Eckardt, 1993). In
the featureless Gravel Desert GPS was also used to locate sample sites. Other examples of GPS applications
are summarized in Table 11.
The integration of GPS and GIS technologies is demonstrated by the Jordan Badia Research and
Development Project (Allison, 1993). In this arid desert environment a single hand-held Trimble GPS
receiver has been used to assist the mapping of playas. Readings for latitude/longitude were obtained
with accuracies of approximately 100 m, sufficient for the purpose intended. However, altitude readings
were only possible to within 300m and therefore were not utilized. The GPS field data are being input to
the ARCiINFO CIS to supplement previously prepared digitized maps. The GIs will be used to produce
soil quality maps and to assist the evaluation of land potential for development. The Project has also
employed GPS for the fixing of total station reference points, and for navigational purposes.

USING GPS/GIS IN THE FIELD: A CASE STUDY FROM SIBERIA

In the Altai Mountains of Southern Siberia (Figure 2) GPS and GIS were employed to assist with the
production of a baseline environmental database. Two important geomorphological aspects on which
data were collected were hydrology and snow patches. Additionally, the project aimed to evaluate the utility
of GPS/GIS for data processing in mountain environments; to assess the use of GIS for data storage,

Figure 2. The location of the Altai Mountains and the GeoAltai study area
 GPS, CIS AND GEOMORPHOLOGICAL FIELD WORK 783
modelling and visualization for feedback into sampling strategies; and to use GPS to help ground truth
previously digitized data and correct this in-field. Full details of the equipment used and the methodology
for the project as a whole can be found in Carver el al. (1993). Here, details pertinent to the application
of GPS and its integration with GIS in the field will be provided.
In the field, two Magellan NavPro 5000 hand-held receivers were used singly throughout the project.
These were tested pre- and post-fieldwork to determine and verify the method used, and to assess
accuracy. In Siberia, readings were taken using absolute techniques, utilizing a single receiver. The values
obtained were averages of 30 positional fixes, in three dimensions, with a view angle of 20". The accuracy
obtained was approximately lOOm for latitude and 200m for longitude. Altitude readings were not used
since the accuracy of these was very poor. These figures correspond with the findings of Allison (1993) in
Jordan, mentioned above. Positions were only difficult to obtain in wooded valleys and within forest stands.
Unlike the Jordan project, input to the GIS was undertaken directly in the field. The IDRISI GIS software
was used, running on portable 386 and 486 notebook computers. This package was chosen for its ease of use,
simple raster data model and range of functions, which include three-dimensional visualization of data.
Connecting the GPS directly to the PCs, position data could be down-loaded and converted to GIS
format. Unfortunately, the GPS software did not output data in a format which could be directly input
to IDRISI. Therefore, output was obtained in ARCiINFO format, then a simple Fortran routine was
written to convert this to IDRISI format.
The GPS/GIS was used in two main ways. First, the digitized database, brought from the U.K. and
created from unreferenced Russian paper maps, had to be corrected and transformed to latitude and
longitude. This was done using a combination of control points collected from locally available maps,
and those collected using GPS for obvious features such as river confluences. Secondly, the GPS was
used to collect the positions of sampling locations and features of interest which were then superimposed
with the existing database. Frequent down-loading of these points allowed immediate visualization of
data and associated errors, allowing the sampling strategy to be improved and providing immediate
feedback for data collection.
As part of the collection of hydrological data, GPS was used to record the location of water sampling
points at the confluence of tributaries and major streams. With attribute data added (for example, pH, con-
ductivity or geomorphological characteristics), these sampling points were then plotted on the pre-prepared
database (Figure 3). Predictably, the GPS points did not sit neatly on the digitized data, but added to it extra
information about tributary location, as well as offering information about the accuracy of the digitized
data.
Snow patch data were collected in a similar manner, and one of the important uses of GIS here was to
establish the general aspect of the slopes on which they occurred. For this, snow patch sampling points
were integrated with an aspect map, created from a three-dimensional model of the area obtained from
the digitizing of contours (Figure 4). A report summarizing the aspect for each snow patch resulted
(Figure 5).
The major advantages of using GPS and GIS in this way were the feedback to the data collection process
and the increased awareness of the quality of the previously digitized data. The accuracy of the GPS points
should be sufficient for the relocation of sampling points during future field work, although the discrepancy
between the GPS points and the digitized data warrants further investigation. However, there were also a few
problems, including power, technical specification and support. First, power was a major issue in this remote
environment during a prolonged field work period. For the GPS the chosen option was to utilize a large
supply of batteries imported from the U.K., but for the GIS two solar panels recharged 12 V batteries which
in turn powered the notebook computers. This worked successfully, but was clumsy and unreliable during
poor weather conditions. The use of water power, an alternative method which could have been more
reliable, had to be abandoned owing to the cost and weight of equipment. Second, computer hardware of
a higher specification would have been useful. Black and white notebooks were used, but colour would
have greatly enhanced the utility of the GIS in the field, especially for the visualization of attribute data.
However, Dobson (1994) has reported problems with active matrix colour screens appearing 'dark as
night' when exposed to daylight. Another important point is the building-in of redundancy in equipment
784 S. C. CORNELIUS, D. A. SEAR, S. J. CARVER AND D. 1. HEYWOOD

Figure 3

Figure 4
 GPS, GIS AND GEOMORPHOLOGICAL FIELD WORK 785

Figure 5

specifications. Fortunately, GPS failure occurred during testing in the U.K. and a replacement unit
performed well in the field, However, one PC became unusable owing to technical problems fairly early
on during the field period.
All in all, the use of GPS and GTS for assisting data collection was successful during the Siberia fieldwork.
Ground truthing and rectification of previously digitized data were carried out, the system offered a back-up
storage facility for field data, and these data could be modelled and visualized. For the geomorphological
applications, the ability to visualize data, to correct errors and to redesign sampling strategies in response
to feedback from the GIS were major advantages. For the work relating to hydrology and snow patches,
the GPS and GIS were used in combination for positional mapping, the spatial referencing of attributes,
and in-field modelling. Having established the database, further modelling and integration of process
data will now be undertaken, and in the future it is hoped that sample sites will be relocated.

CONCLUSIONS
The applications of GPS and GIS in geomorphology are numerous. Sear et al. (1993) identified some of these
as morphological mapping, spatial modelling, water quality analysis, navigation to field sites, relocation of
sampling sites, flood impact analysis, landscape analysis, fluvial auditing and human impact assessment. The
examples discussed in this paper have also used GPS for ground truthing and data quality assessment, and
GIS and GPS together for land evaluation. As the technology advances, becomes more user friendly and
suitable for use in the field, the applications and, accordingly, the user base look set to expand markedly.
However, despite the ease with which GPS can be operated, effective use requires an understanding of the
principles of the system, of the methods of operations and of the geodesic corrections required. For efficient
integration with GIs, robust standards for the transfer of data between the systems, and portable and
user friendly GIS hardware and software are essential. For geomorphology the advantages in terms of
786 S . C. CORNELIUS, D. A. SEAR, S . J. CARVER AND D. 1. HEYWOOD

visualization and modelling of field data in the field look set to promote GPS and GIS to indispensable field
items.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The GeoAltai 93 expedition was supported by the Royal Geographical Society, the Rolex Watch Company
Ltd., the Manchester Geographical Society, British Gas, Gilchrist Educational Trust, the Duke of
Edinburgh’s Trust and the Albert Reckitt Trust. The authors wish to thank all those who took part in
GeoAltai 93 and all those who supported the expedition. Two anonymous referees provided helpful
comments on an earlier version of this paper.

SOURCES OF FURTHER INFORMATION

A useful paper, outlining some of the choices to be made when selecting GPS for mapping or more accurate
applications is:

Gilbert, C . 1993. ‘Portable GPS systems for Mapping: Features versus Benefits’, Earth Observation
Magazine, (October), 43-48.

Gilbert is also the author of two booklets introducing GPS which can be obtained from Trimble Navigation
(see address below). He writes a regular column on GPS in Mapping Awareness magazine (1994). Other
magazines which detail GPS developments and the integration of GPS and GIS include Earth Observation
Magazine, GPS World, GIS World and GIS Europe.

The number of U.K.-based GPS suppliers is increasing rapidly. Two such companies are Trimble Naviga-
tion Europe Ltd (Trimble House, Meridian Office Park, Osborn Way, Hook, Hampshire, RG27 9HX) and
Positioning Resources Ltd of Aberdeen. A full list of suppliers has been published in Schulman (1994).

REFERENCES
Ahearn, S. C., Smith, D. J. L. and Wee, C. 1990. ‘Framework for a geographically referenced conservation database: case study Nepal’,
Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 56(1 I), 1477-1481.
Allison, B. 1993. Personal communication.
Ashkenazi, V. 1994. ‘GPS and GIS’, in Shand, P. J. and Ireland, P. J. (Eds), The 1994 European GIS Sourcebook, Mapping Awareness,
127-130.
Ashkenazi, V. and Dobson, A. 1992. ‘Positioning with GPS’, Mapping Awareness, 6(7), 7-9.
Bannister, A., Raymond, S. and Baker, R. 1992. Surveying, 6th edn, Longmans.
Barnard, M. E. 1992. ‘The Global Positioning System’, ZEE Review, (March), 99-102.
Cannon, M. E. 1990. ‘The contribution of GPS to the information society’, CISM Journal ACSGC, 44(13), 225-231.
Carver, S., Heywood, I., Cornelius, S. and Sear, D. 1993. ‘Evaluating field-based CIS for environmental characterisation, modelling and
decision support’, in Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Integrating Environmental Modelling and GIS, Breckenridge,
USA, September 1993.
Chrisman, N. R. 1991.‘The error component in spatial data’, in Maguire, D. J., Goodchild, M. F. and Rhind, D. W. (Eds), Geographical
Information Systems: Principles and Applications, Vol. 1, 165-114.
Dobson, A. H. and Haines-Young, R. H. 1993. ‘Datum transformations and data integration in a GIS environment’, in Mather, P. M.
(Ed.), Geographical Information Handling - Research and Applications, Wiley, Chichester, 79-90.
Dobson, J. E. 1994 ‘GPS advances geography’s field tradition’, GIS World, 7(1), 60-61.
Eckardt, F. 1993. Report on GPS Application and Performance in Namibia, unpublished report, University of Oxford.
Fisher, P. F. 1991. ‘Spatial data sources and data problems’, in Maguire, D. J., Goodchild, M. F. and Rhind, D. W. (Eds), Geographical
Information Systems: Principles and Applications, Vol. 1, 175-189.
Gardner, R. 1994. Personal communication.
Gerrard, J. 1993. Personal communication.
Gibbons, G. 1993. ‘Pioneers of GPS; surveyors and geographers’, GPS World Showcase, (August), 36.
Gilbert, C. 1993. ‘Portable GPS systems for mapping: features versus benefits’, Earth Observation Magazine, (October), 43-48.
Goodchild, M. F. 1991. ‘The technological setting of GIS’, in Maguire, D. J., Goodchild, M. F. and Rhind, D. W. (Eds), Geographical
Information Systems: Principles and Applications, Vol. 1, 45-54.
Lachapelle, G., Krakowsky, E. J. and Kennedy, E. 1987. ‘Impact of the NAVSTARiGPS on CIS’. in Symposium Proceedings of
Geomatica Applied to Municipal Management, Montreal, Canadian Institute of Surveying.
 GPS, GIS AND GEOMORPHOLOGICAL FIELD WORK 787
Lang, L. and Speed, V. 1990. ‘A new tool for GIS’, Computer Graphics World, (October).
Maguire, D. J. and Dangermond, J. 1991. ‘The Functionality of GIS’, in Maguire, D. J., Goodchild, M. F. and Rhind, D. W. (Eds),
Geographical lnformafion Systems: Principles and Applications, Vol. 1, 3 19-335.
Rhind, D. W., Goodchild, M. F. and Maguire, D. J. 1991. ‘Epilogue’, in Maguire, D. J., Goodchild, M. F. and Rhind, D. W. (Eds),
Geographical Information Systems: Principles and Applications, Vol. 2, 3 13-327.
Roberts, G., Williams, A. and Last, D. 1993. ‘Do Welsh hill farmers dream of radioactive sheep’, CIS Europe, (November), 34-36.
Rodbell, S. 1993. ‘GPSIGIS mapping accurately assesses environmental impact’, CIS World, (December), 54-56.
Scherrer, R. (no date). The WM GPS Primer, WM Satellite Survey Company. Switzerland.
Schulman, R. D. 1991. ‘Portable GIs: From the sands of Desert Storm to the forests of California’, GeoInfoSystems, 1(8), 24-33.
Schulman, R. D. 1994. ‘Portable systems increase productivity, profits and pleasure’, GIS World, 7(1), 48-53.
Sear, D., Cornelius, S., Carver, S. and Heywood, I. 1993. ‘The geomorphology of the Altai Mountains, southern Siberia: a field-based
GIS approach to the geomorphological mapping of mountain regions’, Paper presented at BGRG conference ‘Mountain Geomor-
phology’, September 1993.
Sugden, D. 1993. Personal communication.
Walden, J. 1993. Personal communication.
Yunck, T. P. 1993. ‘Civil users want change in GPS security’, GPS World, 6(7), 66.