1.

The Universe:-

1. Earth’s Origin
 Critically examine the different theories relevant to the Origin of the Earth.
 2. Rotation and revolution
 Explain the process of Earth Rotation and Revolution and its effects on seasonal
changes.

Answer: EFFECTS OF EARTH’S REVOLUTION

The Earth’s revolution has several effects including the seasons and the variable
duration of days/ nights. Also, the Earth’s tilt and axis relative to its orbital plane have a
significant effect as well. This results in one hemisphere tilting toward the sun and the
contra lateral hemisphere tilting away. The hemisphere titled towards the sun will
experience warmer weather and longer daytime hours. Whereas the hemisphere titled
away from the sun will experience cooler temperatures and shorter daytime hours.
This variation in daytime hours and average temperature cases by revolution and tilt
results in the different seasons of the year. If the Earth were exactly perpendicular to
its orbital plane, the seasons would not occur. It would also cause both hemispheres to
experience approximately 12 hours of daylight and darkness during a 24-hour period.
The Earth’s current axis is 23.5 degrees, if it were to be tilted more, this would result in
warmer summers and colder winters. respectively.

For example, the summer solstice occurs when the Northern Hemisphere is at its
maximum tilt toward the sun. During this period the sun will be directly overhead long
the latitude of 23.5 degree N; otherwise known as the Tropic of Cancer. During the first
day of summer, location along the latitude of 23.5 degree of the North pole experience
24hrs of daylight.
OR Effects of Revolution of the Earth: Seasons
The Earth's seasons are not caused by the distance from the sun, but rather, by the tilt
of the Earth's axis. Summer is warmer than winter because the sun's rays shine more
directly than during winter, and also because the days are longer than the nights.
During the winter, the sun's rays hit the Earth at a steeper angle, producing shorter
days.

The equinoxes are days in which day and night are of equal duration, while the
solstices are the days when the sun reaches its farthest northern and southern
declinations, creating both the shortest and longest day of the year.
  What is meant by Erath Rotation? Describe three environmental effects of the
Earth’s Rotation.

Answer: ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF EARTH ROTATION

All walks of life on the planet's surface are governed by the daily rhythms of the Sun. Green
plants receive and store solar energy during the day and consume some of it at night.
Among animals, some are active during the day, others at night. The day–night cycle also
creates the daily air temperature cycle that is observed in most places on the Earth.

The directions of large motions of the atmosphere and oceans are also affected, as the
turning of the planet makes their paths curve. As we will see in
Chapter 5 , weather systems and ocean currents respond to this phenomenon, which is
known as the Coriolis effect.

Finally, the Earth's rotation combined with the Moon's gravitational pull on the planet
creates the rhythmic rise and fall of the ocean surface that we know as the tides. The ebb
and flow of tidal currents is a lifegiving pulse for many plants and animals and provides a
clock regulating many daily human activities in the coastal zone. When we examine the tide
and its currents further in Chapter 16 , we will see that the Sun also has an influence on
the tides.

 Discuss the significance of Rotation and Revolution of earth and the resulting
effects on the global and climate.

Answer: The spinning of the Earth causes day to turn to night, while the full
rotation/the revolution of the Earth causes summer to become winter.

Combined, the spinning and the revolution of the Earth causes our daily weather and
global climate by affecting wind direction, temperature, ocean currents and
precipitation.

Weather and Climate

The immediate conditions of the atmosphere--temperature, pressure, humidity,
precipitation, cloud cover and wind--at a given place and time is what creates local
weather.
Climate, on the other hand, is the long-term change of the atmosphere based on
analysis of weather records over at least 30 years. The two factors that most strongly
affect climate and weather are temperature and precipitation.

Effects of Revolution of the Earth: General Info

As the Earth revolves around the sun, its axis is tilted from perpendicular to the plane
of the elliptic by ~23.45 degrees. It is on this axis that the earth rotates every 24 hours.
Since the axis is tilted, the effects of revolution of the Earth is different for different
parts of the globe.

Certain areas are tipped towards, or away from, the sun at different times of the year.
This tilting causes the four seasons of the year. This tilting also creates opposite
seasons in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

Effects of Revolution of the Earth: Seasons

The Earth's seasons are not caused by the distance from the sun, but rather, by the tilt
of the Earth's axis. Summer is warmer than winter because the sun's rays shine more
directly than during winter, and also because the days are longer than the nights.
During the winter, the sun's rays hit the Earth at a steeper angle, producing shorter
days.

The equinoxes are days in which day and night are of equal duration, while the
solstices are the days when the sun reaches its farthest northern and southern
declinations, creating both the shortest and longest day of the year.

A Note on Tilt
It was mentioned that the tilt of the Earth's axis combined with the revolution of the
Earth causes the seasons as we know it to change and occur. Currently, this tilt is at
an angle of approximately 23.5 degrees.

However, the angle/degree of this tilt is known to change over time. It can be at a
maximum of 24 degrees and a minimum of 22.5 degrees.

When the Earth reaches this minimum angle, it plunges the Earth into an ice age. This
cycle of tilt, also known as Earth's wobble, occurs in 40,000 year cycles, which leads
to periodic ice ages that occur once ever 100,000 years as it takes.

So it's thanks to the specific tilt we are at now combined with the revolution of the
Earth around the sun that leads to the seasons and changes in temperature that we
experience.
Effects of Rotation of the Earth
When the Earth rotates on its axis, it prevents air currents from moving in a straight
line north and south from the equator.

Instead, it results in one of the effects of rotation of the Earth: the Coriolis Effect. This
deflects winds to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern
Hemisphere.

Between 30 and 60 degrees latitude, the winds moving toward the poles curve east,
forming the prevailing westerlies, which are responsible for many of the weather
movements across the United States and Canada.

Wind Currents
The global air circulation and the Coriolis Effect transfer warm air from low latitudes
and cold air from high latitudes as wind moves from high pressure to low pressure.
These global wind and pressure belts are important to Earth's climate, and determine
the local geographical pattern of precipitation and temperature.

Yet, for small, local weather systems such as thunderstorms, the wind will flow directly
from high pressure to low pressure and is not affected by the Coriolis Effect.

 What is the role and importance of Revolution of the earth in weather & climate
of the earth? Discuss

3. Distribution of land and water.

 What is the role of distribution of Land& Water on the regional patterns of
climate of the earth? Discuss.
 How the distribution of land and water bodies controls the global environment?
Discuss.

4. Geological time scale.

 Write a short note on Geological time scale.

5. Composition and internal structure of the Earth

  Describe composition and internal structure of the earth.
 Describe Earth’s crust? What elements are most abundant in the crust.
 Write a comprehensive note on the composition and internal structure of earth.

6. Rocks-origin, formation and types ( igneous, sedimentary and

metamorphic)
 Write a short note on Metamorphic Rocks.
 Name four types of igneous rocks. And arrange them in order of density.
 What are the major types of Sedimentary Rocks.
 Write a detail note on the formation and types of rock.

7. plate tectonics

 Explain the movements of crust plate in the light of Tectonic theory.

 Write a note on Plate Tectonic and their impact on the earth surface.
 Discuss Speculative Tectonic History of Pakistan and surrounding areas.

8. earthquakes
 How do earth quacks occur? Write about the causes and consequences of earth quakes.
 How are Earthquakes caused? Account for the occurrence in the belt of in the belt of
Young Folded Mountains.

9. volcanic activity,

10. weathering
  write a short note on Chemical weathering.
 Write a short note on weathering.
 Briefly explain the different processes and types of weathering.
 Explain the process and types of weathering.

11.mass wasting,

Erosion and deposition

D/F B/W Weathering and Erosion.

12.cycle of erosion;
 Write a note on cycle of erosion.
 Landform produced by River Action in the Plains
13. landforms produced by surface water,
 write a note on land from produced by surface water.
14.ground water,
15.write a short note on Kast Topography.

16.Wind
 Write comprehensive note on various landforms produced by Wind Action.
 Discuss the major features produced by Wind Action.

17.glaciers.

 Define glaciers? Also discuss the various landforms produced by Glacial Action.
 What are the major types of glaciers? What features are produced by the glacial
deposits? Explain.
 What is a Glacier? Discuss the formation of landforms resulting from the glacial action.

18. Origin and evolution of life on Earth (with reference to Geological time scale).
 19. Formation and types of soils.
 Write a short note on Formation and types of soil with reference to Pakistan.
 Write a note on the formation and different types of soils found in earth.
 Write on the formation, factors and types of Soils on earth.
20. Eco-Systems and
 Define Eco-System. Also discuss the components of Ecosystems and food Chain.

21. world major Biomes.

 Discuss major Biomes Pattern on the Earth.
 Write a detail note on the Rainforest Biomes of the World.

Maps

 Types of Maps
 Write a short note on use of maps in everyday life.
 Write a short note on Choropleth Maps

22. Topographical Maps

 Write a short note on Topographical Maps.
 Write a detail note on the various methods used for representation of relief on
topographic maps.

23. Aerial Photographs and

24. introduction to Remote Sensing

 importance of remote sensing in geography
 write a short note on GIS and RS technique in Geography
25. Map projection
 Types of Projections
26. Scales: types and their use
 What is a scale? Briefly describe the different types and uses of scale on map.
 Importance of scale on Map
27. composition and structure of atmosphere

 What is the composition of the atmosphere? Write in detail about the structure
of the atmosphere.
 Write a comprehensive note on the Composition and structure of atmosphere.

28. Statistical diagrams

 Discuss the importance of Statistical diagrams and graphs in the study of Geography.
 Importance of Statistical diagram in Geography