what is meteorology?

Within the atmosphere, all natural processes within the atmosphere are either directly or indirectly
influences, modification or consequences of the interactions of our atmosphere with other structural
components of our world immediate to the earth e.g. the sun, the moon, oceans with other water forms
and land with it's topography as well as man and it's technology.

The scienece of these atmospheric process defines meteorology because of the interactions, it is a
science that investigates an open system (i.e boundaries are not easily defined) with a great number of
atmospheric influences operating at all times but changing intensity.

The varying intensity is most evident within the homosphere where condition of the atmosphere
changes mostly because of turbulence and some other factor. Thus, the study of meteorology is mostly
predominantly evident around the lower temperature.

The condition or physical state of the atmosphere at a particular time is generally referred to as
WEATHER

Broadly, The influence of the atmosphere on our lives includes the following:

 It protects us from the dangerously scorching rays of the sun.

 It provides us with a mixture of gasses that allows life to flourish e.g breathing, agriculture.
 It ensures suitable environment for our continued existence on earth.
 It provides information on past, current and future.

Synoptic meteorology:

Weather observations, taken on the ground or on ships, and in the upper atmosphere with the help of
balloon soundings, represent the state of the atmosphere at a given time. When the data are plotted on
a weather map, we get a synoptic view of the world's weather. Hence, day to day analysis and
forecasting of weather has come to be known as synoptic meteorology. It is the study of the movement
of low pressure areas, air masses, fronts and other weather systems like depressions and tropical
cyclones.

Climatology:

Climatology is a study of the climate of a place or region on the basis of weather records' accumulated
over long periods of time. The average values of meteorological parameters derived from a data base
that extends over several decades are called climatological climates. However, it is now recognized that
climate is static and issues such as climate change and global warming are receiving increasing attention.

Dynamic meteorology:

This particular branch of meteorology attempts to describe the atmospheric processes through
mathematical equations which together are called a numerical model. After defining the initial state of
the atmosphere and ocean, the equations are solved to derive a final state, thus enabling a weather
prediction to be made. Dynamic meteorology deals with a wide range of hydrodynamical equations
from a global scale to small turbulent eddicies. The process of solving the equations is very complicated
and requires powerful computers to accomplish.

Physical meteorology:

In physical meteorology, we study the physical processes of the atmosphere, such as solar radiation.
It's absorption and scattering in the earth-atmosphere system, the radiation back to space and the
transformation of solar energy into kinetic energy of air. Cloud's physics and study of rain are a part of a
physical meteorology.

Agriculture meteorology

In simple terms, Agricultural meteorology is the application of meteorological information and data
from the enhancement of crop yields and reduction of crop lose because of adverse weather. The
agrometeorologist requires not only a sound knowledge of meteorology, but also of agronomy, plant
pihysiology and plant and animal pathology, in addition to common agricultural practices. This branch of
meteorology is of particular relevance to India because of the high dependence of our agriculture on
monsoon rainfall which has its own vagaries.

Applied meteorology:

Like agriculture, there are many human activities which are affected by weather and for which
meteorologist can provide valuable inputs. Applied metereologist use weather information and adopt
the findings of theoretical research to suit a specific application; for example, design of aircraft, control
of air pollution, architectural design, urban planning, exploitation of solar and wind energy, air-
conditioning, development of tourism, etc.

Aspects in meteorology

 Light and optics

 Clouds and precipitation
 Forces and winds.
 Air masses and fronts
 Weather forecasting
 severe storms
 Hurricanes
 El nino
 Hydrological cycle

The Earth's movement

Man is always conscious of the "apparent movement of the sun" and little realizes that the earth on
which he spends is constantly in motion. When the sun disappears, he says that the sun sets, and when
it emerges, he says that the sun rises. He is not the least aware that the sun, in fact does not rise or set,
it is "we who rise and we who set".

The earth moves in space in two distinct ways; it rotates on it's own axis from west to east once in
every 24 hours, causing day and night; it also revolves round the sun in an orbit once in every 365 days,
causing the seasons and the year.

Day and Night

When the earth rotates on it's own axis, only one portion of the earth's surface comes into the rays of
the sun and experiences daylight. The other portion which is away from the sun's rays will be in
darkness. as the earth rotates from the west to east, every part of the earth's surface will be brought
under the sun at one point or the other. A part of the earth's surface that arises from darkness into the
sun rays experiences sunrise. Later, when it is gradually obscured from the sun's beams, it experiences
sunset. The sun is, in fact stationary and it is the earth which rotates. The illusion is exactly the same as
when we travel in a fast moving train. The trees and houses around us appear to move and we feel that
the train is stationary.

The earth's revolution

When the earth revolves round the sun, it travels on an elliptical orbit at a speed of 30km (18.5 miles)
per second or 107 182 km/h (66,000 m.p.h) One complete: revolution takes 365+ days or a year . As it is
not possible to show a quarter of a day in the Calendar normal year is taken to he 365 days, and an extra
day is added every four years as a Leap Year.

Varying length of day and night

The axis of the earth is inclines to the plane of the elliptic ( the plane in which the earth orbits. round
the sun). at an angle of 661°, giving rise different to different seasons and varying lengths of day and
night. If the axis were perpendicular to this plane, all parts of the, globe would have equal days and
nights at all times of the year, but we know this his not 'so. In the northern hemisphere in winter
(December), as we go northwards, the hours of darknes steadily 'increase. At the Arctic Circle (661°N),
the sun never rises: and there is darkness for the whole-day inmid-winter on 22 december. Beyond the
Arctic circle, the number of days 'with 'complete darkness increase until we reach the North Pole--
(90°N) when half the year will have darkness. In the summer (june) conditions are reversed. Daylight
increases as we go polewards. At the Arctic Circle, the sun never 'sets' at mid-summer (21 June) and
there is a complete 24-hour period of continuous daylight. In summer the region north of the artic Circle
is popularly referred to as 'Land of the Midnight Sun . At the North Pole,; there will be six Months of
continuous daylight.

In the southern hemisphere, the same process takes place; except that the conditions are reversed.
When it is summer in the northern hemisphere; the Southern continents will experience winter. Mid-
summer at the North Pole will be mid-winter at the South Pole.

The altitude of the mid day sun

In the course of the year, the earth's revolution round the sun with its 'axis` inclined at 661° to the plane
of the ecliptic changes the apparent altitude of the midday sun. The sun is vertically overhead at the
equator on two days each year. These are usually 21 March and 21 Septernber though the date changes
because a year is not exactly 365 days. These two days are termed equirnoies, nlaning `e "kights'i.
because on these two days all part of the waves have equal days and nights. After the march equinox,
the sun appears to move north and is viertically overhead at the Tropic of Cancer (231 N) on 21 june.
This is known as the. June or summer solstice, when the northern , hemisphere will have its longest day
and shortest night. By about 22 December, the sun will be overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn (234°S).
This is the winter solstice when the southern hemisphere will have its longest day and shortest night.
The tropics thus marks the limits of the overhead sun, for beyond these, the sun never reahes overhead
at any time of the year. Such regions are marked by distinct seasonal changes—spring, summer,
autumn and winter. Beyond the Arctic Circle (664°N) tile Antarctic Circle (66f°S) where chillness lasts for
six months and daylight is continuous for the remaining half of the year, it is always cold; for even during
the short summer the sun is never high in the sky. Within the tropics, as the midday sun varies very little
from its vertical position at noon daily, the four seasons are almost indistinguishable. Days and nights
are almost equal all the year round .

SEASONAL CHANGES AND THEIR EFFECTS ON TEMPERATURE

Summer is usually associated with much heat and brightness and winter with cold and darkness. Why
should this be so? In summer, the sun is higher in the sky than in winter. When the sun is overhead its
rays fall almost vertically on the earth, concentrating its heat on a small area; temperature therefore
rises and summers are always warm. In winter the oblique rays of the sun come through the
atmosphere less directly and have much of their heat absorbed by atmospheric impurities and water
vapour. The sun's rays fall faintly and spread over a great area. There is thus little heat, and
temperatures remain low.

In addition, days are longer than nights in summer and more heat is received over the longer daylight
duration. Nights are shorter and less heat is lost. There is a net gain in total heat received and
temperature rises in summer. Shorter days and longer. nights in winter account for the reverse effects.

HOW TO CALCULATE THE ANGLE OF ELEVATION OF THE MIDDAY SUN

To find the angle of elevation of the midday sun of a given place at a given part of the year You may be
asked to calculate the elevation of the mid-day sun at a place, say Milan (Latitude 46°N), on 21 June. This
is simple when done with the aid of a diagram.
Vertical Structure

Nomenclature of Atmospheric Vertical Structure

The static atmosphere is described by the four properties, pressure (P), density (p), temperature (T) and
composition. Between them these properties determine much of the atmosphere's behavior. They are
not independent, being related by the universal gas law which may be written in various forms . For our
purposes the form P = nkT (Equation 2.7) Where n is the number of molecule per unit volume, is
particular useful. The quantity 'n' is properly called the concentration or the number density, but density
alone is often used when the sense is clear.

The region of the neutral atmosphere are named according to various schemes based in particular on
the variations with height of the temperature. The composition and the state of mixing. Figure 4.1
illustrate the most common used terms. The primary classification is according to the temperature ,
gradient. In this system, the regions are 'spheres' and the boundaries are 'pauses'. Thus troposphere in
the which the temperature falls off or less, is bounded by the troposhere at an height of 10-12km. The
stratosphere was originally thought to be isothermal, but in fact is a region where the temperature
increases with height. A maximum due to heating by ultra-violent absorption in ozone appears at about
50 km and this is the stratopause. The temperature again decreases with height in the mesosphere (or
middle atmosphere) to a minimum at the mesopause at 80 — 85 km with a temperature around 180 K
this is the coldest path of the atmosphere. Above the mesopause, heating by solar ultraviolent radiation
ensures that the temperature gradient remains positive and is the thermosphere. The thermospheric
temperature eventually becomes almost constant at a value that varies with time but is generally over
1000K. This is the hottest part of the atmosphere.

Though the classification by temperature is generally the most useful, others based on the state of
mixing, the composition or the state of ionization are indispensable in context. The lower part of the
atmosphere is well mixed, with a composition much like that at the sea level except for minor
components. This is the turbosphere or homosphere. In the upper region, essentially the thermosphere,
mixing in inhibited by the temperature gradient and here in the heterosphere, the various components
may separate under gravity and so the composition varies with altitude. The boundary between the two
regions, which occur at about 100 km, is the turbosphere. Above the turbosphere the gases can
separate by gaseous diffusion more rapidly than they are mixed in turbulence.

***********

Helium or hydrogen, and these are the heliosphere and the protonosphere respectively. From the higher
levels, above about 600 km, individual atoms can escape from the Earth's gravitational attraction: this
region is called exosphere. The base of the exosphere is the exobase or the baropause. The region below
the baropause. The region below the baropause is the barosphere — for reason that will shortly become
clear.

The terms ionosphere and magnetosphere apply respectively to the ionized regions of the atmosphere
(Chapters 6 - 8) and to the outermost region where the geomagnetic field controls the particle motions
Chapter 5 ). The outer termination of the geomagnetic field (at about 10 earth in the sunward direction)
is the netopause.
Hydrostatic Equilibrum
Apart from its composition, the most significant feature of the atmosphere, from which so many of its
properties derive, is the decrease of pressure and density with increasing altitude. This height variation
is describe by the hydrostatic equation sometimes called the barometric equation, which is derived as
follows.

f a gas contains n molecule , i,.Atoms if the gas be atomic) per unit volume, each of mass i a cylinder (. of
unit . q'section and height dh contains ttal mass nm dh (figure 4.3). due to gravity. The cylinsder
experiences a downward force nmg dh, which at equilibrium is balance by the pressure difference
between the lower and upper faces of the cylinder (dP). Thus

(p + dp) - P = -nmgdh

And hence

dP/dh = -nmg.

. But by the gas law (equation 2.7), P = nkT. Hence

1/p . dp/dh = -mg/k = - 1/H

where the expression kT/mg has the dimension of length and is defined as the scale height, H. if H is
constant, equation 4.1 is easily integrated to

P = Po exp (— h /H )

where po is the pressure at height h=o. As the vertical distance in which the pressure changes by a
factor of e 2.718), the scale height is a critical property of any atmosphere. H is greater, if the gas is
hotter or lighter Writing equation 4.1 in terms of n,

Dn/ n + dT/T = - dh/H

And if doth H and T are constant with height,

n = noexp ( - h /H ),

Where no is the number density at h = 0.