INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATOLOGY

Climatology is the study of climate, scientifically

defined as weather conditions averaged over a period
of time, and is a branch of the atmospheric
sciences.Climate models are used for a variety of
purposes from study of the dynamics of the weather
and climate system to projections of future
climate .Climate is an integration of in time of the
physical states of the atmospheric environment,
characteristic of a certain geographical location.
Weather- momentary state of atmospherics
environment at a certain location.
Climate- integration in time of weather conditions.
 Climate
Climate is the average weather conditions in an area
over a long period of time.
Climate is determined by a variety of factors that
include latitude, global air circulation patterns, oceanic
circulation patterns, topography, solar activity, and
volcanic activity. The most important of these factors is
latitude, or distance from the equator.
Solar Radiation

 At Earth's distance from the Sun, about 1,368

watts of energy in the form of EM radiation
from the Sun fall on an area of one square
meter.an average of 342 W/m2 over the
entire surface of our spherical planet.The
intensity of radiation reaching the upper
surface of the atmosphere is taken as the
solar constant Variation in Solar Constant+-
2% due to variation in the output of the sun
itself3.5% due to changes in the earth sun
distance
The earth moves around the sun
in a slightly elliptical orbit
One revolution is completed in 365
days 5 hours 48 minutes 46
seconds.orbit results from the
gravitational pull of the sun and the
centrifugal force due to earth’s inertia
and momentum. varying solar
distances
a phelion 152 million kilometers
perihelion 147 million kilometers
Tilt of the earth’s Axis
The Axis of rotation is tilted to the
plane of the elliptical orbit at an
angle of 66.5 degrees (23.5
degrees from the normal).Due to
the tilt the area receiving the
maximum intensity moves north
and south between the tropic of
cancer (Latitude 23.5 degree
N )and the Tropic of Capricorn
( latitude 23.5 degree S )
On 21st June areas along latitude
23
On 21st June areas along latitude 23.5
degree N are normal to the suns rays
and the longest daylight period is
experienced .At the same time latitude
23.5 degree S experiences the shortest
day.On 21st March and 23rd September
areas along the equator are normal to
the sun’s rays for all areas of the earth
the are the equinox days
SEASONS
The tilt of the earth is the main
cause of seasonal changes.

When the Sun is directly overhead, its rays strike Earth

perpendicular to the ground and so deliver the
maximum amount of energy. When the Sun is lower in
the sky, a sunbeam strikes the ground at an angle (in
the example above, 45°) and so its energy is "spread
out" over a larger area... thus "diluting" its energy. In
this example, the energy is spread over an area of 1.41
square meters (instead of 1 square meter when the Sun
is directly overhead), so the energy per unit area is
reduced from 342 W/m2 to 242 W/m2 (342 ÷ 1.41 =
242).
 Why the Earth has seasons 
Earth revolves in elliptical path around sun every
365 days.  Earth rotates counterclockwise or
eastward every 24 hours.  Earth closest to Sun
(147 million km) in January, farthest from Sun
(152 million km) in July.  Distance not the only
factor impacting seasons.
EARTH’S THERMAL BALANCE

The earth-atmosphere energy balance is the balance between incoming

energy from the Sun and outgoing energy from the Earth. Energy released
from the Sun is emitted as shortwave light and ultraviolet energy. When it
reaches the Earth, some is reflected back to space by clouds, some is
absorbed by the atmosphere, and some is absorbed at the Earth's surface.
However, since the Earth is much cooler than the Sun, its radiating energy is
much weaker (long wavelength) infrared energy. We can indirectly see this
energy radiate into the atmosphere as heat, rising from a hot road, creating
shimmers on hot sunny days.
The earth-atmosphere energy balance is achieved as the energy received
from the Sun balances the energy lost by the Earth back into space. In this
way, the Earth maintains a stable average temperature and therefore a stable
climate.
Distribution of incoming Radiation.
The earth’s surface releases heat by three
processes :By long wave radiation to cold outer
space ( 84 % of this re radiation is absorbed in the
atmosphere only 16% escapes the space)
By evaporation – the earth’s surface is cooled as
liquid water changes into vapor and mixes with air
By convection - air heated by contact with the
warm earth surface becomes lighter and rises to
the upper atmosphere .
WINDS
Are convectional currents in the atmosphere
which tend to even out the differential heating
of various zones At the maximum heating
zones ( between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of
Capricorn ) air is heated by the hot surface. It
expands, its pressure is decreased, it becomes
lighter it rises vertically and flows off at a high
level towards colder regions Part of this air
having cooled down with a high level descends
to the surface in the subtropic regions from
where the cooler heavier air is drawn towards
the equator from both north and south.
.at the equater air is heated and rises, leaving low
pressure areas behind. Moving to about thirty
degrees north and south of the equator, the warm
air from the equator begins to cool and
sink.Between thirty degrees latitude and the
equator, most of the cooling sinking air moves
back to the equator.The rest of the air flows
toward the poles. The air movements toward the
equator are called trade winds- warm, steady
breezes that blow almost continuously.
 Global Air Circulation
Three important properties of air illustrate how air circulation
affects climate.Cold air sinks because it is denser than warm air. As
the air sinks, it compresses and warms.Warm air rises. It expands
and cools as it rises.Warm air can hold more water vapor than cold
air can. Therefore, when warm air cools, the water vapor it contains
may condense into liquid water to form rain, snow, or fog.
Global Air Circulation
Solar energy warms the ground, which warms the air above it. This
warm air rises, and cooler air moves in to replace it. This movement
of air within the atmosphere is called wind.Because Earth rotates,
and because different latitudes receive different amounts of solar
energy, a pattern of global atmospheric circulation results.This
circulation pattern determines Earth’s precipitation patterns.
 Global Air Circulation
For example, the intense solar energy striking Earth’s surface at
the equator causes the surface as well as the air above the
equator to become very warm.This warm air can hold large
amounts of water vapor. But as this warm air rises and cools, its
ability to hold water is reduced.As a result, areas near the equator
receive large amounts of rain.
Areas of High and Low Pressures
Cool air normally sinks, but cool air over the equator cannot descend
because hot air is rising up below it. This cool air is forced away
from the equators toward the North and South Poles where it
accumulates at about 30º north latitude and 30º south latitude.Some
of the air sinks back to Earth’s surface and becomes warmer as it
descends. This warm, dry air then moves across the surface and
causes water to evaporate from the land below, creating dry
conditions.

Areas of High and Low Pressures

Air descending at the 30º north and 30º south latitude either moves
toward the equator or flows toward the poles. Air moving toward the
equator warms while it is near the Earth’s surface.At about 60º north
and 60º south latitudes, this air collides with cold air traveling from
the poles.The warm air rises, and most of this uplifted air is forced
toward the poles. Cold, dry air descends at the poles, which are
essentially very cold deserts.
Prevailing Winds
Winds that blow predominantly in one direction
throughout the year are called prevailing winds.
Because of the rotation of Earth, these winds do not
blow directly northward or southward.Instead, they
are deflected to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern
Hemisphere.

Prevailing Winds
Belts of prevailing winds are produced in both
hemispheres between 30º north and south latitude and
the equator.These belts of winds are called the trade
winds.The trade winds blow from the northeast in the
Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the
Southern Hemisphere.
 Prevailing Winds
Prevailing winds known as the westerlies are produced between 30º
and 60º north latitude and 30º and 60º south latitude.In the
Northern Hemisphere, these westerlies are southwest winds, and in
the Southern Hemisphere, these winds are northwest winds.The
polar easterlies blow from the poles to 60º north and south latitude.
Coriolis effect.
the result of Earth's rotation on weather patterns
and ocean currents. The Coriolis effect makes
storms swirl clockwise in the Southern hemisphere
and counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere.

Because the Earth rotates on its axis, circulating air

is deflected toward the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and toward the left in the Southern
Hemisphere. This deflection is called the Coriolis
effect.
TRADE WINDS – THE CORIOLIS FORCE

The Coriolis Effect makes the trade

winds appear to be curving to the west,
whether they are traveling to the
equator from the south or north.the
Coriolis effect is an apparent deflection
of moving objects when they are
viewed from a ROTATING REFERENCE
FRAME.The Earth's surface is rotating
fastest (in km/h) at the equator, and
rotates not at all at the poles
 The trade winds coming from the south and the
north meet near the equator. These converging
trade winds produce general upward winds as
they are heated, so there are no steady surface
winds. This area of calm is called the
doldrums.Between thirty and sixty degrees
latitude, the winds that move toward the poles
appear to curve to the east. Because winds are
named from the direction in which they originate,
these winds are called prevailing westerlies.
Prevailing westerlies in the Northern Hemisphere
are responsible for many of the weather
movements across the United States and Canada.
polar easterlies are the dry, cold prevailing winds that blow around
the high-pressure areas of the polar highs at the North and
South Poles.[1] Cold air subsides at the poles creating high pressure
zones, forcing an equatorward outflow of air; that outflow is then
deflected westward by the Coriolis effect. Unlike the westerlies in
the middle latitudes and trade winds in tropics, the polar easterlies
are often weak and irregular. Note, winds are named based on
where they came from. The polar easterlies are one of the five
primary wind zones, known as wind belts, that make up our
atmosphere's circulatory system. This particular belt of wind begins
at approximately 60 degrees north and south latitude and reaches
to the poles.
Global Winds What are the trade
winds?

The trade winds are air movements

toward the equator. They are warm,
steady breezes that blow almost
continuously. The Coriolis effect
make the trade winds appear to be
curving towards the west.What are
the doldrums?The doldrums are an
area of calm weather and are formed
as winds coming from the south and
the north meet near the equator.
Global Winds
What are the Prevailing Westerlies? Between
thirty and sixty degrees latitude, the winds that
move toward the poles appear to curve to the
east. Because winds are named from the
directions in which they originate, these winds
are called prevailing westerlies. Prevailing
westerlies in the Northern Hemisphere are
responsible for many of the weather
movements across the Untied States and
Canada. (Think: WWWEEE!! = we have winds
that move West to East) What are the Polar
Easterlies? At about sixty degrees latitude in
both hemispheres, the prevailing westerlies
join with the prevailing easterlies to reduce the
upward motion. The Polar Easterlies form when
the atmosphere over the poles cools. This cool
air then sinks and spreads over the surface. As
the air flows away from the poles it is turned
west due to the Coriolis Effect. Again, because
 Jet Stream
The Jet Stream is a strong high-level
wind found in the atmosphere that can
reach speeds in excess of 200 mph,
usually occurring 6-9 miles above the
ground. These winds often steer the
movement of surface air masses and
weather systems. The 2 jet streams
that directly affect the weather in the
continental U.S. are the Polar Jet and
the Tropical Jet.

7 Ocean Currents
The Gulf Stream is a warm swift current
in the Atlantic Ocean that flows from
the Gulf of Mexico along the eastern
coast of the United States, then
northeast towards Europe.
 Earth’s Rotation and the Coriolis Effect
Earth’s rotation has an effect on
directions of the prevailing
windsPrevailing winds - a wind from
the direction that is predominant at a
particular place or season

17 Coriolis Effect Coriolis Effect-

the deflection of an object's path due
to Earth's rotation.an object that moves
along a north-south path will undergo
apparent deflection to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left in
the Southern Hemisphere.
The prevailing winds of the world are
produced by a combination of
atmospheric convection currents and
the Coriolis effect.Hadley Cells –
convection currents that cycle between
the equator and 30 degrees North and
South

19 Convection currentsHadley Cells:

large-scale atmospheric convection
cellair rises at the equator and sinks at
medium latitudes, about 30° north or
south.b ITCZ (Intertropical
Convergence Zone)occurs along the
equator where there is intense sunlight
Area between 2 Hadley CellsIntense
thunderstorm activity
Convection currentsAtmospheric
convection currents –
global patterns of air movement that
are initiated by the unequal heating of
the Earth.
Formation of convection currents

15 Earth’s RotationAs Earth rotates, its

surface moves much faster at the
equator than in mid-latitude and polar
regions.Earth’s tilting rotation is 23.5
degrees.The faster rotation speeds
closer to the equator cause a deflection
of objects that are moving directly
north or south
How Does Topography Affect Climate?
Climate is the state of the atmosphere with regard to temperature,
humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind speed and precipitation. It is
determined by the latitude, altitude and topography of a region.
Topography has an effect on many aspects of the Earth’s surface
including water resources, weather patterns and climate. The main
effects are due to elevation changes which impact air pressure and
temperature.
Topography has a significant effect on climate. For example, high
elevations are cooler than low elevations because they have less
atmosphere to trap heat. Higher altitudes are colder than lower
latitudes because they receive less solar radiation during the winter
months.

Topography has a significant influence on weather. Temperatures

and precipitation are influenced by varied terrain. Temperatures
generally decrease with height, thus the higher elevation regions
tend to be cooler
climate, conditions of the atmosphere at a
particular location over a long period of time;
it is the long-term summation of the
atmospheric elements (and their variations)
that, over short time periods, constitute
weather.
These elements are solar radiation,
temperature, humidity, precipitation (type,
frequency, and amount), atmospheric
pressure, and wind (speed and direction).
 1
ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE

1. Solar radiation : Solar radiation is the radiation,

or energy we get from the sun. It is also known as
short-wave radiation. Solar radiation is probably the
most important element of climate.

Solar radiation first and foremost heats the Earth's

surface which in turn determines the temperature of
the air above. The receipt of solar radiation drives
evaporation, so long as there is water available.
Heating of the air determines its stability, which
affects cloud development and precipitation.
Unequal heating of the Earth's surface creates
pressure gradients that result in wind.
Every location on Earth receives sunlight at least part
of the year.
 1. Solar radiation
The amount of solar radiation that reaches any one
spot on the Earth's surface varies according to:
Geographic location, Time of day, Season, Local
landscape, Local weather.
Solar radiation comes in many forms, such as visible
light, radio waves, heat (infrared), x-rays, and
ultraviolet rays.
Measurements for solar radiation are higher on clear,
sunny day and usually low on cloudy days. When the
sun is down, or there are heavy clouds blocking the
sun, solar radiation is measured at zero.

Radiation: The transfer of energy via

electromagnetic waves that travel at
the speed of light. The velocity of light
in a vacuum is approximately 3 x 108
m/s. The time it takes light from the
sun to reach the Earth is 8 minutes and
20 seconds. Heat transfer by
electromagnetic radiation can travel
through empty space.
2. Temperature : Temperature is a very important factor in
determining the weather, because it
influences or controls other elements of the weather,
such as precipitation, humidity, clouds and
atmospheric pressure.

Temperature
•Temperature is a measurement of the amount of kinetic energy present in the air,
which manifests itself physically through the experience of heat or cold.
•The scales typically used to measure temperature, is Celsius, Fahrenheit, and
Kelvin.
•The instrument used to measure temperature is called a thermometer.
•In more practical terms, it means that the particles in the air move or vibrate at a
certain speed, which creates kinetic energy.
•When the particles start to move/rotate around faster, temperature increases.
•When the particles begin to slow down, the temperature also starts to decrease
Air Pressure
•Air pressure is another essential element of weather, especially when it comes
to creating or changing atmospheric conditions.
•It is also one of the critical variables used to make accurate weather forecasts.
•Air Pressure is the result of the pressure created by the weight of the air in
the Earth’s atmosphere.
•It is also called a barometric pressure, named after the instrument used to
measure air pressure.
•Although it may not be visible, air has weight since it is not empty. It is filled
with small particles of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide and a few other
gases.
•The weight of the particles in the air creates pressure due to the gravitational
force of the Earth.
•The barometer is the instrument used to measure air pressure.
What Is Air Pressure?
By definition, atmospheric or air pressure is the force per
unit of area exerted on the Earth’s surface by the weight
of the air above the surface. The force exerted by an air
mass is created by the molecules that make it up and
their size, motion, and number present in the air. These
factors are important because they determine the
temperature and density of the air and, thus, its
pressure.

The number of air molecules above a surface determines

air pressure. As the number of molecules increases, they
exert more pressure on a surface, and the total
atmospheric pressure increases. By contrast, if the
number of molecules decreases, so too does the air
pressure.
Low-Pressure Systems
A low-pressure system, also called a depression, is an area
where the atmospheric pressure is lower than that of the
area surrounding it. Lows are usually associated with high
winds, warm air, and atmospheric lifting. Under these
conditions, lows normally produce clouds, precipitation,
and other turbulent weather, such as tropical storms and
cyclones.
Areas prone to low pressure do not have extreme diurnal
(day versus night) nor extreme seasonal temperatures
because the clouds present over such areas reflect
incoming solar radiation back into the atmosphere. As a
result, they cannot warm as much during the day (or in the
summer), and at night, they act as a blanket, trapping heat
below.
High-Pressure Systems
A high-pressure system, sometimes called an anticyclone, is an
area where the atmospheric pressure is greater than that of the
surrounding area. These systems move clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere due
to the Coriolis Effect.

High-pressure areas are normally caused by a phenomenon called

subsidence, meaning that as the air in the highs cools, it becomes
denser and moves toward the ground. Pressure increases here
because more air fills the space left from the low. Subsidence also
evaporates most of the atmosphere's water vapor, so high-
pressure systems are usually associated with clear skies and calm
weather.

Unlike areas of low pressure, the absence of clouds means that

areas prone to high-pressure experience extremes in diurnal and
seasonal temperatures since there are no clouds to block incoming
solar radiation or trap outgoing longwave radiation at night.
Humidity : • Atmospheric moisture is the most
important element of the atmosphere which modifies
the air temperature. • Humidity is the measurable
amount of moisture in the air of the lower
atmosphere.
There are three types of humidity:- a) Absolute
humidity:- The total amount of water vapor present
in per volume of air at a definite temperature. b)
Relative humidity:- Is the ratio of the water vapors
present in air having a definite volume at a specific
temperature compared to the maximum water vapors
that the air is able to hold without condensing at that
given temperature

c) Specific humidity:-
Is defined as the mass of water vapor in grams
contained in a kilogram of air and it represents the
actual quantity of moisture present in a definite air.
•The humidity element of weather makes the day feel
hotter and can be used to predict coming storms.
•The humidity element of climate is the prolonged
moisture level of an area that can affect entire
ecosystems.
Pressure systems:
•Air pressure is the weight of air resting on the earth's
surface.
•Air has specific weight.
•This weight exerted by the air is atmospheric
pressure.
•It is defined as the force per unit area exerted against
a surface by the weight of air above that surface in the
Earth's atmosphere.
Pressure systems have a direct impact on the
precipitation.
In general, places dominated by low pressure tend to
be moist, while those dominated by high pressure are
dry.

The seasonality of precipitation is affected by the

seasonal movement of global and regional pressure
systems.
Wind (Speed & Direction)
•The movement of air (wind) is one of the main driving
forces of weather.
•The majority of major and even extreme weather events
like cold & warm fronts, clouds, thunderstorms, and
hurricanes are all driven by wind.
•Wind is the large-scale movement of air from an area of
high to an area of low pressure in the atmosphere.
•The speed and strength of wind are determined by the
distance between the low pressure and high-pressure
areas, as well as the difference in air pressure.
•The anemometer is the instrument used to measure wind
speed.
•A wind vane (or weather vane) is the instrument used to
measure wind direction.
Winds :-
• The horizontal movement of the atmosphere is
called wind.
• Wind can be felt only when it is in motion.
• Wind is the result of the horizontal differences in the
air pressure.
• Wind is simply the movement of air from high
pressure to low pressure.
• The speed of the wind is determined by the
difference between the high and low pressure.
• The greater the difference the faster the wind speed.
• The wind brings with it the temperature of the area it
is coming from, therefore a high pressure in a warm
region will make the temperature in the low pressure
area higher.
• Wind-chill is the effect of the wind making it feel
colder than it actually is.
• As the wind speed increases air is moving more
quickly and therefore removes warm air therefore
making it seem colder than the actual temperature.
Ocean Currents:
Ocean currents greatly affect the temperature and
precipitation of a climate.
Those climates bordering cold currents tend to be
drier as the cold ocean water helps stabilize the air
and inhibit cloud formation and precipitation. Air
traveling over cold ocean currents lose energy to the
water and thus moderate the temperature of nearby
coastal locations.

Air masses traveling over warm ocean currents

promote instability and precipitation. Additionally,
the warm ocean water keeps air temperatures
somewhat warmer than locations just inland from the
coast during the winter.
4) Humidity Humidity is another weather element that
cannot be seen but can be felt. It not only plays a big part in
weather formation but also directly influence our physical
comfort levels. What Is Humidity? Humidity is the amount of
water vapor that is present in the atmosphere at any specific
time. Water vapor is nothing more than water in a state of
gas (after the liquid has evaporated). Although humidity and
its effects can usually be felt, it is normally invisible to the
naked eye. Humidity can be challenging to understand and
interpret correctly. Then you also have to be able to make a
clear distinction between absolute and relative humidity

Instrument for Measuring Humidity The

hygrometer is the instrument used to
measure wind speed. You also find
more than one type of this device, like
the psychomotor and the resistance
hygrometer.
Humidity :
• Atmospheric moisture is the most important element
of the atmosphere which modifies the air temperature.
• Humidity is the measurable amount of moisture in
the air of the lower atmosphere.

• There are three types of humidity:-

a) Absolute humidity:-
The total amount of water vapor present in per
volume of air at a definite temperature.
b) Relative humidity:- Is the ratio of the water vapors
present in air having a definite volume at a specific
temperature compared to the maximum water vapors
that the air is able to hold without condensing at that
given temperature.
c) Specific humidity:-
Is defined as the mass of water vapor in grams
contained in a kilogram of air and it represents the
actual quantity of moisture present in a definite air.
•The humidity element of weather makes the day feel
hotter and can be used to predict coming storms.
•The humidity element of climate is the prolonged
moisture level of an area that can affect entire
ecosystems.
 Different climatic regions of the world

•here are approximately five main climate

types on Earth:
•Tropical
•Dry
•Temperate
•Continental
•Polar
What Is Tropical Climate?
A tropical climate has warm temperatures throughout the year and a significant amount of
precipitation. The average temperature each month is higher than 64 F, and tropical areas
get at least 59 inches of rainfall annually.

Tropical regions of the world are located between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
Capricorn. There are three types of tropical zones: tropical rainforest, tropical monsoon
and tropical wet and dry. Temperatures in a rainforest remain consistent year-round, and
there is usually a daily afternoon shower. A tropical monsoon climate is similar, although
one or two months are drier. Tropical wet and dry territories have specific rainy and non-
rainy seasons. The dry season lasts for more than two months.

There are three basic types of tropical climates within the tropical climate
group: tropical rainforest climate (Af), tropical monsoon climate (Am)
and tropical wet and dry climate or tropical savannah (Aw for dry winters,
and As for dry summers), which are classified and distinguished by the
precipitation and the precipitation levels of the driest month in those
regions.[1]
Tropical climates normally have only two seasons, a wet
season and a dry season. Depending on the location of the
region, the wet and dry seasons can have varying duration.
Annual temperature changes in the tropics are small. Due to
the high temperatures and abundant rainfall, much of the plant
life grows throughout the year. High temperature and humidity
is the most suitable environment for epiphytes to grow. In many
tropical climates, vegetation grow in layers: shrubs under tall
trees, bushes under shrubs and grasses under bushes.
Tropical plants are rich in resources, including coffee, cocoa
and oil palm. Listed below are the types of vegetation unique to
each of the three climates that make up the tropical climate
biome.
Natural vegetation
Tropical rainforest vegetation including: Bengal bamboo,
bougainvillea, , coconut tree, durian and banana.

Tropical monsoon vegetation including: teak, deodar,

rosewood, sandalwood and bamboo.

Tropical wet and dry or savanna vegetation including: acacia

senegal, elephant grass, jarrah tree, gum tree eucalyptus
and whistling thorn.
Tropical rainforest climate

tropical rainforest climates as usually having north and south latitudinal ranges of
just 5-10 degrees from the equator. Tropical rainforest climates have high
temperatures: the yearly average temperature is normally between 21 °C to 30 °C
( 70 °F to 85 °F ).The precipitation can reach over 100 inches a year. The seasons
are evenly distributed throughout the year, and there is almost no drought period
here. Regions that contain tropical rainforest climate mainly include the upper
Amazon basin of South America, the Northern Zaire (Congo) basin of Africa, and
the islands of the East Indies.
The tropical rainforest climate differs from other subtypes of tropical climates as it
has more kinds of trees due to its precipitation. The large number of trees contribute
back to the humidity of the climate because of the transpiration, which is the
process of water evaporated from the surface of living plants to the atmosphere.
The warmth and abundant precipitation heavily contributes to the diversity and
characteristics of vegetations under the tropical rainforest climate.The vegetations
develop a vertical stratification and various growth forms to receive enough sunlight,
which is unusual under other types of climate
tropical monsoon climate as having small annual temperature ranges, high
temperatures, and plentiful precipitation. This climate also has a short dry season
which almost always occurs in the winter.The tropical monsoon climate is often
found within countries in the south and southeast Asia region between the latitude of
10 degrees north and the Tropic of Cancer. It can also be found in West Africa and
South America. The annual temperature of regions under tropical monsoon climate
is also stable.
The tropical monsoon climate has the following main characteristic. The average
annual temperature is around 27.05 °C (80.69 °F) and has an average annual
temperature range of about 3.6 °C (2 °F). Distinction between wet and drought
seasons, the tropical monsoon climate is different from other tropical climates
because of its uneven precipitation throughout the year. The precipitation is heavy in
the summer, and a short-drought season occurs in the winter. This climate has an
annual total precipitation of on average 3409.2mm, and a 3115.9mm summer
precipitation and 293.3mm winter precipitation
There are three main seasons of tropical monsoon climate: the cool dry season is
from fall to late winter, the hot dry season is in the spring and the rainy or monsoon
season is near or during the summer months. The tropical monsoon forest mainly
consists of three layered structures. The first layer is the surface layer which is a
very dense layer of shrubs and grasses. The second layer is the understory layer
with trees about 15 meters tall. The top layer is called the canopy tree layer which
has trees from 25 to 40 meters tall and those trees grow closely while above is the
emergent layer with sporadic trees taller than 35 meters.
Tropical wet and dry or forest climate

Tropical savanna climates are mainly located between the 10° and 25°
north-south latitudes, and often occur at the outer margins of the tropics.
Typical regions include central Africa, parts of South America, as well as
northern and eastern Australia. The temperature range of savanna
climate is between 20 °C to 30 °C (68 °F - 86 °F). In summer, the
temperature is between 25 °C - 30 °C, while in winter the temperature is
between 20 °C - 30 °C, but still stays above a 18 °C mean.The annual
precipitation is between 700 to 1000 mm.
The driest months are generally in the winter and they have less than
60 mm of rainfall (often much less).
Regions under the savanna climate usually have lands covered with flat
grassland vegetation with areas of woodlands. Those grassland biomes
cover almost 20% of the Earth's surface.The grassland vegetation types
include Rhodes grass, red oats grass, star grass and lemongrass.
1. Equatorial Climatic Region (100 N to 100 S)
It is found between 5° and 10° north and south of the equator. This region gets
heavy precipitation which is between 150 cm/year. Due to the great heat, the
mornings are bright and sunny and evening receive convectional rainfall.
Thunder lightning often accompanies the heavy showers. This region is well
known for natural rubber called hevea brasiliensis. Amazon basin (South
America), Zaire Basin (Africa) especially in western part, and South East
Asia (mainly islands) are three well defined regions of this category.

The Savana or Sudan Climate (100 to 200 N and S)

It is a transitional type of climate found between the equatorial forests and the
trade wind hot deserts. It is confined within the tropics and is best developed
in the Sudan where the dry and wet seasons are most distinct, hence its name
the Sudan Climate. This climate is characterised by an alternate hot, rainy
season and cool, dry season.
The prevailing winds of the region are the Trade Winds, which bring rain to the
coastal districts. Savanna is grasslands of tropical zone. They are known as
natural Zoo of the World. Part of South America; Kano and Salisbury region in
Africa; Northern and Central part of Australia are the important region of this
category.
 WARM AND HUMID EQUATORIAL CLIMATE

A CLIMATE WITH AN EXCESS OF MOISTURE, IN WHICH THE SOLAR HEAT

RECEIVED IS SUFFICIENT TO EVAPORATE ALL MOISTURE OCCURING IN
THE FORM OF PRECIPITATION.  THIS CLIMATE IS FOUND IN BELT NEAR
EQUATOR EXTENDING TO ABOUT 15◦ NORTH & SOUTH.  THERE IS
VERY LESS SEASONAL VARIATION THROUGHOUT THE YEAR. EXAMPLE –
COLOMBO, SINGAPORE, HAWAII , MALASIA ETC.

REASONS FOR WARM AND HUMID CLIMATE PLACES THAT ARE CLOSE TO SEAS OR
OCEANS HAVE A HUMID CLIMATE AS THERE IS LARGE AMOUNT OF WATER
VAPOUR IN THE AIR. ACTUALLY WHAT HAPPENS, LAND AND WATER DON’T GET
HEATED AT THE SAME RATE. LAND GETS HEATED FASTER SO IT RADIATES THE
ENERGY, THAT HEATS THE AIR ABOVE THE LAND, AS A RESULT OF WHICH AIR
ABOVE THE LAND GETS HEATED FASTER THAN AIR ABOVE THE WATER BODIES.
NOW HOT AIR IS LIGHTER SO IT MOVES UP AND THE SURROUNDING AIR ABOVE
THE SEAS RUSHES TO TAKE ITS PLACE WHICH HAS LOTS OF WATER VAPOUR IN IT.
THIS IS THE REASON FOR WARMNESS AND HIGH HUMIDITY
1.7. CHARACTERISTICS 1. TEMPERATURE:  DURING DAY BETWEEN 27◦C
AND 32◦C.  AT NIGHT BETWEEN 21◦C AND 27◦C. 2. HUMIDITY: 
RELATIVE HUMIDITY REMAIN HIGH, 75% FOR MOST OF THE TIME, BUT VARY
FROM 55% TO ALMOST 100%. 3. VAPOUR PRESSURE:  BETWEEN 2500 TO
3500 N/M2.
2.8. 4. PRECIPITATION:  HIGH PRECIPITATION THROUGHOUT THE
YEAR(RAINFALL).  GENERALLY BECOMES MORE INTENSE FOR SEVERAL
CONSECUTIVE MONTH.  ANNUAL RAINFALL- 2000 TO 5000 MM. 
OCCURANCE OF GUSTY WINDS AND ELECTRIC STORMS. 5. SKY CONDITION:
 ARE FAIRLY CLOUDY THROUGHOUT THE YEAR.  CLOUD COVER- 60 TO
90%. 6. WIND:  WIND VELOCITY IS LOW, CALM AND PERIODIC BUT MAY BE
STRONG DURING RAIN SQUALLS.
3.9. 7. SOLAR RADIATION:  THE INTENSITY OF SOLAR RADIATION IS HIGH
DURING SUMMERS AND MODERATE DURING WINTERS. 8. VEGETATION: 
GROWS QUICKLY DUE TO FREQUENT RAINS & HIGH TEMPERATURE. 
DIFFICULT TO CONTROL.  HIGH HUMIDITY ACCELARATES MOULD AND
ALGAE GROWTH, RUSTING AND ROTTING.
Warm humid island climate
1.1. WARM HUMID ISLAND REGIONS BUILDING
CLIMATOLOGY AND SOLAR ARCHITECTURE
2.2. WARM HUMID ISLAND CLIMATE Islands within the
equatorial belt and in the trade wind zone belong to this
climate type. Typical examples are • The Caribbean •
Philippines • Island groups of the pacific ocean
Characteristics • Air temperature- Daytime mean
maximum of 29-32 degree Celsius. • Night time mean
temperature of 18 – 24 degree d Celsius • Humidity –
Relative humidity varies between 55-100 % • Vapour
pressure – Between 1750- 2500 N/sqm. • Precipitation –
High;1250-1800 mm per annum. • Sky conditions- Clear
or filled with white broken clouds. Luminance between
1700-2500 candela/sqm. • Wind - Trade wind blows at a
steady 6-7 m/sec. Much higher velocities occur during
cyclone.
 3. The Hot Desert and Mid-Latitude Desert Climate (200 to 300 N and S)
The aridity of hot desert is mainly due to the effects of off-shore trade winds;
hence they are also called trade wind deserts. Sahara (Africa) is the biggest
desert and the next biggest is Great Australian desert. It is found between
200 to 300 N and S. Hot deserts: Sahara, Australia, Arabian, Iranian, Thar,
Kalahari, Namib, Nubian, Mohave (USA), Atacama etc. Cold
Desert: Patagonia, Turkestan, Gobi etc

4. The Warm Temperate Western Margin or Mediterranean Climate (30 0 to 400 N

and S)
It is a climate that has dry summers that are hot or warm as well as winters that are cool or
mild with moderate or high rainfall. It includes the climate of much of the land near the
Mediterranean Sea. Outside the Mediterranean, one can find this climate only in rather
small areas. It is found in many places that are roughly between latitudes 30° to 40° north
and south of the equator.
Important Regions are: Coastal region of Mediterranean Sea; Southern Tips of South-
west Africa near Cape Town; Southern Australian (in southern Victoria and around
Adelaide, bordering the St. Vincent and Spencer Gulfs); South West Australia
(Swanland); California around San Francisco; Central Chile in South America.
This region is famous for orchard farming e.g. Citrus and fibrous fruits.
5. Temperate Grasslands or Steppe Climate (400 to 550 N and S)
It is dry lands due to their position in land masses away from oceanic influences. It is
characterised by meagre and unreliable precipitation. The annual range of
temperature and rainfall is 13°C and 30 cm. The sub-regions of this climatic region
are known by different names in different
regions: Steppes (Eurasia); Pustaz (Hungary); Prairies (USA); Pampas (South
America- Argentina and Uruguay); Velds (South Africa); Downs (Australia-Murray-
Darling basin of southern Australia); Canterbury (New Zealand).

6. Cool Temperate Continental or Taiga or Siberian Climate (55 0 to 700 N

and S)
It is characterised by a bitterly cold winter of long duration and a cool brief
summer. The average rainfall is 35-60 cm which is quite well distributed through
one year with maximum rainfall in summer. This type of climate is experienced
in northern hemisphere only because there is no land mass in southern
hemisphere.
Important regions: Alaska across Canada into Labrador and high Rocky
Mountains; Moscow and adjoining belt in Siberia; Central Europe.
7. The Arctic or Polar or Tundra Climate (700 to 900 N and S)
It is among Earth's coldest, harshest biomes. The ecosystems of
this climatic region are treeless regions found in the Arctic and on
the tops of mountains, where the climate is cold and windy and
rainfall is scant. The lands of this region are snow-covered for
much of the year, until summer brings a burst of wildflowers.

. The Tropical Monsoon and Tropical marine Climate

It is also known as a tropical wet climate or trade-wind littoral climate. It is a
tropical climate that is primarily influenced by the ocean. It is usually
experienced by islands and coastal areas 10° to 20° north and south of the
equator. There are two main seasons in a tropical marine climate: the wet
season and the dry season. The annual rainfall is 1000 to over 1500 mm (39 to
59 inches). The temperature ranges from 20 °C to 35 °C (68 ° to 95 °F). The
trade winds blow all year round and are moist, as they pass over warm seas.
These climatic conditions are found, for example, across the Caribbean; the
eastern coasts of Brazil, Madagascar and Queensland; and many islands in
tropical waters.
. Tropical Climates  Occur near the equator and the lower
latitudes  These climates extend from the Tropic of Cancer
through the Equator and down to the Tropic of Capricorn.  This
climate tends to be warm, muggy, and rainy year-round. 
Temperatures average around 80°F  Rainfall averages between
70-450 inches per year!!!  This is why it is known as the
rainforest.  Monsoons- Seasonal winds that bring either dry or
moist air
1. Temperate Climates  Occur about halfway between the equator and the
poles in the middle latitudes.  This climate has four distinct seasons. 
Summers are short and hot.  Springs and falls are mild.  Winters are long,
cold, and typically snowy.  Plant Life: Tall grasslands to both coniferous and
deciduous trees  Main areas in U.S.: Great Plains, Midwest
2.6. III. Temperate Climates  This climates tends to have mixed forests. 
Deciduous trees  Lose their leaves each fall.  Coniferous trees  Do not shed
their leaves and are green year- round.
1.. Polar Climates  Occur near the poles  Higher latitudes 
Even with this extreme cold, polar bears, penguins, whales, and
seals are able to survive quite well in this frigid climate
2.8. I. Major Climate Zones  IV/V. Dry and Highland Climates 
These can be found in many different latitudes.  This climate
can be several climates at once.  It depends upon elevation. 
As you go up the mountain, temperatures drop and plant life
grows more scarce.
3.9. I. Major Climate Zones  World Climate Regions:  Humid
Tropical  Tropical Savanna  Desert  Steppe  Mediterranean
 Humid Subtropical  Marine West Coast  Humid Continental
 Subarctic  Tundra  Ice Cap  Highland

1.World Climate Regions Humid Tropical

Tropical Savanna Desert SteppeMarine West
Coast Humid Continental Subarctic TundraIce
Cap Highland
2.11. THANKS