iForest - Biogeosciences and Forestry

Perspectives of plantation forests in the sustainable forest development of China

Manuscript Draft
Manuscript ID: #ms20/3551
Article Type: Review Papers
Full Title: Perspectives of Plantation Forests in the Sustainable Forest Development of China
Corresponding Author: Taimoor Hassan Farooq
College of Life Science and Technology, Central South University of Forestry and
Technology
Changsha (China)
Keywords: Ecological implications; Social development; Timber; Softwood; Hardwood;
Forestry
Abstract: Between the extremes of un-aided regeneration of natural forests and afforestation
conditions, there is a range in which human intrusion occurs. Introduction of
exotic and native species in plantations with the shorter rotation cycles compared
to natural forests are being introduced worldwide, and China is no exception. In
this paper, we discussed the perspectives of plantations forests in the sustainable
forest development of China, the evolution of various plantation programs,
ecological effects of plantations and measures to improve the plantations forestry.
On a large scale, modern forestry is gradually moving towards manmade forests.
Native forests suffered a net loss with the conversion of cropland to tree
plantations, particularly monocultures. With the objective of sustainable and
modern forestry development, plantations with a relatively advanced forestry
system were introduced to enhance social, ecological and economic benefits.
Plantations with fast-growing and high-yielding tree species facilitated Chinese
afforestation technology and turned into a productive force. It also adjusted
agricultural structure and promoted the administration of forest production, which
effectively boosted comprehensive forest benefit. To establish the plantations,
China mostly followed the Brazilian and Chilean plantation model in developing
unified plantations to facilitate higher timber quality and production. Other than
playing its role in the national economy and social development by enhancing
timber and non-timber forest goods, it also helps in improving the region’s
ecological environment. Forestry is a massive portion of nature, and survival of
mankind is directly related to it so, we believe much of forestry will be a long-
term business; therefore, long-term planning is essential
Authorship: Farooq TH (Changsha, China)
Submission Date: Jun 12, 2020 (14:05 CET)
Full original archive ms20_3551_01.zip
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1 Perspectives of Plantation Forests in the Sustainable Forest

2 Development of China

3 Taimoor Hassan Farooq1,2, Xiaoyong Chen2, Muhammad Haroon U. Rashid3, Matoor Mohsin Gilani3, Awais

4 Shakoor4, Xiang Zhang1,2, Uttam Kumar5, Wende Yan1,2*

5 1
College of Life Science and Technology, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha,

6 410004, China

7 2
National Engineering Laboratory for Applied Technology in Forestry and Ecology in South China, Central

8 South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha, 410004, China

9 3
College of Forestry, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China

10 4
Department of Environment and Soil Sciences, University of Lleida, Avinguda Alcalde Rovira Roure 191,

11 25198, Lleida, Spain

12 5
Institute of Applied Ecology, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University,

13 Fuzhou, 350002, China

14

15 Correspondence

16 Taimoor Hassan Farooq, PhD,

17 Email: taimoorhassan2055@gmail.com

18 College of Life Science and Technology, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha,

19 410004, China

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20 Abstract

21 Between the extremes of un-aided regeneration of natural forests and afforestation conditions, there is a

22 range in which human intrusion occurs. Introduction of exotic and native species in plantations with the

23 shorter rotation cycles compared to natural forests are being introduced worldwide, and China is no

24 exception. In this paper, we discussed the perspectives of plantations forests in the sustainable forest

25 development of China, the evolution of various plantation programs, ecological effects of plantations and

26 measures to improve the plantations forestry. On a large scale, modern forestry is gradually moving towards

27 manmade forests. Native forests suffered a net loss with the conversion of cropland to tree plantations,

28 particularly monocultures. With the objective of sustainable and modern forestry development, plantations

29 with a relatively advanced forestry system were introduced to enhance social, ecological and economic

30 benefits. Plantations with fast-growing and high-yielding tree species facilitated Chinese afforestation

31 technology and turned into a productive force. It also adjusted agricultural structure and promoted the

32 administration of forest production, which effectively boosted comprehensive forest benefit. To establish the

33 plantations, China mostly followed the Brazilian and Chilean plantation model in developing unified

34 plantations to facilitate higher timber quality and production. Other than playing its role in the national

35 economy and social development by enhancing timber and non-timber forest goods, it also helps in

36 improving the region’s ecological environment. Forestry is a massive portion of nature, and survival of

37 mankind is directly related to it so, we believe much of forestry will be a long-term business; therefore, long-

38 term planning is essential.

39 Keywords: Ecological implications, social development, timber, softwood, hardwood, forestry

40 Introduction

41 Forests are indispensable natural resources for the subsistence and development of mankind. Trees are

42 measured as an important source because of numerous ways as they support the life on the earth. The rise of

43 the 20th century brought rapid development in the industrial world, and the race of vast accumulation of

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44 wealth destroyed the world’s forests, and forest area decreased sharply, especially in the 21 st century (Adams

45 2012, Trumbore et al. 2015). Transport infrastructure for mining/energy, road expansion, industrial logging,

46 agricultural expansion, and wildfires were the significant drivers of forest coverage loss (Scullion et al. 2019)

47 (Fig. 1). In the past 50 years, the world’s forest cover reduced alarmingly and fell in consecutive years with

48 an annual loss of 22.49 million hectares. It has become a significant concern whether natural forests can cope

49 with the demand for sustainable development of human society (Allen et al. 2010, Martínez-Vilalta et al.

50 2011, Jianfeng & Xin 2012, Matyssek et al. 2012).

51 China's forested land has been cleared over the centuries by agricultural expansion and wars. At the

52 time of Peoples Republic of China founding in 1949, the forest cover was merely 9% of total land area

53 (SAforestry 2012). Even further deforestation happened in the 1970s (Yu et al. 2011, Miao et al. 2013). Just

54 three decades before, China was one of the countries having the lowest forest area per capita worldwide, and

55 the forest resource, both natural and plantation forests, were deficient and unevenly distributed with meager

56 quality (Lü et al. 2011, Xu et al. 2012). Over the last two decades, China’s unprecedented economic

57 development along with the fast population growth has led to a dramatic upsurge of wood consumption in

58 many regions resulting in several well-known ecological disasters (e.g., flooding, soil erosion) (Oliet &

59 Jacobs 2012). This causes un-measurable environmental damage with long-term social and economic

60 impacts (Aronson & Alexander 2013). But China took emergency measures to overcome this, and today

61 China is having the world’s most extensive plantation forests (Irland 2013, Zeng et al. 2015). Hence, tree

62 planting has become a crucial part of China’s efforts to tackle climate change and air pollution by improving

63 its environment (Zeng et al. 2015).

64 Softwood and hardwood species, with a long tradition, is one of the emerging sectors in the world economy

65 due to its high yield and fast growth (Zhang & Polyakov 2010, Mohammadi et al. 2017). These species are

66 playing a significant role in the development of rural industries (Lundholm et al. 2010), by making a

67 substantial contribution to farmers’ income and ecosystem preservation (Ovando et al. 2016, Shalizi &

68 Khurram 2016). To ensure the sustainable development and environmental protection, various measures

69 have been taken on an emergency basis by the Chinese Government of such as "China Natural Forest

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70 Protection Program" (Ren et al. 2013, Zeng et al. 2015), "China Fast-Growing and High-Yield Plantation

71 Program," "Integrated Intensive Forest Management (IIFM) Project" and "Research on China's Plantation

72 Woods" etc. (Zhang et al. 2010, Zhang et al. 2016).

73 Plantation forests are the managed plantation stands where trees are manually planted as opposed to

74 the natural forests, in which afforestation occurs with natural regeneration. Generally, plantation forest is of

75 the same age or chronosequence with same species, with the intent to maximize production and protection

76 (Sargent & Bass 2013, Verheyen et al. 2016). Nonetheless, the natural forest provides higher environmental

77 services than plantation forests (Yamagawa et al. 2010, Xu et al. 2011), but plantation forests also play a vital

78 role in eco-environment with clean air and water protection. It can provide most services such as woody and

79 non-woody products, biodiversity, esthetics, carbon sequestration, climate control, and soil erosion control

80 (Sasaki & Yoshimoto 2010; Ruiz‐Jaen & Potvin 2011). Plantation forest grows much faster than natural

81 forest which has a specific value in timber supply, fast forest spread and ecosystem conservation (Chinnaraj

82 et al. 2011, Farooq et al. 2019a,b). Interest in forest plantations lacked required to input in the past; however,

83 the concept and practice are not new (Paquette et al. 2010, Gerber 2011, Sargent and Bass, 2013). All these

84 events advocate vigorous activities of plantations forest. Therefore, we have reviewed the approach of China

85 in developing plantation forests and its progress over the years. The review includes perspectives and

86 potentials of China’s plantation forest and ecological implications of plantations.

87 Forest cover of China, its classification and dominant species (an overview)

88 Chinese forests are the most biologically diverse forests on the earth, thanks to high peaks and deep

89 valleys. Its forest cover percentage rate increased from 8.6 % to 22.96% from the early 1950s to 2015 (FAO

90 2015), and the forest stock volume has increased by 8.5 billion m³ in the past 40 years. According to the

91 FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment (2015), the forest area in China accounts for 5.51% of the world's

92 total, ranking the fifth. China’s entire forest land constitutes around 220 million hectares, accounting for

93 22.96% of its total land area. From total forest land, around 117.7 million hectares (56.5%) are naturally

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94 regenerated forests, 11.6 million hectares (5.6%) are otherwise primary forest, and the remaining part of

95 almost 79.0 million hectares (37.9%) is planted forest (SFA 2014a, b). China’s forest stock volume is 3.34%

96 of the world's total (ranked 6th). The forest area per capita is 0.16 ha (less than one-third of the world

97 average); moreover, the forest stock volume per capita is 12.35 m³ (1/6 of the world average). In terms of

98 total forest resources, China is among the top countries, but its per capita forest resources remain low. The

99 top six countries in terms of forest area are Brazil (815 million ha), Russia (494 million ha), Canada (347

100 million ha), USA (310 million ha), China (220 million ha) and Congo (153 million ha). Addiontialy, top six

101 countries in terms of forest stock volume are Brazil (967.45 billion m 3), Russia (818.88 billion m3), USA

102 (406.99 billion m3), Canada (3561.15 billion m3), Congo (329.83 billion m3) and China (175.60 billion m3)

103 (FAO 2018). Province wise forest distribution of forest in China is shown in (Figure 2). Mainly since the late

104 1980s, China has maintained growth in both forest area and stock volume for 30 consecutive years,

105 becoming the country with the most significant growth in forest resources worldwide.

106 According to article 4 the forest law of the People's Republic of China (1998), Chinese forest stands

107 were classified into five major groups based on their purpose of the planting such as (timber forest stands,

108 protection forest stands, fuelwood forest stands, economic forest stand, and forests for particular purposes)

109 (SFA 2009, 2011). Timber forest stands (33%) were mainly for timber production, protection forest stands

110 (48%) for forestland, water, wind, and environmental protection. Fuelwood forests were planted (1%) for

111 wood-based fuel supply, while economic forest stands (10%) for medicinal ingredients, fruits, and edible

112 oils. Moreover, 8% of forests designated for scientific research experiments and national defense purposes

113 (Fig. 2).

114 In the past four decades of reform and opening up, noteworthy achievements have been made on forest

115 protection and development through continuous promotion of greening and afforestation programs, with

116 stiffened control over forest consumption, forest nurturing and forest protection. Since the 18 th CPC National

117 Congress, China has entered a new era of ecological civilization and building a beautiful China. The forest

118 area and stock volume have continued to grow and ecological functions of forests have been continuously

119 enhanced.

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120 China has the most extensive plantation forests coverage in the world (Fig. 3), mostly the fast-growing

121 species, and its plantation forests accounted for 40% of the world’s total planted forest. From the last three

122 decades, China has planted about 6.6 million hectares forest every year as a result of the national forest

123 protection program, with an average increase of 1.1% per year. Since the government first introduced a

124 nationwide tree-planting program in 1981, volunteers have planted over 45 billion trees. Currently, China has

125 the highest afforestation rate worldwide (Yang et al. 2010). The government is enduring to implement forest

126 policy measures to increase the spread, quantity, and quality of its forests to increase the forest cover to 23%

127 (223 m ha) by 2020, while 30% till 2050 (Gbtimes 2018).

128 Several dominant softwood and hardwood species were introduced during China's reforestation

129 program (Bao & Jiang 1998). In China, plantation forests have more than 2500 different tree species with

130 multitudes of other plants, which are home to many wild animals such as golden monkey, giant panda,

131 crested ibis, and snow leopard, all of them are threatened species. Forest uplands of China also protect the

132 lowland river valleys from the severity of droughts and floods by storing rainfall and then gradually

133 releasing, which results in preventing the erosion and makes the intensive irrigated agriculture system

134 conceivable (Bao & Jiang, 1994, Bao & lu 1998). Significant species of plantation forest includes Robinia

135 pseudoacacia, Pinus tabuleaformis, Pinus elliottii, Pinus massoniana, Cunninghamia lanceolata, Larix

136 gmelinii, Cupressus funebris, Quercus, Populus and Eucalyptus. Moreover, the dominant species of the

137 natural forest are Pinus densata, Cupressus funebris, Larix gmelinii, Picea asperata, Pinus yunnanensis,

138 Abies fabri and Betula. Species such as Pinus massoniana and Cunninghamia lanceolata are present in both

139 natural forests and plantations. For rural households, these forests are the source of 40% of the fuel, which

140 makes China one of the most forest-dependent civilizations in the world.

141 Status of plantations and evolution of reforestation programs

142 For any forest ecosystem, plantations are vital for its rebuilding and restoration. Plantations play a

143 critical role in improving the eco-environment and provide woody and non-woody products ( Aronson &

144 Alexander 2013). China has steadily expanded its plantation resources (Fig. 3). The Chinese government has

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145 given substantial importance to nurturing plantation forest resources and many large scale afforestation and

146 regreening programs were carried out. Currently, the area under plantation forest of China ranks first in the

147 world. The total area of plantations in China reaches 79.5428 million ha in 2019, with a stock volume of

148 3.388 billion m³ (59.30 m³ per ha). Among the plantations forests in China, coniferous forests (26.1149

149 million ha- 32.83%) and broad-leaved forests (26.4502 million ha- 33.25%) are dominant types (Fig. 4).

150 China’s plantation resources have been primarily distributed in the southern and central parts of the country.

151 Provinces including Guangdong, Guangxi, Hunan, Inner Mongolia, Sichuan, Yunnan have a significant cover

152 under plantations (Farooq et al. 2019a), accounting for 43.50% of the total national plantations (Ninth

153 national forest inventory, 2019). The area of the young plantation, middle-aged plantations, near-mature

154 plantations, mature plantation and over mature plantations is 23.2591 million ha, 16.9680 million ha, 8.0861

155 million ha, 6.5881 million ha and 2.2254 million ha, respectively. Moreover, stock volume in the pre-

156 described age group is 585 million m³, he area of is with a stock volume of 1115 million m³, 1115 million

157 m³, 723 million m³, 720 million m³ and 245 million m³, respectively (Fig. 4).

158 According to China’s ninth forest inventory report (covering 2014-2017) (fig. 5), China’s plantations

159 forested area was 79.14 million ha covering 36.45% of total forest land. The country’s plantations forest

160 contains an estimated standing volume stock at 3.38 billion m³, which accounts for 19.24% of the country’s

161 entire volume stock. Plantation forest coverage was estimated at 21% (Zeng et al. 2015). Due to its fast

162 growth and high domestic demand, plantations expected to increase rapidly. Out of the total plantation area,

163 36.26% was planted with cash trees crops, 3.1% with bamboo plantations, and the remaining 60.64% with

164 other species (SFA, 2014a, b). From the standing forest, plantations for timber production possess the most

165 significant area and accounts for 70% of the total plantation forest than followed by protective, fuelwood,

166 and special-use plantations. Three majorly planted species in the plantation forests are Chinese fir

167 (Cunninghamia lanceolata), poplar (Populus spp.), and Eucalyptus, accounting 50% of all plantation species

168 (Ninth national forest inventory 2019). Dominant tree species in plantation forests are mentioned in (Tab. 1).

169 The total plantation area of these ten species (groups) makes up 63.65% of the total, and their stock volume

170 accounts for 68.47% of the national total.

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171 The question about the role of plantation forests in the future is inextricably linked to past and plans

172 for future patterns of plantation establishment (Yang et al. 2010). Beyond 2000, plantations establishment

173 increased rapidly, although the rate of planation’s varies in different regions due to various factors such as

174 perceptions about forest profitability and wood supply-demand, interest and economic conditions, better

175 plantation establishment climatic conditions, government subsidies and successes of former plantations (Yu

176 et a. 2011; Jianfing and Xin, 2012). In the last two decades, many afforestation projects were started by the

177 Chinese government to establish high yield and fast growth conifer and pine plantations (Fig. 6). These

178 programs include 1) Conversion of cropland to forest program (covering 25 provinces), 2) Natural forest

179 protection program (covering 17 provinces), 3) Wildlife conservation and nature reserve development

180 program (including all the country), 4) Key shelterbelts development programs in middle and lower reaches

181 of Yangtze river (covering 31 provinces), 5) Key shelterbelt development program in the three northern

182 regions (including 13 provinces), 6) Sandification control program in the sorroundings of Beijing and

183 Tianjin, 7) Program on integrated combating land desertification in Karst regions (covering eight provinces),

184 8) Wetlands conservation and rehabilitation program, 9) Forest industrial base development program in key

185 areas with a focus on fast-growing and high-yielding timber plantations (covering 18 provinces). From 2010-

186 2050, 13 million ha of new plantation forest is planned by the Chinese government, with much focus on

187 western China by undertaking large-scale afforestation on barren and arid lands (SFA 2009, Xu et al. 2012,

188 Zeng et al. 2015, Shi et al. 2016).

189 Up to date, these plantation programs have been relatively successful, particularly the stands of multi-

190 species forests around the upper reaches of major rivers, helpful in reducing soil erosion and flooding

191 significantly (Zhang et al. 2010). Logging was banned entirely in environmentally sensitive areas (Zhang et

192 al. 2015). However, some plantations said to be inefficient (Xu 2011). To establish the plantations, China is

193 mostly following the Brazilian and Chilean plantation model in developing unified plantations to facilitate

194 higher timber quality and production (Zhang et al. 2015). The amount of contribution by these plantations in

195 pulp and paper production will depend on whether or not enough land is available in appropriate locations,

196 and whether these plantations manage to reach their full potential without being damaged (Barr et al. 2005).

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197 The Chinese government provided loans and subsidizes for forest projects to enhance the area under

198 plantations. Over 40% of these loans used for the establishment of high-yielding and fast-growing timber

199 species, and these species facilitated Chinese afforestation technology and turned into productive force (Yang

200 et al. 2010, Farooq et al. 2019a). It also adjusted agricultural structure and promoted the administration of

201 forest production, which effectively boosted comprehensive forest benefit (Zhang & Polyakov 2010, Zhang

202 et al. 2010, Zhang et al. 2015).

203 Ecological effects of plantations

204 Even though many countries grown large in terms of areas under plantations forest and China is on top

205 amongst all, but considerable debate continues over the long-term sustainability of forest plantations

206 worldwide. There are two sets of theories about plantations; one theory said that plantations don’t meet with

207 the definitions of sustainability because of only maintaining productivity across rotations. While others

208 believe that, plantation forests could provide most benefits and services the same as natural forests such as

209 timber, non-timber products, protection of clean air and water, soil erosion control, biodiversity conservation,

210 climate control, and carbon sequestration and esthetics. Main challenges related to plantations establishments

211 include 1) Silvicultural management and species-site matching, 2) Uplifting of degraded land and tree-

212 growing in low forest areas, 3) Genetics and tree breeding, 4) Data deficiencies, 5) Wood quality and its

213 utilization, 6) Policy-related and monitoring, and 6) Financial benefits. A graphical summary of the major

214 challenges associated with plantations is shown in figure 7.

215 Along with many positive impacts and plummeting pressure on natural forests, the plantations also has

216 some direct ecological effects, such as even-aged and monoculture plantations over the successive rotations

217 can result in nutrients loss in soil and habitat of taxa which were provided by natural forest (Lin et al. 2001,

218 Ma et al. 2002, Erskine et al. 2006, Larjavaara 2008, Chen 2009, Xu 2011, Zhou et al. 2015). In worst

219 sceneries, intensive management such as clear-cutting and successive rotations (Ma et al. 2000; Zhou et al.

220 2015; Zhou et al. 2016), results in low structural complexity, which raises concerns about biodiversity

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221 reduction, lowering the water table and soil nutrients. Additionally, the majority of plantation forests

222 harvested at economic optima rather than its biological maturity, which can develop extreme nutrient

223 deficiencies, which can affect nutrient cycling and long-term productivity (Liu et al. 2018). Moreover, the

224 introduction of exotic species can make it susceptible to insects and diseases (Hu et al. 2006, Larjavaara

225 2008, Xiong 2008, You et al. 2015). Forest management practices and silvicultural techniques for site

226 preparation such as fertilization decreases understory vegetation and groundcover diversity (Evans 1976,

227 Wang et al. 2010, Liu et al. 2018).

228 Fruitful ecological refurbishment and progressive projects can attain both financial and ecological

229 assistance, though the aids are hard to accomplish (Adams et al. 2004, Tallis et al. 2008). Nonetheless,

230 ecological refurbishment is not constantly a beneficial condition, and events are frequently unwanted by

231 farmers, fishers, loggers, and the one which is in charge of these systems (Wunder et al. 2008, Wendland et

232 al. 2009). Ecological complications for example, quick reduction of nutrients in the soil, it’s erosion and

233 water inequity, produced by Eucalyptus in the Guangdong province of China. Eucalyptus is the main specie

234 in that province being extremely beneficial socially and economically. In a study, it displayed that the

235 adverse influences of ecology were largely credited to improper managing, which includes socioeconomic

236 influences on individuals. Eucalyptus absorbs nutrients and water quickly during its growing stage as

237 compared to other plants. Most plants adjust to the atmosphere around them by absorbing nutrients and

238 water, with the significances of ecological influences on the atmosphere.

239 The plantations have their negative and positives at the same time (Freer-Smith et al. 2019). Managing

240 plantations enhance ecological benefits such as biodiversity and at the same time to produce goods such as

241 timber and non-wood products; this can be done only with a clear mind and understanding about the

242 ecological context of plantation forest in the broader spectrum. In plantation forests, management strategies

243 integrate biodiversity considerations such as the introduction of complex plantations stands composed of

244 multiple species, varying planting density and spacing (Farooq et al. 2019b), Because the structural diversity

245 is higher in mixed forests than in monoculture plantations of the same age (Dong et al. 2018). No clear-

246 cutting, and burying of residues, proper thinning and larger rotation cycle can be beneficial in recovering soil

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247 from nutrient loss (Minghe & Ritchie 1999; Ma et al. 2000, Hu et al. 2006, Ma et al. 2007, Slevaraj et al.

248 2017). The graphical summary of challenges associated with plantation forests is shown in (Fig. 7). Though,

249 most of the administration strategies highlight temporary political or financial objectives instead of

250 longstanding development to ecological remediation. Ecological refurbishment agendas frequently fail to

251 report important communal complications that are carefully combined with ecological deprivation.

252 Measures to improve forest plantations

253 China’s ecological complications are crucial, and a quick solution is obligatory, but a response system

254 should be incorporated into any feedback to be modified based on monitoring outcomes (Liu et al. 2008).

255 Substantial work is required to validate whether plantations meet a broader spectrum of sustainability criteria

256 along with the research on timber production and protection measures. If, in the future harvesting in the

257 natural forests to be reduced, extensive research needed on multifunctional uses of plantations. Mapping out

258 the master plan to enhance the awareness to guide about plantation establishment. Advancements in the

259 development of high-yielding and fast-growing timber plantation should be based on the practical situation.

260 Site-specific experimental trials on a continuing basis and broader distribution of best forestry practice

261 techniques for various species plantations could lead to extensive and quick improvements in the

262 productivity of these plantations (Freer-Smith et al. 2019). Productivity can also be improved significantly

263 by giving much focus on provenances and clones, matching species to site, and species mortality at a specific

264 site. Some provenances could be merely successful across the range. The focus should be given on tree

265 planting in weak forest culture areas to strengthen forest rules and issues. Transformation and prominence

266 should be given to adjustment to local conditions. In forestry, the quality of the plantations can be enhanced

267 by providing resilience to science and technology to benefit fast-growing and high-yielding plantations

268 (Freer-Smith et al., 2019). Productivity can also be improved by activities such as small-scale forestry and

269 genetic modification about wood yield. The best-translated results of the laboratory should be introduced in

270 the broader field. Unavailability of quality seed, lack of information, and knowledge about consequences and

271 species diversity and ability to adopt different environmental conditions could result in potential losses in

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272 terms of yield and economic value. Moreover, data inaccuracies about plantation area management must be

273 dealt with to provide a certain picture for the private sector and for public policy setting.

274 The introduction of exotic species (which don’t harm the native species in terms of survival and

275 growth) can increase the richness of the forest, which could be helpful for both soil recovery and habitat for

276 fauna (Hoddle 2004, Prector et al. 2016). Especially in the US and Europe, exotic species increase the

277 species richness, which increases the interspecies genetic diversity (Hettinger 2001, Bradshaw 1995).

278 Varying the shape and size of the plantations can also play a vital role in maintaining biodiversity (Minghe &

279 Ritchie 1999, Hu et al. 2006).

280 Due to small dimension roundwood and short rotations, often plantation grown timber considered inferiors as

281 compare to natural forest timber, and developing new and applying best-practiced wood engineering and

282 processing techniques over the world can improve wood quality. Additionally, various activities such as

283 incentive policies effectiveness and distribution, suitable ownership and clarity in structures, land availability

284 and social impacts of plantation establishment require study and extensive monitoring. Moreover, Lying

285 importance on economic return and amalgamating the benefits from the three sides of society, ecology, and

286 economy. Financial resources should be mobilized through multi-channels. Project administration and site

287 management must be focused, and multi-species plantation establishment should be market-oriented (Liu-

288 ying 2007).

289 Legislators and organizers should frequently grow resolutions to ecological complications regardless

290 of their earnestness (Freer-Smith et al. 2019). Discussing with inhabitants or conducting a long-lasting

291 investigation to detect together with the profits and downsides of probable resolutions in the nonappearance

292 of such skilled supervision, organizers must predict which strategies will turn out to be beneficial (Hua et al.

293 2018). Hence, in the developmental phase of entire significant ventures, the response on the influences of the

294 scheme in the area must be vigorously required from residents, financial, sociological, and ecological

295 professionals. This response must be assessed and slight insufficiencies in the venture must be determined

296 before its execution. Ecological assistance might clearly be measured by the sole indicator or complete

297 model technique.

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298 The issues related to poverty are aggravated by deficiencies of scientific or technical investment,

299 absence of aids, less literacy rate, unfair or unsuccessful strategies, and planning’s (Kates & Dasgupta 2007,

300 Tallis et al. 2008, Cao et al. 2009, Hua et al. 2018). To avoid poverty trap and save biodiversity, mutual inner

301 efforts by inhabitants, support from the capital, services in education and beneficial strategies are essential

302 (Tallis et al., 2008; Cao et al., 2009; Hua et a., 2018).

303 Conclusions

304 With the rapid increase of the economy, the demand for timber increased, which affect the natural

305 forests, therefor, China launched many conservation programs to protect natural forests. Afforestation of

306 barren hills and lands was implemented, and permissible cut on natural forests was significantly reduced.

307 Fast-growing and high yielding timber species were introduced to cope with the ever-increasing timber

308 demand. China's development of plantations has made significant progress in terms of fast growth and high

309 timber yielding species. Relevant sectors and industries have been encouraged and promoted to gain

310 substantial benefit by steadily enhancing the technical and administrative levels. Other than playing its role

311 in the national economy and social development by improving timber and non-timber forest goods,

312 plantations also play a vital part in enhancing the region’s ecological environment. It mainly contributes to

313 two systems, such as a relatively developed industrial system and a relatively comprehensive ecological

314 system.

315 Conflict of interest

316 Authors declare no conflict of interest exists.

317 Fundings

318 The funding sources include the Postdoctoral research funding of Central South University of Forestry and

319 Technology (70702-45200003).

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500 Table 1. Dominant softwood and hardwood species in the plantation forests of China

No Softwood species Common Name

1 Cunninghamia lanceolata Chinese fir
2 Pinus massoniana Masson pine
3 Larix spp. Dahurian larch
4 Pinus tabuleaformis Manchurian red pine
5 Cupressus funebris weeping cypress
6 Pinus elliottii Slash pine
7 Pinus yunnansis Yunnan pine
8 Pinus taeda Loblolly pine
9 Picea spp. Spruce
10 Pinus sylvestris var. Mongolica Mongolian Scotch pine
11 Pinus koraiensis Korean pine

No Hardwood species Common Name

1 Populus spp. Poplar
2 Eucalyptus spp. Eucalyptus
3 Robinia pseudoacacia Locust
4 Acacia spp. Acacia
5 Hevea brasiliensis Pará rubber tree
6 Paulownia spp. Paulownia
7 Betula spp. Birch

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501 Figures legends

502 Fig. 1. Significant drivers of intact forest coverage loss and conversion of native forests to plantations

503 Fig. 2. Province wise distribution of China’s forest cover and classification of forest categories. Dark green

504 color shows high dominance level, light green color shows middle value and white color shows low

505 dominance value.

506 Fig. 3. (A) Distribution of area under plantations in China. (B) Major countries in terms of tree planting area

507 (m ha), (C) Area under plantations and future plan till 2050 based on tree planting programs worldwide

508 Fig. 4. Dominant species in plantations and area and stock volume of different age groups in plantations

509 forest of china

510 Fig. 5. Progression of forest areas and growing stock volumes of plantations forests of China from nine

511 national forest inventories (NFIs)

512 Fig. 6. Priority plantations forestry programs of China for various regions in the last two decades and key

513 policy measures associated with them. CCFP: The conversion of cropland to forest program; NPFP: Natural

514 forest protection program; WCNRDP: The wildlife conservation and nature reserve development program;

515 SDP-YR: The key shelterbelts development programs in such areas as the middle and lower reaches of

516 Yangtze river; SDP-TN: The key shelterbelt development program in the three-norths; SCP: The

517 sandification control program in the vicinity of Beijing and Tianjin; PICLD: The program on integrated

518 combating land desertification in Karst regions; WCRP: The wetlands conservation and rehabilitation

519 program; FIBDP; The forest industrial base development program in key regions with a focus on fast-

520 growing and high-yielding timber plantations

521 Fig. 7. Graphical summary of challenges associated with plantation forests

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522 Fig. 1

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523 Fig. 2

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524 Fig. 3

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525 Fig. 4

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526 Fig. 5

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527 Fig. 6

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528 Fig. 7

29