Machiavelli - Ebenstein

In The Prince (1513), Machiavelli separates power from morality , ethics, religion, and
metaphysics, and establishes the state as an autonomous value system, independent of any other
source. Although he practices the state's value system, the statesman may disregard certain value
systems, such as philosophy, ethics or morals. Thus Machiavelli introduces the concept of the
State motive, according to which certain actions are permissive, even mandatory, that would be
deemed heinous crimes if judged in the court of faith or morals. Machiavelli does not assert that
ethics and morals as such are equivalent to the precepts of government, the purpose of rule which
is independent of one another from a general theoretical point of view, the canons of control and
the principles of morals.
In The Discourses, Machiavelli defines the reason of state even more clearly. The
protection of the nation depends on the decision to be adopted and should be permitted to prevail
without regard to right or injustice, compassion or violence, or glory or disgrace. Yet leaving
away these things, is more relevant what protects the country 's life and democracy. Political
efficiency is thus analogous to moral or religious virtue, and inefficiency replaces the concept of
sin. The word "virtue" is still used by Machiavelli but its definition is distinct from, and
sometimes antithetical. The ideal of Rome meant "manliness," that is, physical bravery and
intellect mixed with social duty and dignity of men. "Virtue" totally lacked its military
connotation in later Christian usage, and Christian virtue stood for modesty and joyful tolerance
of hardship, and even feminine chastity, rather than manly self-assertion.
The opinions of Machiavelli on morality and religion are an indication of his belief in the
superiority of authority over all social ideals. In a deep personal experience he has no
understanding of faith, except the supernatural aspect of faith. Machiavelli is cynical, and he sees
mankind as fundamentally unchangeable, incapable of radical improvability, so he rejects that
rationality can cope with existence and history 's harsh and restricting truth. In comparison, the
Optimist assumes that man is improvable, that change is inevitable, and that through the
empowering and uplifting power of reason the bonds of existence and history will be released.
Whereas the pessimist appears to look out on the past and is mainly mindful of what has
happened. According to Machiavelli, the statesman is unable to enjoy the privilege of pursuing
virtue because there are two means of combat, one by statute, the other by coercion, which is the
first method, that of men is always ineffective and the second by beasts. So a prince needs to
learn well how to use both the beast and the man.
Machiavelli understands that no government will ever guarantee total protection and his
belief that in realistic politics there is always a choice between a greater and a lesser evil and not
between bad and good. Ideology is simply a concept at the service of desire, and ideologists
rationalize, defend, obfuse and, in certain situations, prevaricate and deceive to cover up this
clear relationship. Machiavelli's lack of commitment to theoretical simplification and emotional
simplicity in his worldview is an important stabilizing and moderating force. By comparison,
some later self-styled Machiavellians, who mixed Machiavellian means with un-Machiavellian
ends, lacked this stabilizing feature.
Marx (Thomas)

The German ideology had offered a view of ideology as speculative idealism, so the
German ideologists believed that consciousness is an autonomous realm that admits to be studied
and explained independently of social relations in its own terms. Marx and Engels argued that
philosophy as a theoretical idealism inverts the human subject-consciousness relationship in
ideological people and their situations appear upside-down. Ideology implies idealism rather than
repentance, but prejudice and remorse are defining aspects of ideology in Marx's subsequent
works. An idea can be incorrect without being political, and illusions do not have the political
purpose required. Ideologies that are inherently forced on people and that people can embrace,
very openly as in the popular early definition of religion as the opium of the people. Ideology
must be understood and appear to be relevant both to those who support it and to those who
disseminate it.
The German Ideology identified three types of class society based on three successive
forms of private property and confined to a narrowly defined Western Europe based on slavery,
then feudal society based on serfdom and capitalist society based on formally free wage labor.
There is a fourth type of society which is Asiatic mode of production by Marx's Grundrisse of
1858. The "Asiatic" mode of production has a different relationship to the other three stages.
Feudalism develops out of ancient society, then capitalism develops out of feudal society, and
out of capitalist society communism must develop. Asian mode of production is indefensible and
the western reader finds it shameful, it was supposed to be universal or global in character.
In his own account of his intellectual development, the Preface of 1859, Marx addressed
political issues and complaints, not metaphysical ones, so that most biographical accounts
distinguish the theoretical works of Marx from his political work, treating it as a mere structure.
Marx was then the first figure of Western political theory to have lived much of his life as a
stateless political prisoner, pursued by all European authorities except the ignorant British. Marx
and Engels were deeply involved in German nationalist activity after the first printing of the
Manifesto, and Marx was put on trial for treason in Cologne. In two distinct ways, Marx argues
about the state and politics which is only one of these, it seems to be plainly instrumental. In the
Manifesto's terms, 'Political force, properly so-called, is the centralized force of one class to
dominate another. It follows that the current state executive is but a committee to handle the
popular affairs of the entire bourgeoisie. In the words of the Manifesto, in the place of the old
bourgeois society and its classes and class antagonisms, with the overthrow of the State so
established, we shall have an community in which the free development of each is the condition
for the free development of all.
The Civil War in France is also significant because of its compositional circumstances.It
is this broader definition of politics that is also reflected in The Civil War in France's
interpretation of the existence and acts of the Paris Commune of 1871, which provided 'the
finally discovered political structure in which to carry out the economic freedom of labour.
Hobbes (Harmon)

Thomas Hobbes, was the second of the three children in the family and was born prematurely at
Malmesbury on April 5, 1588. His father was an uneducated person named Albeit and worked as
a carouser. When Thomas was four years old, his father had to leave Malmesbury in a hurry
following a fight in which he hit and injured a man. His brother, Francis Hobbes, took
responsibility for the family and sent Thomas to a church school at the age of four. At the age of
15, he was embedded in Magdalen Hall, Oxford and then he received his bachelor degree and
also took a position as tutor with the Cavendish family. Hobbes traveled to Europe in 1610 and
was fascinated by the intellectual revolt against scholasticism, and he started to read about
classics upon his return to England. In 1629, he published his famous translation of Thucydides.
Later, In 1651, Hobbes presented a manuscript copy of his leviathan to the young charles which
is the work was written to support the principle of absolute government. However, the
government is not so excited by Hobbes' efforts. Although Charles himself was more than happy
to regret his former tutor, Hobbes was barred from leaving the court in exile and severely
assaulted by his former colleagues. Because his banishment from court by the exiled royalists
had significantly reduced the enjoyment of life in Paris, and because Hobbes could not be sure
that the French clergy would not succeed in persuading the French government to take action
against him, he preferred the lesser of two risks. Still in 1651, he returned to England, and was
ordered to live quietly but he was incapable of obeying such a command to the letter. In 1660,
Charles II ascended the throne of England and the king and enjoyed the wit and company of
Hobbes and restored him to favor at court and also at that time Hobbes was 72 years old. At the
age eighty, he had controversy with Anglican Church and King Charles warned him not to
publish controversial writings, should he expect royal protection. Later, he died at the age of 91
while he still engaged in negotiations with his publisher.
Hobbes has been influenced by the scientific revolution, such that the motion theory of
Hobbes is not at all a theory of physical science, but more psychologically based. According to
him, the controlling factor in human life is that inner force which forces man to seek his own
self-interests, particularly to avoid injury. Peace can only be achieved by acknowledging the
forces that form human existence, and by realizing the need to regulate it. The two basic forces
of human nature are, first, to search for what is considered desirable, and second, to resist what is
undesirable. The primary objective of human nature is self-preservation, and what he desperately
needs to prevent is the loss of life so that harmony is the greatest good and the greatest evil is
fear. Both equations are physical and mental, which are physical equations demonstrated by the
fact that either through deception or interaction with others, the weakest will destroy the
strongest. The basis of a democratic philosophy of government is that people have an infinite
appetite for power, and they are essentially equal in their capacity to obtain it, and they are rivals
if any two men want the same. Man's real nature is individualistic, self-seeking, afraid,
aggressive to the point of being combative. Even men are selfish, they could think reasonably
because every man has the right to do anything and issue an opinion. Hobbes dismissed the
doctrine of the divine rights when describing the nature of the State. He may have known that his
philosophy was in the process of collapse and, besides, that Hobbes' mind was too rational to
consider the mysticist aura behind the notion. Hobbes has no idea of a universal code of law
which the sovereign ruler will follow.
Farabi (Mawardi)
Farabi is the one of the best philosophers in Muslim world. His real name is Abu Nasr
Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Tarkhan al-Farabi and born at Wasij in Farab in district of
Transoxania in Turk in 257 Hijrah (870 Masihi) and died in 339 Hijrah (950 Masihi). He lives in
the era of Abbasid caliphate. He moved to Baghdad when he was still a teenager and initially he
was not fluent in Arabic language for the first time. After he mastered the Arabic language, he
once became a student of a famous Christian savant philosopher named Abu Bishr Matta bin
Yunus, the famous translation of Aristotle and the other Greek writers and after that he learned
with Yuhanna bin Jilad. He studies philosophy, mathematics, and physics. He also works on
logics, summary of Plato's law,commentary of Aristotle Nichomeachean ethics, books on natural
science, Meteorology the sky and the world, physiology and metaphysics. He wrote many books
such as A Summary of Plato’s Law, Arau Ahli Madinah Fadilah, Syasatul Madaniyah, Jawamius
Siyasat and Ijtimak Madaniyah. His book Siyasat talks about the difference between man and
animal dealing with the need for collective action, the effect of contentions on the nature of man
and also includes the need for the existence of the Model City. While Ara books more
concentrate on the Model State. On the intellect and power subtopic, in Farabi opinion, the major
differential between man and animal are agent intellect and gained intellect which animals do not
have. The man power comes from the ability of reason, power of thinking, power of feeling and
power of contention. The power of thinking comes from 5 senses that humans have. The reason
can make humans differentiate between the border of good and bad while the power of
contention will make humans want to do something or leave it. The reason and contention are
special for humans only. In a human group, the humans are separate into two groups. The groups
are perfect and imperfect. Although there are 2 groups but are related to each other from the part
of a place until at national level. The greatest good is to achieve in the unit of perfect
assemblages the city. In the right and justice subtopic, Farabi have a compact for mutual
renunciation of rights. It is about uphold justice because some men are born naturally with strong
bodies that can lead to become cruel humans while the others are born weak that can be victims.
The contract is at the bottom of all peaceful occupations of Statehood. All the others join hand
and by mutual help retain their liberty. It is a great improvement on what was to enunciate in
Europe. In the sovereign subtopic, Farabi emphasizes the importance of a leader in a country. A
good leader must have latent intellect and gained intellect that will arise the agent of intellect.
Leaders like a heart that must be perfect as possible. Farabi also mentioned 12 attributes that
show the leader are good or not. The 12 attributes are (1)physically perfect, (2) great mind of
understanding, (3) have a good visualization, (4) good in memorisation, (5) has ability to
complete something with less argument, (6) less desire of drinking , eating and sex, (7) shunning
of playfulness, (8) love of truth, (9) love of justice, (10) able to distribute justice, (11) can
convey others and lastly (12) have enough wealth. Farabi knows that a single person is
impossible to get all of the attributes, so it is enough to have just 5 or 6 of them only for a person
to be good enough. If there is no one, then it is enough to choose 2 or even 5 members that
possess the attributes and one of them must be a hakim who is capable of knowing the wants of
the people and visualizing the needs of the entire state. To manage a state, there are 3 possible
ways that are necessity, ease and desire. The necessity is about the head that arranges for the
fundamental needs of the citizens such as food and drinks. Desire is about making the life of the
citizens luxurious with various resources.
Farabi - regime (Najjar)

Man belongs to species that are unable to accomplish their required affairs or attain their
best state and some human societies are huge, others are medium in size, others are small. Large
societies will associate with other nations. the city represents the first degree of perfection
meanwhile associations in villages, quarters, streets, and households, are the imperfect
associations. The completely ideal human societies are divided into nations and distinguished
from others by the complex language by which people express themselves. The principle to
make a man perfect consist of primary knowledge and the first intelligibles present in the rational
part of the soul however, only after the man develops the sensitive part of the soul and the
appetitive part and then develop the maginative part of the soul and the desire that adheres to it.
After these two were developed, Active Intellect will take place for primary knowledge. After
that, “choice” will be developed that will differentiate them from animals. From this choice they
will be able to do what is commendable or blamable, noble or base; and because of it there is
reward and punishment and also he will be able to seek happiness. The human soul has five
which is the theoretical-rationale, the practical-rational, the appetitive, the imaginative, and the
sensitive, that is why voluntary good can come into being. The theoretical-rational faculty knows
happiness which only man can learn and perceive. A man knows when he should use the first
principles and the primary knowledge that was given to him by Active Intellect to make him do
the right action. When he knows happiness, the appetite faculty wants it, the practical logical
faculty deliberates on what he can do to achieve it, the instruments of the appetite faculty are
used to carry out the acts he has learned through deliberation later His imaginative and sensitive
abilities assist and follow the moral, and enable him to encourage man to do the deeds in which
he achieves happiness, and then all that comes from man is good. And in this way does the good
of will come into being. Now there are many things that people might think they need to have the
meaning and end of life, such as the good and the useful and honorable
Opposite of the virtuous city was the ignorant city, the immoral city and the erring city
and also there are the weeds in the virtuous city. The weeds in the virtuous city were like darnel
among the wheat or the thorns growing among the crop. The citizen in the ignorant cities, are
political beings which comprises indispensable association, the association of vile men in the vile
cities, the association of base man in the base cities, timocratic association in the timocratic city,
despotic association in the despotic cities, free association in the democratic city and the city of
the free. Meanwhile the indispensable city which leads to cooperation to acquire the bare
necessities for the subsistence and the safeguarding of the body. The vile city member cooperates
to acquire wealth and prosperity and avoid spending except what is necessary for bodily
subsistence. The base city is that in which the citizens cooperate to enjoy sensual pleasure such
as drink, food and pursuit happiness. The timocratic city is the citizen who cooperates to be
honored in speech and deed and exchange it. The despotic city in which members cooperate to
achieve domination. The citizens like to pursue domination so they will kill in order to take their
property. They think they should dominate everything because sometimes the citizens will
choose to dominate outside the city with no reason just to promote it. The democratic city gave
citizens the free choice and left to do what they want.