The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Chapter 40
Pressure, Temperature, Quality
and Flow Measurement

Instruments for measuring pressure, temperature,

fluid flow, and the quality and purity of steam are
essential in the operation of a power plant. The mea-
surements obtained permit safe, economical and reli-
able operation of the steam generating equipment.
Instrumentation may range from a simple indicating
device to a complex automatic measuring device. The
fundamental purpose of the instrument is to convert
some physical property of the material being measured
into useful information. The methods used to obtain
the measurement depend on available technology,
economics, and the purpose for which the information
is being obtained.
Test instrumentation, often portable, may be used
to determine flow, pressures, and temperatures re-
quired to satisfy the user and the boiler equipment Fig. 1 Bourdon gauge.
supplier that the design operating conditions have
been achieved. Requirements for these instruments
are summarized in the American Society of Mechani- Manometers are considered an accurate means of
cal Engineers (ASME) Performance Test Codes. Many pressure or pressure differential measurement. These
test instruments require skilled technical operators, instruments, containing a wide variety of fluids de-
careful handling, and frequent calibration. Some in- pending on the pressure, are capable of high accuracy
struments and measurement methods may not be with careful use. The fluids used vary from those
suitable for long-term continuous operation because lighter than water for low pressures to mercury for
of a harsh environment, material limitations, or ex- relatively high pressures. Fig. 2 illustrates an inclined
cessive cost. Instruments used for continuous mea- manometer used to measure low pressure differentials
surement may require compromises in accuracy for
long-term, dependable, reliable operation.

Pressure measurement
The pressure gauge is probably the earliest instru-
ment used in boiler operation. Today, with complex
control systems in operation and more than one hun-
dred thirty years after the first water tube safety
boiler, a pressure gauge is still used to determine steam
drum pressure. The Bourdon tube pressure gauge is
shown in Fig. 1. Although improvements have been
made in construction and accuracy, its basic principle
of operation remains unchanged. A closed end oval
tube in a semicircular shape straightens with inter-
nal pressure. The movement of the closed end is con-
verted to an indication (needle position).
Pressure measuring instruments take various forms,
depending on the magnitude of the pressure, the ac- Fig. 2 Inclined differential manometer (courtesy of Dwyer Instru-
curacy desired and the application. ments, Inc.).

Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement 40-1

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

at low static pressure. Differential diaphragm gauges

with a magnetic linkage are also used for low pres-
sure measurement. Fig. 3 shows a high pressure mer-
cury manometer. For greater precision in measuring
small pressure differentials, such as the measurement
of flow orifice differentials, hook gauges or
micromanometers may be used.
Bourdon tube pressure gauges are available for
measuring a wide range of static pressures in vary-
ing degrees of precision and accuracy. Pressure gauges
used as operating guides need not be of high preci-
sion and normally have scale subdivisions of about 1%
of the full scale range. For certain tests, such as hy-
drostatic testing of pressure parts and boiler efficiency,
more precision is required. Gauges with 0.1% full scale
subdivisions are used. For performance calculations,
high precision temperature and pressure measure-
ments are required to accurately determine steam and
water enthalpies. Dead weight gauges or calibrated
pressure transmitters are preferable to Bourdon
gauges for high precision pressure measurement.
Diaphragm type gauges are used for measuring
differential pressures. A slack diaphragm pressure
gauge can be used to measure small differentials
where total pressure does not exceed about 1.0 psig
(6.9 kPa). For high static pressures, opposed bellows
gauges (Fig. 4) read a wide range of differential pres-
sures. They are suitable for measuring differential
pressure across boiler circuits and can be used to mea-
sure differentials from 2 to 100 psi (0.01 to 0.69 MPa)
at static pressures up to 6000 psi (41.37 MPa).
Incorporated into many pressure measurement
devices is the capability of producing an output sig-
nal proportional to the measurement. The output sig-
nal may be transmitted to a central measurement or Fig. 3 High pressure mercury manometer (courtesy of Meriam
control system. Pneumatic transmitted signals are Process Technologies).

Fig. 4 Opposed bellows gauge (courtesy of ITT Barton, a unit of ITT Industries, Inc.).

40-2 Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
used in control systems, but the more common designs
use electrical circuitry to sense the changing position
of basic mechanical motion and to produce an electri-
cal output signal to be transmitted. These are readily
adaptable to computer based systems. Some transduc-
ers use a piezoelectric crystal which changes electri-
cal resistance as the element is deformed under pres-
sure. Other pressure transmitter designs use a dia-
phragm with strain gauges attached; minor changes
in diaphragm strain are transferred to the strain
gauges, which change resistance. Electrical circuits
recognize the resistance change in the crystal or strain
gauges and produce an indication of pressure. Ad-
vanced applications have used an optic glass fiber
embedded in a metal diaphragm, with pressure mea-
surement determined as a change in the light beam
traversing the fiber. Pressure transducers incorporat-
ing electrical components have the advantage of fewer
mechanical parts for improved durability. However,
this may restrict the installation location due to tem-
perature limitations of the electrical components. In-
struments configured to generate electric signals have
been adapted to incorporate computing capability to
assist in calibration. Pressure transmitters and trans-
ducers have been readily adapted for power plant
computer data acquisition and control systems.
Instrument corrections
In recording and reporting pressure readings, cor-
rections may be necessary for water leg and for con-
version to absolute pressure by adding atmospheric
pressure. Effective water leg is the added pressure
imposed on the gauge by the leg of water standing
above the gauge. Fig. 5 illustrates a water leg correc-
tion to a pressure gauge reading. The density of the
water in the leg may change with ambient tempera-
ture and, for precise measurement, the water leg tem-
perature should be monitored. On some gauges it may
be possible to zero the gauge at zero operating pres-
sure with the water leg completely filled to compen-
sate for the water leg static head. Care must be taken
in performing water leg adjustments as this may af-
fect the instrument calibration over the operating
range. Differential pressure measurements require a
water leg correction for both sides of the measuring
instrument. For some liquid level devices, the differ-
ential pressure measurements from two water legs of
different elevations are used to provide the indication
of liquid level. Differential pressure measurements
across orifices, nozzles or pitot tubes to measure flow
are described below.
Location of pressure measurement
connections
The criteria for selecting a connection location to the
pressure source for the measuring device are the same
regardless of the magnitude of the pressure, the type
of measuring device or the fluid being measured. Pres-
sure connections, or taps, in piping, flues or ducts
should be located to avoid impacts or eddies; this as-
sures an accurate static pressure measurement. Un-
Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement
der certain circumstances a through the wall pressure
connection may not be representative. It may be nec-
essary to use a probe incorporating a tip configura-
tion that minimizes the effects of the flowing fluid to
obtain a representative static pressure measurement.
Connecting lines to instruments should be as short
and direct as possible and must be leak-free. For differ-
ential pressure readings, it is preferable to use a differ-
ential pressure measuring device rather than to calcu-
late the difference between the readings on two instru-
ments. Particular attention should be paid to the place-
ment of the instrument, the potential for condensation
in the impulse lines, and the accumulation of debris or
non-condensable gases in the completed installation.
Temperature measurement
Today, the Fahrenheit and Celsius (formerly centi-
grade) scales are the most common and firmly estab-
lished temperature scales.
The Fahrenheit scale is fixed at the freezing point
(32F) and the boiling point (212F) of pure water at
atmospheric pressure, with 180 equal degrees between
the two points. The centigrade scale was originally based
on the same freezing (0C) and boiling (100C) points of
water at standard atmospheric pressure, using the con-
venient 100 degree interval of the decimal system.
In 1960, the General Conference of Weights and
Measures changed the defining fixed point from the
freezing point to the triple point (0.0C) of water. The
triple point is the condition under which the three
phases of matter (solid, liquid and vapor) coexist in
equilibrium. This point is more easily and accurately
reproduced than the freezing point. At standard at-
mospheric pressure the interval between the triple
point for water and steam on the centigrade scale
became 99.99C instead of 100C.
In 1990, temperature standards were further re-
fined by the International Temperature Scale 1990
Fig. 5 Application of water leg correction to pressure gauge reading
(Correction ∆P = gρL/gc).
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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
(ITS-90). These changes, however small, reflect the
continued review of temperature measurement. As
measured by the current standard, water at standard
conditions boils at 211.953F (99.974C).
In thermometer calibrations, the fusion and vapor-
ization of various pure substances have been carefully
determined and are known as fixed points. Two addi-
tional scales in scientific work use the absolute zero of
temperature, i.e., –273.16C or –459.69R. The absolute
scale using Celsius degrees as the temperature interval
is called the Kelvin (K) scale; the absolute scale using
Fahrenheit degrees is called the Rankine (R) scale.
Methods of measuring temperature
Heat affected properties of substances, such as ther-
mal expansion, radiation and electrical effects, are
incorporated into commercial temperature measuring
instruments. These instruments vary in their preci-
sion depending on the property measured, the sub-
stance used and the design of the instrument. The care
taken in selecting the correct instrument largely de-
termines the accuracy of the results. It is the
engineer’s responsibility to make certain that the ap-
plication is correct and that the results are not affected
by extraneous factors.
Changes of state
Fusion For a pure chemical element or compound
such as mercury or water, fusion, or change of state
from solid to liquid, occurs at a fixed temperature. The
melting points of these materials are suitable fixed
reference points for temperature scales.
The fusion of pyrometric cones is widely used in the
ceramic industry as a method of measuring high tem-
peratures in refractory heating furnaces. These cones,
small pyramids about 2 in. (50.8 mm) high, are made
of oxide and glass mixtures that soften and melt at
established temperatures. The pyrometric cone is suit-
able for temperatures ranging from 1100 to 3600F
(593 to 1982C). Its use in the power industry is gen-
erally limited to the laboratory. An adaptation of this
method of temperature determination is used when
observing ash and slag accumulations soften and flow
in a coal-fired furnace or superheater.
Fusion pyrometers are also made in the form of
crayons, paint and pellets. The crayons and paint,
applied to a metal surface, produce a flat-finish mark.
A change in the finish from flat to glossy indicates that
the surface temperature has reached or exceeded a
selected value. The pellets melt at specified tempera-
tures when in contact with a hot surface and may be
seen more easily than crayon marks.
Vaporization The vapor pressure of a liquid depends
on its temperature. When the liquid is heated to its
boiling temperature, the vapor pressure is equal to the
total pressure above the liquid surface. The boiling
points of various pure chemical elements or compounds
at standard atmospheric pressure [29.92 in. Hg (101.33
kPa)] can be used as thermometric fixed points. If the
liquid and vapor are confined, the increase in vapor
pressure may be used to measure temperature using a
calibrated pressure gauge. (See Fig. 6.)
40-4
Expansion properties
Most substances expand when heated and, for
many materials, the amount of expansion is almost
directly proportional to the change in temperature.
This effect is the basis of various thermometer types
using gases, liquids or solids.
Gases The expansion of gases follows the relation-
ship, in English units:
PvM = RT (1)
where
P = absolute pressure, lb/ft2
vM = volume, ft3/mole of gas
R = universal gas constant, 1545 ft lb/mole R
T = absolute temperature, R = F + 460
At high pressures or near the condensation point, gases
deviate considerably from this relationship. Under
other conditions, however, the deviation is small.
Two types of gas thermometers are based on this re-
lationship. In one, a constant gas volume is maintained
and pressure changes are used to measure changes in
temperature. Very accurate instruments of this type
have been developed for laboratory work. The constant
volume type thermometer is widely used commercially.
Nitrogen is commonly used for the gas-filled ther-
mometer in industrial applications. It is suitable for a
temperature range of –200 to 1000F (–129 to 538C).
The construction is similar to the vapor pressure ther-
mometer with nitrogen gas replacing the liquid and
vapor. Expansion of the heated nitrogen in the bulb
increases the pressure in the system and actuates a
temperature indicator.
Liquids Liquid expansion properties may be incor-
porated into a thermometer by using a bulb and cap-
illary to confine the liquid. In this thermometer, the
bulb and capillary tube are completely filled with liq-
uid and a calibrated pressure gauge is used to mea-
sure temperature. Mercury has been used for a tem-
perature range of –40 to 1000F (–40 to 538C). Instru-
ment readings can be in error if the capillary tubing
is subjected to temperature changes.
The liquid-in-glass thermometer is a simple, direct
Fig. 6 Schematic assembly of vapor pressure thermometer.
Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
reading, portable instrument. Low precision thermom-
eters are inexpensive and instruments of moderate
precision are available for laboratory use. This ther-
mometer features a reservoir of liquid in a glass bulb
that is connected directly to a glass capillary tube with
graduated markings. Mercury, the most common liq-
uid, is satisfactory from –40F (–40C), just above its freez-
ing point, to about 600F (316C) if the capillary space
above the mercury is evacuated. The upper temperature
limit may be 900F (482C) or higher if this space is filled
with pressurized nitrogen or carbon dioxide (CO2).
The use of unprotected glass thermometers is re-
stricted to laboratory or research applications. For
more severe service there are various designs of in-
dustrial thermometers with the bulb and stem pro-
tected by a metal casing and usually arranged in a
thermometer well. Response to rapid temperature
changes is slower than with the unprotected labora-
tory type instrument.
Solids The expansion of solids when heated is rec-
ognized in thermometers using a bimetallic strip. Flat
ribbons of two metals with different coefficients of
thermal expansion are joined face to face by riveting
or welding to form a bimetallic strip. When the strip
is heated, the expansion is greater for one metal than
for the other. A flat strip bends, or changes curvature
if it was initially in a spiral form. Bimetallic strips are
seldom used in power plant thermometers but are
widely used in inexpensive thermometers, household
thermostats and other temperature control and regu-
lating equipment. They are particularly useful for
automatic temperature compensation in other instru-
ment mechanisms.
Radiation properties
All solid bodies emit radiation. The amount is very
small at low temperatures and larger at high tempera-
tures. The quantity of radiation may be calculated by
the Stefan-Boltzman formula:
q/S = σ ε T4 (2)
where
q =
radiant energy per unit time, Btu/h
S =
surface area, ft2
σ =
Stefan-Boltzman constant, 1.71× 10–9 Btu/h ft2 R4
ε =
emissivity of the surface, dimensionless (usu-
ally between 0.80 and 0.95 for boiler materials)
T = absolute temperature, R = F + 460
At low temperatures the radiation is primarily in
the invisible infrared range. As the temperature rises,
an increasing proportion of the radiation is in shorter
wavelengths, becoming visible as a dull red glow at
about 1000F (538C) and passing through yellow to-
ward white at higher temperatures. The temperature
of hot metals [above 1000F (538C)] can be estimated by
color. For iron or steel, the approximate color scale is:
dark red 1000F (538C)
medium cherry red 1250F (677C)
orange 1650F (899C)
yellow 1850F (1010C)
white 2200F (1204C)
Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement
Within the visible range, two types of temperature
measuring instruments, the optical pyrometer and the
radiation pyrometer, sense the emitted radiation to
indicate temperature.
Optical pyrometers The optical pyrometer visually
compares the brightness of an object to a reference
source of radiation. The typical internal calibration
source is an electrically heated tungsten filament. A
red filter may also be used to restrict this visual com-
parison to a particular wavelength. This instrument
measures the temperature of surfaces with an emis-
sivity of 1.0, which is equivalent to that of a black-
body. By definition, a blackbody absorbs all radiation
incident upon it, reflecting and transmitting none.
When calibrated and used properly, the pyrometer
yields excellent results above 1500F (816C). Tempera-
ture measurement of the interior surface of a uni-
formly heated enclosure, such as a muffle furnace, is
a typical application. When used to measure the tem-
perature of an object outside a furnace, the optical py-
rometer always reads low. The error is small [20F
(11C)] for high emissivity bodies, such as steel ingots,
and large [200 to 300F (111 to 167C)] for unoxidized
liquid steel or iron surfaces.
The optical pyrometer is widely used for measuring
objects in furnaces at steel mills and iron foundries. It
is not applicable for measuring gas temperature be-
cause clean gases do not radiate in the visible range.
Radiation pyrometers In one type of radiation py-
rometer, all radiation from the hot body, regardless of
wavelength, is absorbed by the instrument. The heat
absorption is measured by the temperature rise of a
delicate thermocouple (TC) within the instrument. The
thermocouple is calibrated to indicate the temperature
of the hot surface at which the pyrometer is sighted,
on the assumption that the surface emissivity equals
1.0. The hot surface must fill the instrument’s entire
field of view.
This type of radiation pyrometer has high sensitiv-
ity and precision over a wide range of temperatures.
The instrument gives good results above 1000F (538C)
when used to measure temperatures of high emissiv-
ity bodies, such as the interiors of uniformly heated
enclosures. Because operation of the instrument does
not require visual comparison, radiation pyrometers
may be used as remotely operated temperature indi-
cators. Errors in temperature measurements of hot
bodies with emissivities of less than 1.0, especially if
they are in the open, are extremely large.
Radiation pyrometers sensitive to selective wave-
lengths in the infrared band give good results when
measuring temperatures of bodies or flames. One de-
sign uses a system of lenses, a lead sulfide cell and
electronic circuitry to produce a measurement.
An advancement of the single band pyrometer is
the two color pyrometer, which measures the intensi-
ties of two selected wave bands of the visible spectrum
emitted by a heated object. This unit computes the total
of the emitted energies and converts it into a tempera-
ture indication. As with the optical pyrometer, indications
depend on sighting visible rays and therefore its mini-
mum temperature measurement is 1000F (538C).
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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Infrared radiation is produced by all matter at tem-

peratures above absolute zero and detectors sensitive
to the infrared band may be used to measure objects
at low temperatures where the radiation is not in the
visible band. The development of metal-silicide detec-
tors permits sensitivities in the 1 to 5 µm band. Metal-
silicides are formed by the reaction of metals, such as
platinum or palladium, with p-type silicon. When
coupled with electronic circuitry for producing an im-
age, the detectors are sophisticated devices for low
temperature measurement.1
Infrared thermal imaging equipment is available
for quantitative measurement or qualitative imaging.
The instruments for making quantitative measure-
ments and providing target temperature indications
are called thermographic imagers or imaging radiom-
eters. Qualitative imaging instruments are called ther-
mal viewers. These viewers are mechanically or elec-
tronically scanned; the electronically scanned units are
called pyroelectric vidicons or pyrovidicons.2
Infrared temperature measurement is applicable to
surveys of surfaces, such as boiler casings and insu-
lated steam pipes, for locating temperature variations.
These instruments may also assist in determining elec-
trical component temperatures in operating circuits.
Radiation pyrometers are not capable of determining
Fig. 7 Diagrams of electrical circuits for resistance thermometers
gas temperatures. (courtesy of Leeds and Northrup Company).
Optical properties
Optical fibers have been used in fixed (end) and coil. From room temperature to 250F (121C), commer-
distributed (average temperature along length) tem- cial instruments usually have resistance coils of nickel
perature measurement. Development is continuing in or copper. Platinum is used for higher temperatures
the application of this method to temperatures above and in many high precision laboratory instruments
450F (232C).3 to cover a wide range of temperatures.
The electrical resistance thermometer can be used
Electrical properties for the remote operations of indicating, recording or
Two classes of widely used temperature measuring automatic controlling. If proper precautions are taken,
instruments, the thermocouple and the electrical re- it is stable and accurate, but it is less rugged and less
sistance thermometer, are based on the relation of versatile than a thermocouple.
temperature to the electrical properties of metals.
Because of its versatility, convenience and durabil- Acoustic properties
ity, the thermocouple is of particular importance in Acoustic properties of gases vary with temperature
power plant temperature measurements. A separate and are used as the basis for temperature measuring
section later in this chapter is devoted to the thermo- instruments. The velocity of sound in a gas varies di-
couple and its applications. rectly with the square root of its absolute temperature,
Resistance thermometer The electrical resistance ther- as indicated in the following formula:
mometer, used over a temperature range of –400 to
1800F (–240 to 982C), depends on the increase in elec- c = gc kRT / M (3)
trical resistance of metals with increasing temperature;
this relationship is nearly directly proportional. If the where
electrical resistance of a calibrated wire material is mea-
c = speed of sound, ft/s
sured (by a Wheatstone bridge or other device), the tem-
gc = proportionality constant, 32.17 lbm ft/lbf s2
perature of the wire can be determined.
k = specific heat ratio, dimensionless
In the simplest form of the Wheatstone bridge sys-
R = universal gas constant, 1545 ft lb/mole R
tem, shown in Fig. 7a, the reading would be the sum
T = absolute temperature, R = F + 460
of the resistances of the calibrated wire and the leads
M = molecular weight, lb/mole
connecting this wire to the Wheatstone bridge. How-
ever, this value would be subject to error from tem- By measuring the time required for sound to traverse
perature changes in the leads. By using a more re- a specific distance, the average gas temperature can
fined circuit shown in Fig. 7b, the resistance of the be calculated. This phenomenon has been commer-
leads can be eliminated from the instrument reading. cially applied to measuring furnace gas temperatures.
To localize the point of temperature measurement, the By developing a number of independent temperature
resistance wire may be made in the form of a small paths a thermal contour may be developed.

40-6 Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Other properties
Other material properties that vary with tempera-
ture are also used as the basis for temperature mea-
suring instruments. By flowing gas through two ori-
fices in series, a method has been developed for mea-
suring gas temperatures up to 2000F (1093C) com-
mercially and up to 4500F (2482C) in the laboratory.
Temperatures ranging from absolute zero to 5000F
(2760C) have been accurately determined by using a
laboratory instrument that measures electron motions.
High temperature research has been stimulated by
gas turbine and jet propulsion applications, and fur-
ther development of new and improved temperature
measuring instruments is expected.

Thermocouples Fig. 8 Principle of the thermocouple illustrated.

A thermocouple consists of two electrical conductors
of dissimilar materials joined at the ends to form a cir- parallel to obtain a single reading of average tempera-
cuit. If one of the junctions is maintained at a tem- ture. In this case, the resistance of each thermocouple
perature higher than the other, an electromotive force must be the same. The emf across the terminals of
(emf) is generated, producing current flow through such a circuit is the average of all the individual emf
the circuit, as shown in Fig. 8. values and may be read on a potentiometer normally
The magnitude of the net emf depends on the tem- used for a single thermocouple.
perature difference between the two junctions and the
materials used for the conductors. No unbalance, or Practical application and multiple circuits
net emf, is generated if the two junctions are at the The limitation of the potentiometer circuitry to
same temperature or if the conductors are of the same measure small emf values has led to various circuits
material at different temperatures. If one junction of of multiple thermocouples connected in series or par-
a calibrated thermocouple is maintained at a known allel. These circuits make it possible to measure ex-
temperature, the temperature of the other junction tremely small temperature variations or average tem-
can be determined by measuring the net emf produced; peratures. Thermocouple circuit considerations of wire
this emf is almost directly proportional to the tempera- diameter and length, while less important for steady-
ture difference of the two junctions. The relationship
between emf and the corresponding temperature dif-
ference has been established by laboratory tests
throughout the temperature ranges for common ther-
mocouple materials. These values are plotted in Fig.
9. The thermocouple is a low cost, versatile, durable,
simple device providing fast response for accurate tem-
perature measurement. It also allows convenient cen-
tralized reading.
In the potentiometer circuit, copper leads may con-
nect the reference junction terminals to the measur-
ing instrument without affecting the net emf of the
thermocouple. If the instrument is at a uniform tem-
perature, no emf is set up between the copper conduc-
tors and slide wire materials within the potentiometer.
However, if temperature differences exist within the
instrument, there will be disturbing emf values in the
circuit and the readings will be affected.
Multiple circuits
If two or more thermocouples are connected in se-
ries, the net emf at the outside terminals is equal to
the sum of the emf values developed by the individual
thermocouples. When all of the individual hot and cold
junctions are maintained at the same respective tem-
peratures, as in the device known as the thermopile,
this multiplied emf value makes it possible to detect
and measure extremely small temperature variations. Fig. 9 Relation of temperature to electromotive force produced by
Two or more thermocouples may be connected in several commonly used thermocouples.

Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement 40-7

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

state measurement, will affect thermocouple readings

during dynamic temperature conditions. These appli-
cations require detailed circuit design investigation.
The application of thermocouples requires attention
to the insulation of the lead wire to prevent erroneous
circuits. Parasitic couples may be introduced by mechani-
cal, soldered, or brazed connections if temperature varia-
tions exist within different metals of the connections.
Selection of materials The combinations of metals
and alloys most frequently used for thermocouples are
listed in Table 1 with their general characteristics and
useful temperature ranges. Selection depends largely
on the ability to withstand oxidation attack at the
maximum expected service temperature. Durability
depends on wire size, use or omission of protection
tubes, and nature of the surrounding atmosphere.
All thermocouple materials deteriorate when ex-
posed at the upper portion of their temperature range Fig. 10 Sheathed-type thermocouple.
to air or flue gases and when in contact with other
materials. Platinum in particular is affected by me- and resistance to oxidizing, reducing, or otherwise
tallic oxides and by carbon and hydrocarbon gases corrosive atmospheres. Sheathed thermocouples are
when used at temperatures above 1000F (538C) and available as grounded or nongrounded types, as illus-
is subject to calibration drift. The upper temperature trated in Fig. 10. The grounded type has a more rapid
limits shown in Table 1 are well below the tempera- response to temperature change but can not be used
tures at which rapid deterioration occurs. for connection in series or parallel, because it is
For high temperature duty in a permanent instal- grounded to the sheath. For these applications, the
lation or where destructive contact is likely, service life nongrounded type should be used. The grounded type
may be extended, at some sacrifice in response speed, is susceptible to separation or parting of the thermo-
by using closed-end protection tubes of alloy or ceramic couple wire where long leads at high temperatures are
material. The arrangement should permit removal of used, whereas the nongrounded type appears satis-
the thermocouple element from the protection tube for factory for this service.
calibration or replacement. Omission of the protection Sheathed thermocouples may be equipped with
tube may require frequent calibration and corrections pads for welding to tubes, as illustrated in Fig. 11. Pad-
for calibration drift. For short periods of service within type thermocouples should not be used when the pad
the useful range of the thermocouple selected, the is exposed to temperatures that are markedly differ-
correction for calibration change is usually negligible. ent from that of the body being measured, because this
Sheathed-type thermocouple Sheathed-type mag- added metal surface can radiate or absorb heat. Typi-
nesium oxide insulated thermocouples have been in cal applications of pad-type thermocouples are drum,
use for some time. The thermocouple wires are insu- superheater header, or tube surface temperature
lated with inert magnesium oxide insulation that pro- measurements. (See Fig. 12.)
tects the wires from the deteriorating effects of the en- Thermocouple and lead wire There are two classes
vironment. Sheaths can be made of stainless steel and of wire for thermocouples, the closely standardized
other resistant materials, ensuring relatively long life and matched thermocouple wire and the less accurate

Table 1
Types of Thermocouples in General Use
Type of Useful Temperature Maximum Millivolts at 500F Magnetic
Thermocouple (Note 1) Range, F (C) Temperature, F (C) (260C) (Note 2) Wire

(+) Copper to constantan (−) −300 to 650 (−184 to 343) 1100 (593) 13.24 −
(+) Iron to constantan (−) 0 to 1400 (−18 to 760) 1800 (982) 15.01 Iron (+)
(+) Chromel to constantan (−) −300 to 1600 (−184 to 871) 1800 (982) 17.94 −
(+) Chromel to alumel (−) 0 to 2300 (−18 to 1260) 2500 (1371) 11.24 Alumel (−)
(+) 90% Pt  10% Rh to
platinum (−) 900 to 2600 (482 to 1427) 3190 (1754) (Note 3) 2.048 −

Notes:
1. Nominal composition: constantan, 55% Cu, 45% Ni; chromel, 90% Ni, 10% Cr; alumel, 95% Ni, 5% Al, Si and Mn
combined.
2. Reference junction 0F (−18.0C).
3. Melting point.

40-8 Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Fig. 11 Sheathed thermocouple with pad.
compensating lead wire. For thermocouples of noble
metal, extension leads of copper and copper-nickel
alloy, which have an emf characteristic approximat-
ing the noble metal pair, are used to reduce cost. For
thermocouples of base metal, the extension lead wire
is the same composition as the thermocouple wires, but
it is less expensive because the control in manufac-
ture and calibration is less rigorous.
For accuracy, the matched thermocouple wire should
be used at the hot junction and continued through the
zone of greatest temperature gradient to a point close
to room temperature, where a compensating lead wire
may be spliced in for connection to the reference junc-
tion. The reference junction is usually located at the
recorder or central observation point. Where a num-
ber of thermocouples are used, it may be economical
to establish a zone box (see Fig. 13) from which cop-
per conductors are extended to the measuring instru-
ment.
Splicing of extension lead wires may be done by
twisting the wire ends together, by using screw clamp
connectors, or by fusion welding, soldering or brazing.
Care should be taken to maintain correct polarity
Fig. 12 Application of pad-type thermocouple.
Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement
Fig. 13 Thermocouple and lead wire arrangement to measuring
instrument through selector switch.
by joining wires of the same composition. Polarity is
usually identified by color code or tracers in the wire
covering.
Hot junction Wire and pipe-type elements for hot
junctions may be purchased or may be made from stock
thermocouple wire, as shown in Fig. 14. These types
are useful for direct immersion in a gas stream, for
insertion into thermometer wells, or for thermal con-
tact with solid surfaces.
Where the temperature of a metallic surface is to
be measured, a versatile hot junction may be formed
by peening the wires separately into holes drilled in
the surface of the metal. Steps for making this type of
junction are illustrated in Fig. 15.
The peened junction has the advantage of being
completely mechanical, with a tight and remarkably
strong attachment and minimum interference with
the temperature of the object. The temperature indi-
cated is essentially that of the metallic surface, which
is the first point of contact with the conductors. The
depth of the drilled hole has no temperature effect; it
only provides mechanical strength. However, the junc-
Fig. 14 Thermocouple elements and hot junctions.
40-9
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

mocouple, the reference junction temperature is usu-

Fig. 15 Procedure for installing a peened-junction thermocouple to
measure surface temperature of metal.
ally automatically compensated for by an internal
resistor circuit. This circuit compensates for deviations
from standard room temperature. The resistor circuit
characteristics are specific to the type of thermocouple
material for which the potentiometer is calibrated.
Some potentiometers provide a selector switch to di-
rectly read different types of thermocouples.
Temperature recorders
In temperature recorders, a power operated mecha-
nism automatically adjusts the slide wire of a potenti-
ometer circuit to balance the emf received from the
thermocouple. The action of the slide wire is coordi-
nated with the movement of a recording pen or print
wheel that is drawn over, or impressed on, a moving
temperature graduated chart.
As a result, an essentially continuous record may
be traced for one thermocouple, or a rapid scanning
of many thermocouples may be recorded.
Checking recorder calibration Compared with the
manually operated potentiometer, all recorders are
inherently less accurate because of wear and lost
motion in the actuating mechanism, shrinkage, or
printing inaccuracies of paper and chart scales.

tion contact points are subject to thermal conduction Temperature of fluids inside pipes
in the wires. Where this type of error is significant,
precautions should be taken to prevent temperature The temperature of a fluid (liquid, gas or vapor)
gradients in the wires. Drilled holes for the wire ends flowing under pressure through a pipe is usually
should allow a snug fit before peening. For installa- measured by a glass thermometer, an electrical resis-
tions requiring a significant number of thermocouples, tance thermometer, or a thermocouple. Each thermom-
there are portable spot welding machines available to eter is inserted into a well, or thermowell, projecting
join the ends of the wire directly to a steel surface. into the fluid. The thermowell is preferred but a ther-
mocouple properly attached to the outside of a pipe
Millivolt potentiometer wall can provide good results. The thermowell provides
The temperature-emf relationships of standardized
thermocouple wires, as established and published by
the manufacturer, should be used to convert the po-
tentiometer readings to equivalent temperature val-
ues. These tabulated values represent the net emf
impressed in the potentiometer terminals when the
reference junction is at 0F (–18C) and the measuring
junction is at the temperature listed. The millivolt
potentiometer may be used with any type of thermo-
couple. It is frequently used when several different
thermocouple types are installed.
It is usually impractical to maintain the reference
junction at 0F (–18C) while taking readings. Correc-
tion for any reference junction temperature can be
made by adding to each observed emf reading the emf
value corresponding to the reference junction tem-
perature. The temperature of the measuring junction
can then be determined. Most millivolt potentiometers
are equipped with a compensator, which should be
used to correct for the reference junction temperature.
Direct millivolt readings then correspond to the actual
thermocouple temperature.
Direct reading potentiometer
A potentiometer may be graduated to read the hot
junction temperature directly instead of in millivolts.
When calibrated for use with a specific type of ther- Fig. 16 Thermocouple well installation.

40-10 Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

an average temperature if temperature stratification

exists in the fluid, because thermal conduction along
the well equalizes the temperature.
A metal tube closed at one end, screwed into or
welded to a pipe wall, and projecting into the fluid,
serves as a thermowell (Fig. 16). It must have strength
and rigidity to withstand hydrostatic pressure, resis-
tance to bending and vibration caused by its resistance
to fluid flow, and material compatibility for a welded
attachment. To minimize heat conduction to the sur-
roundings and to give rapid response to temperature
changes, the well should be as small as possible. The
portion outside the pipe should also be small. The
material of the well must resist the erosive or corro-
sive action of the fluid. Because the temperature may
be locally depressed by acceleration of a compressible
fluid through a constriction in a pipe, the well should
be carefully positioned, taking these factors into ac-
count. Care should also be observed when locating the
well for measuring steam temperature downstream of
spray water attemperator injection points, as inad-
equate mixing of the steam and spray water may re-
sult in fluid temperature measurement errors. Project-
ing parts of the thermowell and the pipe wall should
be thoroughly insulated to prevent heat loss. Substan-
tial error can result from air circulation within the
thermowell and should be minimized by packing with
insulating material.
Thermowell designs vary. If the fluid is a liquid or
a saturated vapor, good heat transfer is assured and
a plain well is satisfactory. If the fluid is a gas or su-
perheated vapor, a finned well is sometimes used. The
method of attachment, a mechanical thread or welded
attachment to the pipe wall, is optional provided safety Fig. 17 Thermocouple wires extending from hot junction disposed
code requirements are met (see Fig. 16). on pipe wall before leading outside.

Tube temperature measurement Furnace wall tubes

It is frequently desirable to know the metal tem-
perature of tubes in different classes of service. These
classes include furnace wall or boiler bank tubes that
are cooled by water and steam at saturation tempera-
ture, economizer tubes cooled by water below the tem-
perature of saturation, and superheater and reheater
tubes cooled by steam above saturation temperature.
These temperature measurements may be used to
determine the safety of pressure parts, the uniformity
among tubes in parallel flow circuits, or the fluid tem-
perature increase between inlet and outlet conditions.
The peened-type hot junction, illustrated in Fig. 17,
is satisfactory in many cases and is probably the sim-
plest form of thermocouple application. Sheathed-type
thermocouples with pads are generally used to per-
manently monitor temperatures of tubes not exposed
to external heat. (See Fig. 11.) Properly applied insu-
lation of sufficient thickness in the vicinity of the ther-
mocouple attachment will reduce the effects of ther-
mal conduction along the tube. The thermocouple wire
wrapped around the tube will minimize the conduc-
tion along the thermocouple wire. These techniques
are illustrated in Fig. 17. When properly installed the
surface thermocouple may be used to measure both
metal and fluid temperatures.
In measuring water-cooled furnace wall tube tem-
peratures, special protection for the thermocouple and
its lead wires must be provided because of the destruc-
tive high temperature furnace atmosphere and, in
some cases, the accumulation and shedding of ash and
slag deposits. If a simple peened thermocouple is used,
the results may lack accuracy because of errors from
conduction; in most cases, the service life would be
short because of physical damage or wire deteriora-
tion from overheating. Cover plates welded to the
tubes have been used to protect the wires, but these
plates interfere with the normal heat transfer and
cause local ash deposits to create abnormal conditions
at the temperature measurement point.
The use of chord-drilled holes through which the
thermocouple wires are laced (Fig. 18) was developed
by The Babcock & Wilcox Company (B&W); this is a
satisfactory temperature measurement method for fur-
nace wall tubes. The tube surface is free of projections,
the wires are protected, and the thermal conduction
effect at the hot junction is minimized because the
wires pass through an essentially isothermal zone
before emerging into cooler surroundings at the rear
of the tube. To minimize the effect on the heat flow pat-
tern within the tube metal, the chord-drilled holes should

Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement 40-11

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Fig. 18 Chordal thermocouple.
be as small as possible. The effect of these holes on the
strength of the tube is small. This effect is minimal in the
critical direction of hoop stress and is readily tolerated in
the direction of longitudinal stress. The use of chord-drilled
holes in the thicker, high pressure wall tubes is a practi-
cal method of obtaining surface metal temperatures.
Gradient thermocouple
Measuring the temperature gradient through a
tube wall is a means of determining the heat flow rate
through the wall and of detecting the accumulation
of certain types of internal deposits.
To obtain the best results, a large temperature gra-
dient through the wall is desirable. However, ideal
conditions may be compromised to permit an arrange-
ment that provides measurable metal temperatures
and is practical to fabricate. Fig. 18 shows a section
through a tube which illustrates the drilling and in-
stallation of typical surface and depth thermocouples.
Calibration Sheathed thermocouples are suitable
for this temperature gradient application. For greater
accuracy the thermocouples may be laboratory cali-
brated. No procedure is available to accurately or eco-
nomically calibrate the thermocouple tube assembly
in the field. The most satisfactory method is as follows.
Following installation, obtain a series of tempera-
ture readings on all thermocouples at two or three
different ratings on the boiler, from a low rate to maxi-
mum rate, while the tube is known to be internally
clean; read all temperatures as simultaneously as
possible. Several series of readings should be taken
on the thermocouples at each rating. An average
should be calculated for each thermocouple to correct
for minor differences in temperatures resulting from
heat input variations. This also compensates for the
40-12
time lag between surface and depth thermocouples.
By using the surface and depth dimensions, the
equivalent lengths can be determined and the tem-
perature gradients can be plotted. In practice, the heat
flows through a tube wall in a path of decreasing sec-
tional area and the temperature gradient through the
metal is not linear with respect to thickness. The gra-
dient, however, may be drawn as a straight line if tem-
peratures are plotted against an equivalent length of
flow path (le). This represents an equivalent flat plate
having a uniform flow path with an equivalent but
greater thickness. This is illustrated in Fig. 19.
The equivalent plate thickness is calculated in the
following manner:
le = R
n ( R / r ) (4)
where
R = outside radius of tube, in.
r = inside radius of tube, in.
l e = equivalent flat plate thickness, in.
In many cases, thermocouple error may represent
a significant portion of the gradient being measured.
Ideally, lines drawn through the surface and depth
temperature (Fig. 20) should intersect the inner sur-
face equivalent thickness line slightly above the fluid
temperature as measured by a thermocouple peened
on the outside surface of the tube opposite the furnace.
The amount above the fluid temperature represents
the temperature drop across the fluid film and this
drop increases with increased heat input. It is diffi-
cult to obtain consistently drilled thermocouple holes
that reflect the pattern shown in Fig. 20. If, at low
inputs, the line drawn through the surface and depth
temperature intersects the inner surface equivalent
thickness line at fluid temperature or slightly above,
it may be considered as satisfactory. If it falls below or
well above this point, a correction or calibration may
be made by ignoring the measured equivalent depth
dimension, plotting a line through the outer and in-
ner surface temperatures, then adjusting the equiva-
lent depth to a value represented by the intersection
of the adjusted gradient and depth thermocouple tem-
perature (Fig. 21).
Heat flux measurement Once a series of temperature
plots shows consistent results, heat inputs may be cal-
culated:
k (T1 − T2 )
q′′ = (5)
le
where
q″ = heat flux, Btu/h ft2
k = thermal conductivity, Btu/h ft F
T1 = outside surface thermocouple temperature, F
T2 = depth thermocouple temperature, F
le = equivalent plate thickness (surface to depth), ft
(Fig. 19)
Scale detection If the temperature gradients are to
be used as a scale detector, then thermocouples should
be read periodically, plotted, and checked for a change
in the temperature above saturation.
Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Fig. 19 Thermocouple installation.
To assure a close comparison, the thermocouple tem-
peratures should always be read with the calibrated
equipment and under operating conditions close to
those existing during the original setup. An accumu-
lation of internal deposits in the thermocouple zone is
marked by an increased temperature difference from
inner surface to saturation.
When the average of the surface and depth tem-
peratures approaches the limit for the tube metal, the
boiler should be shut down and the inside tube sur-
faces inspected. Sufficient allowance should be made
for tube to tube temperature variations.
Fig. 20 Sample plot of temperature gradients for low, medium and
high heat rates.
Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement
Limitations of gradient thermocouples The gradient
thermocouple method of measuring heat flow
through tube walls is a guide rather than an abso-
lute measure. Relatively small dimensions and small
differential temperatures exist between surface ther-
mocouple and depth thermocouple locations. Also, any
small error in determining temperatures or in metal
thickness between thermocouples usually represents
a large percentage of this small difference.
The effectiveness of the gradient temperature plot
as an internal scale detector is also dependent on the
nature of the scale. Certain types of scale, such as
carbonate or silica deposits, accumulate uniformly,
while iron oxide deposits can accumulate irregularly.
The location of nonuniform deposits is uncertain and
the gradient thermocouple method is not reliable for
detecting such accumulations.
For a quick determination of internal tube deposit
changes, the difference between surface and depth
temperature readings can be plotted against the dif-
ference between surface and fluid temperature read-
ings. With a clean tube, points should fall along a straight
line over a range of inputs. As deposits form, the differ-
ence between surface and fluid temperature increases
for an unchanging surface and depth temperature dif-
ference. Fig. 22 shows a typical plot of such conditions.
Fig. 21 Adjustment of temperature gradient.
40-13
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

vection transfer from the hot gases in which it is im-

Fig. 22 Plot of chordal thermocouple temperatures showing effect
of internal deposits.
mersed, it is also subject to heat exchange by radiation
to and from the surrounding surfaces and by conduc-
tion through the instrument itself. If the temperature
of the surrounding surfaces does not differ from that
of the gas (gas flowing through an insulated duct), the
temperature indicated by the instrument should accu-
rately represent the gas temperature. If the tempera-
ture of the surrounding surfaces is higher or lower than
that of the gas, the indicated temperature will be cor-
respondingly higher or lower than the gas temperature.
The variation from the true gas temperature de-
pends on the temperature and velocity of the gas, the
temperature of the surroundings, the size of the tem-
perature measuring element, and the construction of
the element and its supports. To correct for the errors
in temperature measurement caused by the surround-
ings, it is best to calibrate the instrument to a known
and reliable source.
As an example, consider a 22 gauge (0.7112 mm)
bare thermocouple. When it is used to measure the gas
temperature in boiler, economizer, or air heater cavi-
ties with surrounding walls cooler than the gas, the
error in the observed readings may be found from Fig.
23 (line for bare TC).
High velocity thermocouple
The design and operation of steam generating units
depend on the evaluation of gas temperatures in the
furnace and superheater sections of the equipment.
Boiler design to achieve successful thermal perfor-
mance must take into account the limitations imposed
by the allowable metal temperatures of superheater

Superheater and reheater applications

Chordal surface thermocouples can be used to mea-
sure metal temperatures of superheater or reheater
tubes in the gas stream, using the principles previ-
ously described. However, special provision must be
made to protect the wires between the point of mea-
surement and the exit from the boiler setting. This can
be done by containing the sheathed thermocouple in
stainless steel tubing that is welded to the superheater
or reheater tube. This maintains the sheath and pro-
tection tubing at a temperature which is approxi-
mately that of the superheater or reheater tube. Ad-
ditional cooling of the stainless steel protection tube
is frequently required.

Gas temperature measurement

Temperature measurement of combustion gas at dif-
ferent locations within the boiler is important to the
boiler design engineer and the operating plant engi-
neer. Accurate temperature measurements of gas en-
tering and leaving the heat absorbing components can
confirm design predictions and operating performance.
In all cases of gas temperature measurement, the
temperature sensitive element approaches a tempera-
ture that is in equilibrium with the conditions of its Fig. 23 General magnitude of error in observed readings when
environment. While it receives heat primarily by con- measuring temperature in boiler cavities with thermocouples.

40-14 Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

tubes and by the fusing characteristics of ash and slag fer to the thermocouple by convection is proportional
from the current or expected fuel. The overall complex- to the gas mass velocity and the temperature differ-
ity of combustion and heat transfer relationships pre- ence between gas and thermocouple, the junction tem-
vents exact calculation and accurate measurement of perature may be brought closer to the true tempera-
the gas temperatures provides information to confirm ture of the gas by increasing the rate of mass velocity
calculation methods. and convection heat transfer at the thermocouple while
The optical pyrometer and radiation pyrometer are shielding the junction from radiation.
not designed to measure gas temperature. Excessive A special high velocity thermocouple probe for mea-
error is also encountered when gas temperatures in suring high gas temperatures in boilers is illustrated
the furnace and superheater areas are measured with in Fig. 25. This portable assembly is primarily used
a bare thermocouple. for making test traverses in high duty zones by in-
The high velocity and multiple-shield high veloc- sertion through inspection doors or other test open-
ity thermocouples (HVT and MHVT), developed to ings in the setting.
correct for radiation effects, are the best instruments This thermocouple is supported by a water-cooled
available for measuring high gas temperatures in probe. The measuring junction is surrounded by a
cooler surroundings or low gas temperatures in hot- tubular porcelain radiation shield through which gas
ter surroundings. Cross-sections through single and flow is induced at high velocity by an attached aspi-
multiple-shield high velocity thermocouples developed rator. The gas aspiration rate over the thermocouple
for use in boiler testing are shown in Fig. 24. can be checked by an orifice incorporated with the
The surfaces (water-cooled walls, or superheater or aspirator and connected to the probe by a flexible hose.
boiler tube banks) surrounding the usual location of The gas mass velocity (or mass flux) over the thermo-
a gas traverse are cooler than the gases. Consequently, couple junction should be at least 15,000 lb/h ft2 (20.34
the readings from a bare unshielded thermocouple kg/m2 s). Convection heat transfer to the junction and
indicate lower temperatures than those obtained with shield is simultaneous and both approach the tempera-
an HVT. For the same reason, an HVT generally in- ture of the gas stream. Radiation transfer at the junc-
dicates lower values than an MHVT. A comparison be- tion is diminished by the shield. Because the shield is
tween bare thermocouple, HVT and MHVT results in exposed to the radiation effect of the surroundings, it
typical boiler furnaces and cavities is given in Fig. 23. may gain or lose heat and its temperature may be
MHVT measurements closely approach true gas slightly different from the junction temperature.
temperatures. In this design, the thermocouple junc- With the increasing size of steam generators, han-
tion is surrounded by multiple shields, all of which dling long HVT probes has become more difficult but,
receive heat by convection induced by the high gas
flow rate. In this manner, the heat transfer by radia-
tion is so reduced that there is virtually no heat ex-
change between the junction and the innermost shield.
Because of the small flow areas that rapidly become
clogged by ash, use of the MHVT is limited to clean gas
conditions. Where traverses are taken in dust- or slag-
laden gases, it is usually necessary to use the HVT. The
readings are corrected by comparison with results ob-
tained under clean gas conditions from an MHVT.
For temperatures exceeding 2200F (1204C), noble
metal thermocouples are required and it is important
to protect the thermocouple from contamination by the
gases or entrained ash. Various coverings, shown in
Fig. 24, provide some protection for the wires, espe-
cially when fouling occurs from molten slag at tem-
peratures above 2400F (1316C). When platinum ther-
mocouples are used in gas above 2600F (1427C), ap-
preciable calibration drift may occur even while tak-
ing measurements requiring only several minutes of
exposure time. The thermocouple elements should be
checked before and after use with corrections applied
to the observed readings. When the error (∆T) reaches
40 to 60F (22 to 33C), the contaminated end of the ther-
mocouple should be removed and a new hot junction
should be made using the sound portion of the wire.
Because heat transfer by radiation is proportional
to the surface area, emissivity, and difference of the
source and receiver absolute temperatures, the effects
of radiation increase as the temperature difference
between the thermocouple hot junction and the sur- Fig. 24 Shield assemblies for high velocity thermocouple (HVT) and
rounding surfaces increases. Also, because heat trans- multiple-shield, high velocity thermocouple (MHVT).

Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement 40-15

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Fig. 25 Rugged, water-cooled, high velocity thermocouple (HVT) for determining high gas temperatures.
to date, no acceptable point by point measurement of
high temperature gases has been fully developed.
Measurement evaluations
Large boilers may have significant variation in ac-
tual measurements at a particular measurement
plane. Where significant data variation exists, data
reduction may require mathematical methods to
weight-average individual measured values during
the data reduction process.
Flue gas temperature measurements at the econo-
mizer outlet during performance tests are an example
of a large number of data points which require reduc-
tion to a single representative temperature.
A weighted average temperature becomes time con-
suming and the need for such accuracy must be justi-
fied. An average of the individual temperature mea-
surements is usually acceptable if a sufficient num-
ber of points are obtained. The average gas tempera-
ture may be approached by increasing the number of
points or by instrument design to satisfy a particular
requirement. For example, in a heat loss efficiency test,
multiple measuring locations are used to indicate flue
gas exit temperatures for determining dry gas loss. The
number of points required by the ASME Performance
Test Code permits efficiency accuracies within 0.05%.
Under certain circumstances, the maximum, rather
than average, gas temperature may be required for
equipment protection. A moveable probe with one or
two thermocouples may be used to determine the lo-
cation of this high temperature. For instance, during
boiler pressurization and before steam is flowing
through the superheater or reheater tubes, a bare
thermocouple temporarily installed in the gas stream
immediately before the tubes may be used to indicate
the highest temperature to prevent tube overheating.
These thermocouples are normally removed after
steam flow is adequate for cooling. On units designed
for remote operation, it is possible to remotely retract
40-16
and insert these thermocouples using a sootblower
carriage. The remotely insertable thermocouple is
called a thermoprobe.
Insulation and casing temperature
Outer surfaces
The measurement method should be carefully se-
lected to avoid significant errors in measuring
uncased insulation surface temperature. Portable con-
tact thermocouple instruments designed to be pressed
against a surface are unsatisfactory on insulated sur-
faces because the instrument cools the surface at the
point of contact, and the low rate of heat transfer
through the insulating material prevents adequate
heat flow from surrounding areas to the contact point.
Thermocouple attachment to the insulation surface
must not appreciably alter the normal rate of heat
transmission through the insulation and from the
surface to the surroundings. Fine wires can be at-
tached and maintained at the surface temperature
more easily than heavy wires. If the insulation is plas-
tic at the time of application, press the thermocouple
junction and several feet of lead wire into the surface
of the insulation; the thermocouple will adhere when
the insulation hardens. If the insulation is hard and
dry, the junction and lead wires may be cemented to
the surface using a minimum of cement. Fastening the
wires to the surface with staples introduces conduc-
tion errors. Covering the wires with tape changes the
heat transfer characteristics of the surface and imposes
an undesirable insulation layer between the wire and
the ambient air.
Steel casings
The temperature of steel boiler casings may be ac-
curately measured with portable contact thermocouple
instruments, because lateral heat flow from adjoining
metal areas quickly compensates for the small quan-
Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
tity of heat drawn by the instrument at the contact
point. Thermocouple wires may be peened into or
fused onto the metal surface to form the hot junction.
Thermal contact between the lead wires and the sur-
face should be maintained for several feet. The wire
installation should minimize any disturbance of heat
transfer from the surface to the surrounding air. Ap-
proximate surface temperatures may be conveniently
measured with fusion paints or crayons.
Thermometers are sometimes fastened to metal
surfaces with putty. This method gives an approximate
surface temperature indication if the metal is massive
and near ambient temperature. It is not recommended
for boiler casing temperature measurement and is
completely unsatisfactory for measuring insulation
surface temperature.
Through-steel components, such as metal ribs im-
bedded in insulation and studs or door frames extend-
ing through insulation, cause considerable local up-
sets in surface temperatures and their influence may
spread laterally along a metal casing. These effects
must be considered in planning and interpreting sur-
face temperature measurement.
Infrared cameras may be used to measure surface
temperatures. These instruments can minimize the need
for complex thermocouple installations, especially if large
surface areas are to be measured. Improved equipment
permits recording for further review.
Measurement of steam quality
and purity
The most common methods of field testing for steam
quality or purity are:
1. sodium tracer (flame photometry),
2. electrical conductivity (for dissolved solids),
3. throttling calorimeter (for direct determination of
steam quality), and
4. gravimetric (for total solids).
Each of these methods is described in ASME Per-
formance Test Code 19.11, Water and Steam in the
Power Cycle. The throttling calorimeter determines
steam quality directly, whereas the other methods
determine the steam solids content.
Most of the solids content of steam comes from the boiler
water, largely in the carryover of water droplets. (See also
Chapter 5.) It is customary to relate steam quality and
solids content of steam by the following equation:
 solids in steam × 100 
x = 100 −   (6)
 solids in boiler water 
where x equals % steam quality in percent by weight
and solids are expressed as equivalent parts per mil-
lion (ppm) (by weight) of steam or water.
By the use of Equation 6, steam quality can be de-
termined if the solids content is known. This relation-
ship is subject to error resulting from carryover of sol-
ids in solution in the steam or in vaporized form. This
effect occurs principally with silica at pressures above
2000 psi (13.79 MPa).
Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement
The four steam quality measurement methods may
be summarized as follows:
1. The sodium tracer method, with continuous re-
cording of total dissolved solids in steam, is used
for the highest accuracy.
2. The conductivity method is useful within certain
limitations but is less accurate.
3. The calorimeter method is not suitable for measur-
ing extremely small quantities of carryover and
at pressures exceeding 600 psi (4.14 MPa).
4. Gravimetric analyses require large samples and
do not detect carryover peaks.
Obtaining the steam sample
If the steam quality results are to be accurate, the
instruments must be supplied with a representative
steam sample. The method of obtaining a steam
sample and the operation of the boiler during testing
are fundamentally the same for each testing method.
The sampling nozzle design should be as recom-
mended by ASME Performance Test Code 19.11. It
should be located after a run of straight pipe equal to
at least ten diameters. Locations in the order of pref-
erence are:
1. vertical pipe, downward flow,
2. vertical pipe, upward flow,
3. horizontal pipe, vertical insertion, and
4. horizontal pipe, horizontal insertion.
The nozzle should be installed in the saturated steam
pipe in the plane of a preceding bend and in a position
that ensures the sampling ports directly face the steam
flow. On boilers with multiple superheater supply tubes,
sampling nozzles should be located in tubes spaced across
the width of the drum. These sampling points should be
at no greater than 5 ft (1.52 m) intervals.
When a calorimeter is used the connection from the
sampling nozzle to the calorimeter must be short and
well insulated to minimize radiation losses. Connections
must be steam-tight so the insulation remains dry.
When steam purity is tested by conductivity or so-
dium tracer methods, the tubing from the sampling
nozzles to the condenser should be steel (preferably
stainless), with an inside diameter not exceeding 0.25
in. (6.4 mm). It should be of minimal length to reduce
the storage capacity of the line. Multiple connections
can be run to a common line and then to the condenser.
However, these connections should be valved so that
each one can be sampled individually to isolate pos-
sible selective carryover. Cooling coils, or condensers,
should be located close to the sampling nozzles to mini-
mize settling of solids in the sample line.
Sodium tracer method
The sodium tracer technique permits measuring
dissolved solids impurities (carryover) in steam con-
densate to as low as 0.001 ppm.
Sodium is present in all boiler water where chemi-
cal treatment is in the form of solids. The ratio of the
total dissolved solids in the steam condensate to the
total dissolved solids in the boiler water is proportional
40-17
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
to the ratio of the sodium in the steam condensate to
the sodium in the boiler water. By determining the
sodium content of the steam condensate and boiler
water and the total dissolved solids in the boiler wa-
ter, the solids content of the steam and the percent
moisture carryover may be calculated. The sodium
content of steam condensate and water is usually de-
termined by using a flame photometer. The effect of
any change in boiler operating conditions on carryover
is promptly indicated, facilitating problem analysis.
The operation of a flame photometer is illustrated
in Fig. 26. The condensed steam sample is aspirated
through a small tube in the burner into the oxygen-
hydrogen flame. The flame, at 3000 to 3500F (1649
to 1927C), vaporizes the water and excites the sodium
atoms, which emit a characteristic yellow light hav-
ing a definite wavelength. The intensity of the emitted
yellow light is a measure of the sodium in the sample.
The intensity of the light is measured with a spectropho-
tometer equipped with a photomultiplier attachment.
The light from the flame is focused by the condens-
ing mirror and is directed to the diagonal entrance
mirror. The entrance mirror deflects the light through
the entrance slit and into the monochromator to the
plane mirror. Light striking the plane mirror is reflected
to the fiery prism where it is dispersed into its compo-
nent wavelengths. The desired light wavelength is
obtained by rotating a wavelength selector which
Fig. 26 Schematic arrangement of flame photometer.
40-18
adjusts the position of the prism. The selected wave-
length is directed back to the plane mirror where it is
reflected through the adjustable exit slit and lens. The
light impinges on the photomultiplier tube, causing a
current gain which registers on the meter. The amount
of sodium in the sample is obtained by comparing the
emission from the water sample to emissions obtained
from solutions of known sodium concentration.
Conductivity method
Electric conductivity can be used to determine steam
purity in certain boilers. This method is applicable to
units operating with significant solids concentration
in the boiler water and with a total steam solids con-
tent in excess of 0.5 ppm.
The conductivity method is based on the fact that
dissolved solids, whether acids, bases or salts, are com-
pletely ionized in dilute solution and, therefore, con-
duct electricity in proportion to the total solids dis-
solved. On the basis of solids normally present in boiler
water, the solids content in parts per million equals
the electrical conductivity of the sample in micromho
per mm times 0.055.
The condensed sample should ideally be free from
dissolved gases, especially ammonia (NH3) and CO2,
which contribute nothing to the solids content of the
steam but have a significant effect on conductivity.
Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Throttling calorimeter
When steam expands adiabatically without doing
work, as through an orifice, the enthalpies of the high
and low pressure steam are equal, provided there is no
net change in steam velocity. Such an expansion is
termed throttling. As can be seen from a Mollier chart
(see Chapter 2), wet steam with an enthalpy exceeding
1150 Btu/lb (2675 kJ/kg) becomes superheated when
throttled to atmospheric pressure. The temperature of
the expanded steam determines the enthalpy, which may
be used with the pressure of the wet steam to determine
the percent moisture in the wet steam sample.
The foregoing principle is used in various forms of
throttling calorimeters. Each incorporates a small ori-
fice for expansion of the steam sample into an exhaust
chamber, where the temperature of the expanded
steam is measured at atmospheric pressure. Velocity
changes in properly designed calorimeters are negli-
gible. The variations in the different designs are chiefly
in the means of shielding the unit from external tem-
perature influences. At pressures below 600 psi (4.14
MPa), the calorimeter shown in Fig. 27 is used. This is
a small, low cost, simple, accurate instrument which
gives good results for steam having appreciable quanti-
ties of moisture: up to 4.3% at 100 psi (0.69 MPa), 5.6%
at 200 psi (1.38 MPa) and 7.0% at 400 psi (2.76 MPa).
Fig. 27 shows the calorimeter installed and ready
for use. The connection should be short; the connec-
tion and the calorimeter should be well insulated. It
is essential that the calorimeter discharge be com-
pletely unobstructed, so no backpressure can build in
the exhaust chamber. The orifices must be clear, full
opening and of the correct diameter: 0.125 in. (3.175
mm) for pressures from atmospheric to 450 psi (3.10
MPa) and 0.0625 in. (1.588 mm) from 451 to 600 psi
(3.11 to 4.14 MPa). The thermometer should be im-
mersed in oil of suitably high flashpoint. The calorim-
eter is operated by fully opening the shutoff valve and
letting the steam discharge through the unit to the
atmosphere. The calorimeter must be thoroughly
warmed up and in temperature equilibrium before
normal temperature or test readings are taken.
Fig. 27 Throttling calorimeter showing sampling tube in steam pipe.
Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement
In obtaining calorimeter readings, the temperature
of the expanded and superheated steam is measured
by a thermometer inserted in the thermometer well.
Due to radiation from the calorimeter installation,
thermometer corrections and orifice irregularities, the
observed temperature is generally lower than the ac-
tual temperature. To determine a suitable correction,
the as-installed temperature of the calorimeter should
be determined. This can be done by taking readings
when the boiler is known to be delivering dry satu-
rated steam. This is the case when the boiler output
is steady at about 20% of rated capacity with low
water concentration and steady water level. The nor-
mal correction is obtained by subtracting the as-in-
stalled temperature from the theoretical temperature,
read from the zero moisture curve of Fig. 28. The nor-
mal correction should not exceed 5F (2.8C). If it does,
the calorimeter orifice is clogged, the insulation is
faulty, or some other test feature is incorrect. When
the unit is used to determine the quality of a wet steam
sample, the percent moisture can be found from the
curves of Fig. 28 using measured drum pressure and
corrected calorimeter temperature. When properly
installed, insulated and operated, the calorimeter can
give accurate results for steam moisture contents as
low as 0.25% for low pressure boilers. For pressures
above 600 psi (4.14 MPa) and for greater accuracy of
steam purity measurement in the low ppm range,
other methods of measurement should be used.
Gravimetric analysis
Gravimetric analysis is used to determine solids lev-
els, particularly total solids, in a condensed steam
sample. It consists of evaporating a known quantity
Fig. 28 Percent moisture in steam versus calorimeter temperature.
40-19
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
of condensed steam to complete dryness and weigh-
ing the residual. This can be done on a batch basis or
by a continuous sample system.
While a gravimetric analysis provides an accurate
measure of total solids in water, its main disadvantage
is that it requires a relatively large quantity of water
obtained over an extended period of time. It therefore
does not localize carryover peaks when they occur.
Time lag in other methods of steam purity measure-
ment is usually small enough to permit attributing
peaks of carryover to periods of high water level, high
boiler water solids, or other operating upsets.
Flow measurement
Fluid flow includes water, steam, air and gas flow.
While there are many means of measuring flow, the
basic methods for the accuracy required by the ASME
Performance Test Code use the orifice, flow nozzle (flow
tube), or venturi tubes as primary elements. The pres-
sure drop or differential pressure created by these
restrictions can be converted into a flow rate.
The flow of any fluid through an orifice, nozzle or
venturi tube may be determined by the equation:
2 gc ρ1 ( P1 − P2 )

= Cq YA
m (7)
1 − β4
where
m
= flow rate, lb/s
Cq = coefficient of discharge, dimensionless, depen-
dent on the device used, its dimensions and
installation
Table 2
Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Types of Primary Elements
Advantages
Orifice
1. Lowest cost
2. Easily installed and/or replaced
3. Well established coefficient of discharge
4. Will not wiredraw or wear in service during test period
5. Sharp edge will not foul with scale or other suspended
matter
Flow Nozzle
1. Can be used where no pipeline flanges exist
2. Costs less than venturi tubes and capable of handling
same capacities
Venturi Tube
1. Lowest head loss
2. Has integral pressure connections
3. Requires shortest length of straight pipe on inlet side
4. Will not obstruct flow of suspended matter
5. Can be used where no pipeline flanges exist
6. Coefficient of discharge well established
40-20
Y = compressibility factor, dimensionless, equals
1.0 for most liquids and for gases where the
pressure drop across the device is less than
20% of the initial pressure
A = cross-sectional area of throat, ft2
g c = proportionality constant, 32.17 lbm ft/lbf s2
P1 = upstream static pressure, lb/ft2
P2 = downstream static pressure, lb/ft2
β = ratio of throat diameter to pipe diameter, di-
mensionless
ρ 1 = density at upstream temperature and pres-
sure, lb/ft3
Details of primary element sizing, fabrication and
flow calculations can be obtained from the ASME pub-
lication Fluid Meters, Their Theory and Application.
Table 2 is extracted from the ASME Performance Test
Code 19.5, Section 4, Flow Measurement, to show the
advantages and disadvantages of the three primary
element types. The throat tap nozzle has the highest
accuracy of the primary flow measuring devices.
The primary elements listed should be fabricated
of erosion and corrosion resistant materials. The ori-
fice and flow nozzles are shown in Fig. 29; the ven-
turi tube is shown in Fig. 30.
Even though these elements can be sized with con-
siderable accuracy by calculation, they should be labo-
ratory calibrated prior to precision testing. Calibration
is usually by weighed water tests using scales. For
commercial use, calculated flow rates or rates based
on prototype testing or calibration are adequate.
Certain important factors of the primary element
installation should be considered for accurate mea-
surement. These include:
Disadvantages
1. High nonrecoverable head loss
2. Suspended matter may build up at the inlet side of
horizontally installed pipe unless eccentric or
segmental types of orifices are used with the hole
flush with the bottom of the pipe
3. Low capacity
4. Requires pipeline flanges, unless of special
construction
1. Higher cost than orifice
2. Same head loss as orifice for same capacity
3. Inlet pressure connections and throat taps when used
must be made very carefully
1. Highest cost
2. Greatest weight and largest size for a given size line
Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Fig. 29 Orifice and flow nozzles.
1. location in the piping in relation to bends or
changes in cross-section,
2. possible need for approach straightening vanes,
3. location and type of pressure taps,
4. dimensions and condition of surface or piping be-
fore and after the element,
5. position of the element relative to direction of fluid
flow, and
6. type and arrangement of piping from primary ele-
ment to differential pressure measuring instrument.
Details of these requirements for precision testing are
also covered in the ASME publication Fluid Meters, Their
Theory and Application. These devices produce a differ-
ential pressure across the element and a differential pres-
sure gauge should be used for the flow measurement.
Flow measurement of combustion air or flue gas
generally does not require a high degree of precision.
Orifices, flow nozzles, or venturis are also used, but
the rigid requirements of construction and location are
usually not possible because of space limitations. As a
substitute, a component of the steam generator, located
in the flow path, can create a suitable pressure dif-
ferential, which is used to obtain a flow measurement.
Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement
Pipe Wall Tap Flow Nozzle
For example, the draft loss across the gas side of an
air heater may be used as an index of the flue gas flow.
Because pressure differentials vary with a change in
surface cleanliness, these are not highly reliable meth-
ods. The use of orifices, flow nozzles, venturi air foils,
or impact suction tubes in areas free of entrained dust
and at relatively stable temperatures prove more sat-
isfactory. Fig. 31 illustrates two types of venturi sec-
tions used in air ducts for measuring combustion air
flow. Fig. 32 illustrates an impact suction pitot tube
arrangement for metering primary air flow to a pul-
verizer. For a dependable determination of air flow,
the primary element should be calibrated at normal
operating pressure and temperature. Test connections,
or sampling points, for this purpose are located at a
zone in the duct or pipe where good flow characteris-
tics are obtainable, and the calibrating flow measure-
ments are made using a hand held pitot tube or
equivalent probe. The pitot tube, when inserted fac-
ing the air or gas flow stream, measures velocity pres-
sure, that is, the difference between total and static pres-
sure. The velocity pressure measurement can be con-
verted into a velocity reading for English units only by:
40-21
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Fig. 30 Dimensional proportions of classical (Herschel) venturi tubes with a rough-cast, convergent inlet cone. (Source: ASME, Fluid Meters,
Their Theory and Application, Sixth Edition, 1971.)

hV probe. It also has a coefficient of 1.0 and incorporates

V = 1097 (8) a null balance feature that permits determining when
ρ the probe faces the direction of gas flow. This probe is
where illustrated in Fig. 35. In this schematic, the outer holes
in the probe are each at exactly 39.25 deg from the
V = velocity, ft/min centerline hole, placing them at a point of zero impact
h V = velocity head as indicated by pitot tube differ- pressure and providing a reading of true static pres-
ential, in. wg
ρ = density at the temperature of the sampling lo-
cation, lb/ft3
A typical pitot tube and measuring manometer are
illustrated in Fig. 33. The pitot tube has a coefficient
of 1.0, which is applied to velocity head readings,
eliminating the need for corrections. Fig. 34 shows a
method of traversing a round duct using a pitot tube.
An additional portable flow measuring device that
can be used for calibration purposes is the Fechheimer

Fig. 31 Venturi sections for air ducts. Fig. 32 Averaging pitot tubes.

40-22 Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Fig. 33 Arrangement of pitot tube and manometer.

sure. When the probe faces the gas flow, a manom-

eter connected across the two outer holes shows a zero,
or null, balance. Because the centerline hole receives
full impact or total pressure when facing into the gas
stream, a manometer connected across one outer hole
and the centerline hole gives true velocity pressure,
that is, impact pressure less static pressure.
The impact suction or reversed type pitot tube, il-
lustrated in Fig. 36, produces a differential pressure
greater than one velocity head, which gives a magni-
fied reading. This type of pitot tube measures flow in
either direction. To use the reversed type pitot tube
for flow measurement, calibration is required for the Fig. 34 Pitot tube traverse.
Reynolds number range as well as for the geometry
of the flow channel and its orientation in the stream.
Permanently installed pitot tubes are used where
relatively high pressure losses due to the primary
measuring element are undesirable. Flow tubes are
also used in these cases. These tubes differ from most
other primary elements in that the flow channel cross-
section varies symmetrically in the inlet and exit di-
rections from the contoured throat section.
The throat section is equipped with two sets of pres-
sure taps, one set pointing upstream and one down-
stream, similar to impact suction pitot tubes. Each set
of taps is interconnected and the two sets in turn are
connected to a differential pressure gauge. The pres-
sure taps are located at cross-sections of equal area so
that the differential developed is a result of impact and
suction pressure differences only and is, therefore, a
function of the velocity head alone.
Many other types of flow measuring devices exist.
The pitot tube grid incorporates an array of pitot tubes
in a flow path. The primary signal is a pressure dif-
ferential. The array of pitot tubes measures a num-
ber of flows and minimizes measurement errors caused
by flow unbalance and upstream conditions. The hot
wire anemometer measures flow using a probe with a
small wire at the tip. Flow over the wire removes heat,
and flow may be measured when the hot wire is in
equilibrium with electrical power input and heat lost.
Doppler phenomena may be applied to flow measure- Fig. 35 Fechheimer probe.

Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement 40-23

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Fig. 36 Combined-type pitot tube with reversed static tube. (Source:
ASME, Fluid Meters, Their Theory and Application, Sixth Edition, 1971.)
ment with laser or acoustic transmissions. The trans-
mission signal and type of fluid make these methods
very application specific.
Computer application to measurement
The application of computer technology to instru-
mentation provides the capability to further under-
stand the operating characteristics of many interre-
lated power plant components and processes at a
much faster rate than was previously possible. Mea-
surements have progressed from readings recorded at
local gauges, strip charts, or manually recorded test
gauges to significant quantities of information ac-
quired in seconds.
The instrument readings are not made directly at
the instrument, but rather transmitted signals from
the instrument are entered into a data acquisition
system and the reading is indicated at a computer. The
computer gathers, stores, interprets and displays the
information. The display appears as an extension of
the instrument. The information gathered may be
further manipulated for process control or equipment
performance computations.
Performance computation
Computer computation permits calculations in near
real time for boiler efficiency and other plant perfor-
mance indicators. These performance indicators provide
40-24
rapid updates to operating information and provide a
check on measurement errors. Measurements of tem-
perature, pressure and flow that might be in error be-
cause of instrument calibration are identified rapidly.
Process control
A computer based control system receives its basic
information from a data acquisition system which accu-
mulates information from the plant instrumentation.
Process control is achieved according to specific math-
ematical algorithms. The control system, updated by
current data or operator interface, produces output sig-
nals to modulate components based on these algorithms.
Data acquisition system
A typical data acquisition system consists of com-
puter hardware and related software. The basic hard-
ware components are the computer, a signal multi-
plexer and the measuring instrument. The computer
program (software) controls the hardware operation
and data recording. In operation, the program causes
the signal multiplexer to read a specific instrument
analog output signal. The signal is converted from an
analog to a digital signal, which is conveyed to the
computer and stored in memory. The first processing
of the data is the storage of the digitized signal in a
data array. Data acquisition, incorporating many in-
struments, other computer outputs and manual in-
puts, requires that each of the signals be assigned a
specific location in the array. The stored signal may
be converted to engineering units and stored in an-
other array. Furthermore, the data may be averaged
over time and then stored. Performance calculations
are generally performed using data converted to en-
gineering units and averaged over time. Portable data
acquisition systems are generally used for specific test
purposes and may use high precision transmitters and
thermocouples.
Signal multiplexer
The signal multiplexer in a data acquisition system
provides an interface between the transmitted instru-
ment signal and the computer. The typical multiplexer
provides signal conditioning, analog to digital signal
conversion and switching capability for multiple inputs.
It produces a digital output signal for computer process-
ing and assignment to a position in the data array. Sig-
nificant engineering design is required to accommodate
the variety of signals entering the multiplexer.
Data acquisition computer program
The data acquisition software may be program ori-
ented or menu oriented but should readily permit
changes to the quantity of signals, the rate at which
the computer reads each signal and the computations
performed with each signal. Data storage and re-
trieval are but two of many design considerations for
computer program configurations.
Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

References
1. Tower, J.R., “Staring PtSi IR cameras: More diversity, 3. Weiss, J., and Esselman, W., Electric Power Research
more applications,” Photonics Spectra, (USPS 448870), Institute and R. Lee Foster-Miller Inc., “Assess fiberoptic
Laurin Publishing Company, Pittsfield, Massachusetts, sensors for key power plant measurements,” Power, p. 55,
February, 1991. October, 1990.
2. Kaplan, H., “What’s new in IR thermal imagers,”
Photonics Spectra, (USPS 448870), Laurin Publishing
Company, Pittsfield, Massachusetts, February, 1991.

Bibliography
1986 Digital Systems Techniques, Instruments and Ap- The OMEGA Temperature Handbook and Encyclopedia,
paratus, Supplement to ASME Performance Test Codes, Vol. MMV, Fifth Ed., Omega Engineering, Inc., 2004.
ANSI/ASME PTC 19.22, American National Standards Temperature Measurement Designer’s Guide, Thermo
Institute/American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New Electric Company Inc., Saddle Brook, New Jersey, 1986.
York, New York, 1986. Also available online at www.thermo-electric-direct.com.
Manual on the Use of Thermocouples in Temperature
Measurement, ASTM Special Technical Publication 470B,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, 1981.

Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement 40-25

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Virtually all areas of a power plant are continually monitored to ensure efficient and reliable daily operation.

40-26 Steam 41 / Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement