The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Chapter 39
Construction

Construction plays a major role in the success of any The field assembly of power generation facilities and
project. The construction organization must employ the associated environmental equipment requires ef-
erection techniques that complement the designers’ ficient, well engineered, well organized erection meth-
skill and the fabricators’ craftsmanship. Sound field ods to permit installation within a reasonable time and
assembly is essential for correct functional perfor- at minimum cost without sacrificing quality and safety.
mance of the completed installation. Efficient and safe Modularization of complex components together with
execution of any project requires that components be continuous advances in computerized drafting, mod-
on the job site at the right time along with the neces- eling, scheduling and tracking have become the norm
sary tools, equipment, labor and supervision. In ad- for these complex or fast track projects. The cost of
dition to properly erecting the components, a success- erecting a steam generating unit, such as that shown
ful construction organization possesses experience in in Fig. 1 represents a significant part of the total in-
estimating, planning, safety, quality control, cost vestment in the plant.
analysis, labor relations, tool and equipment design, Retrofitting an existing plant with environmental
technical services, and finance and accounting. A com- equipment presents a unique set of challenges requir-
petitive marketplace requires continuous improve- ing extensive planning and coordination between
ments in quality, safety and cost, together with reduced owners, engineers, manufacturers and constructors.
construction schedules, as contractors and owners strive (See Fig. 2.)
to minimize project costs and schedules. The most suc-
cessful projects maintain communication between engi-
neering and manufacturing operations, ensuring that
field erection is a continuation of the shop fabrication
process and not a completely independent event.
During initial project development, the construction
plan and work performance logistics must be evalu-
ated, then incorporated into the overall project design.
Schedule requirements, together with safety and site-
specific conditions, will affect the labor and erection
methods that will be used.
A number of boiler types are small enough to per-
mit shipment completely assembled. However, larger
industrial boilers, central station boilers, and environ-
mental systems are shipped to job sites in various
stages of fabrication and subassembly. A central sta-
tion boiler with its associated heat transfer equipment
and auxiliaries may weigh more than 12,000 t (10,885
tm), requiring the equivalent of 500 railroad cars to
ship the material to the site over a period of several
months. The modularized construction practices in use
today result in some boiler components weighing 400
to 1000 t (363 to 907 tm). Flue gas desulfurization
(FGD or scrubber) and selective catalytic reduction
(SCR) system modules for environmental retrofit work
may weigh between 50 to 150 tons (45 to 136 tm). In
these cases, overland and barge shipments can be- Fig. 1 Modern power plant construction includes appropriate
come unique operations. environmental equipment.

Steam 41 / Construction 39-1

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Fig. 2 SCR retrofit construction.
Estimating and cost development
The estimating process begins with a complete un-
derstanding of the project work scope and specifications
for performance. The estimator prepares a detailed list
of work activities or tasks for the entire project utiliz-
ing specifications and drawings obtained from the
owner and the component supplier’s engineering func-
tion. Direct work hours for each labor category are
then assigned to each activity based upon historical
data and general experience. For example, insulation
is estimated based upon the number of hours per unit
area [ft2 (m2)] times the insulated area of the proposed
equipment. The total hours for each craft and for the
total project are then calculated. The totals are fre-
quently corrected for a variety of factors, e.g., local
labor productivity, overtime and site factors. To the
direct labor total, indirect labor such as supervisors,
foremen and housekeeping, etc., are added to produce
a total project estimate.
Scope
Historical performance, accumulated through on-
going experience and applied through an estimating
database, provides the basis for the initial estimate.
The estimating process utilizes a variety of sources to
develop a detailed understanding of a project’s specific
work scope. These sources include product specifica-
tions, equipment and layout drawings, site visits, cus-
tomer interaction, engineering, and internal data de-
veloped from experience on similar projects.
Average Workforce Per Week
Direct costs
The direct costs associated with field construction
are developed and tied to a detailed task list by ap-
plying historical work hour rates associated with a spe-
cific quantity of material. These quantities may in-
clude tonnage, linear feet or square feet (meters).
Installation factors
Following the direct cost estimate, several specific
factors are considered to finalize the direct work hour
requirements for each activity. These factors include
39-2
local labor productivity, overtime and multiple shift
work inefficiencies, repair difficulty factors, and site-
specific conditions.
Indirect labor and support requirements
Once the direct work hour costs have been devel-
oped, indirect labor support requirements can be ap-
plied. These are driven by man days and individuals
available for the project timeline. Examples include
the general foreman, laborers, operating engineers,
unloading crews, and any other individuals needed to
support the installation labor activities.
Other factors
While detailed estimates are required for specific
projects, total estimates for nominal scope jobs fre-
quently fall into general ranges. For coal-fired utility
boilers of nominal scope, erection work hours usually
range from 1.25 to 2.0 work hours per kilowatt. In
other cases such as retrofit SCRs or FGD systems, the
estimates do not fit such ranges well because of the
dramatically different equipment scopes and configu-
rations possible for a given size unit.
The estimated time required to complete a project
is related to the number of estimated work hours.
There is a limit, however, for any given unit, to the
number of workers that can be efficiently employed.
If more than an optimum number are employed, the
lack of adequate work space results in diminishing
returns and excessive costs. Fig. 3 shows the typical
number of weeks required for various work hour ex-
penditures for a single boiler unit, and the maximum
number of people utilized during peak operations.
Erection time span can also be affected by perform-
ing on a multiple shift or overtime basis. With these
alternatives, significant additional costs can be in-
curred due to the inefficiency resulting from working
longer hours, hours not worked, fatigue, or shift turn-
over inefficiencies.
Schedule and project plan development
The construction schedule is a key input to the in-
tegrated project schedules that focus on all of the dis-
ciplines needed to complete a given project.
Upon contract award, the construction project team
300
250 Craft 3
Craft 2
200 Craft 1
150
100
50
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 42 45 47
Weeks
Fig. 3 Typical labor requirements for a single boiler unit.
Steam 41 / Construction
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
conducts a detailed planning session. Typical partici-
pants include the project manager, scheduler/planner,
project superintendent(s), and other contributors as
selected by the project manager. The basis for this
planning session is the scope of work as originally
defined and estimated, and the existing conditions of
the construction site. During the session, missed scope
items or recent customer-initiated changes to the as-
bid project are evaluated. The primary objective of this
session is to document a detailed construction plan.
The information inputs needed and the outputs from
a successful planning session are shown in Table 1.
Projects are defined by a series of work activities
arranged in a logical sequence. Detailed schedules are
then developed by sequencing all activities according
to their predecessor/successor relationships. These re-
lationships are used to assign activity durations, and
to allocate resources to complete the activity within the
desired time period. Resource allocations typically in-
clude labor plus heavy and specialized equipment.
Work activities are arranged into a work breakdown
structure and assigned activity codes. The activity
codes allow the work to be sorted by contract, area of
work, responsibility, component, or other required fac-
tors. These activities can then be used to monitor and
track progress throughout the course of the project.
Schedules are established using computer-based
scheduling systems. A broad range of detailed graphic
schedules and reports, including time scale logic dia-
grams, bar charts, precedence diagrams, labor graphs,
earned value curves and job completion percentages
are derived from such systems. These outputs permit
the overall coordination of several items: the work to
be performed, labor by craft or specialty, erection
equipment assignments, material deliveries, and criti-
cal resource requirements. The goal of the planning
session is to initially define the project in enough de-
tail to ensure that subsequent tracking and monitor-
ing activities can effectively control all resources and
job progress, identify positive and negative deviations,
and prescribe necessary corrective actions.
The level of detail developed in the work breakdown
structure is dependent on project complexity. Straight-
forward, short duration projects may be broken down
into less than fifty activities, whereas more complex,
long-term projects may be defined by hundreds.
Construction project management
The successful completion of a large utility construc-
tion project requires a disciplined and proven approach
for executing design, engineering, procurement, ex-
pediting, erection, inspection and commissioning. This
approach is required whether the project involves new
boiler erection, significant modifications to an exist-
ing unit, or the retrofit of environmental equipment.
Detailed project execution plans are developed to en-
sure proactive control of scope, safety, quality, cost and
schedule; report progress; identify deviations; forecast
trends; take corrective actions when necessary; pro-
mote communications; and coordinate the activities of
all participants. The project team is responsible to
ensure that timely constructability reviews are per-
Steam 41 / Construction
formed to integrate design and construction consid-
erations, assuring a technically complete and
constructable design.
An initial project kickoff period provides a detailed
project definition before any engineering releases are
authorized. This definition period permits all involved
to clarify details and better define owner and engi-
neering requirements. This phase is used to:
1. document owner design, operating and mainte-
nance philosophy,
2. jointly review the specifications,
3. review subcontract vendor specifications,
4. allow the owner to review acceptable vendors,
5. establish procedures for project execution, and
6. firmly establish the project’s schedule.
A project team is utilized to effectively manage and
coordinate the multiple interfaces required for a large
project. This team will establish all procedures and
Table 1
Construction Planning Session
Inputs and Outputs
Session Inputs
Integrated overall project schedule
Contract documents such as commercial terms and
conditions and technical scope
Final estimate including worksheets and specified
material quantities
Subcontract scope and commitments
Material and equipment delivery schedules and
configurations
Prior site reviews
Customer/plant knowledge
Labor agreements and availability
Session Outputs
Detailed construction project management (CPM)
schedule and associated reports
Project safety plan
Manpower loading and leveling
Equipment and critical resource loading and leveling
Identification of subcontract work scope and schedule
requirements
Project work assignments for support disciplines
Site organization chart
Earned value curves (measurement of performance
against a detailed plan to predict final costs and
schedule)*
Financial reporting
Material delivery schedule
Preferred material configuration
Modularization
Field weld locations
Maximum component rigging weight
Maximum component size
Baseline weekly progress report format
* Reference − Fleming, Quentin W. and Koppelman, Joel M.,
Earned Value Project Management, Project Management
Institute, Inc., Pennsylvania, September, 2000.
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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
controls required for the coordination and routing of
documentation, design and engineering information,
technical interfaces, and correspondence.
Once the construction phase of a project begins, the
site organization serves as the primary conduit for
communication. Regular project meetings keep all par-
ticipants informed.
The key element of the project management ap-
proach is the scope-of-work document. Each working
group involved in the project will develop a definition
of objectives, scope of work for their activities, data col-
lection needs, methodology or approach to the work,
end products, responsibilities for all involved, time du-
rations and schedules.
An integrated project schedule and report is devel-
oped to cover all activities by involved participants.
Monthly progress reporting and performance measure-
ments are completed using the earned value concept.
Schedule trends/projections are evaluated with action
plans formulated to regain or advance the schedule
targets included in each progress report. Outstanding
or new actions are included. Potential threats to the
project’s goals are identified with alternative sugges-
tions to reduce or eliminate any negative impact.
Design for constructability
The Construction Industry Institute (CII) defines
constructability as a process of optimum integration
of construction knowledge and experience into project
planning, design, procurement, and field operations
to achieve overall project objectives.1 CII recognizes
that maximum benefits are achieved when people
with construction knowledge and experience are in-
volved with the project from its inception, and continue
throughout its duration. The significance of this phi-
losophy is best illustrated by Fig. 4. The ability to in-
fluence overall project costs is greatest at the begin-
ning of the project and diminishes asymptotically with
the progression of time.
In the past, the term constructability was gener-
ally associated with the quality of the various engi-
neering groups’ approaches to erecting components.
Specifically, it referred to issues or potential assump-
tions made in association with the designer’s intent
that could preclude a component from being satisfac-
torily built or inspected (including errors and omis-
sions). Information that lacked clarity was typically
resolved through various means including drawing
revisions, requests for information, engineering memo-
randa, and nonconformance reports. Resolution al-
most always increased cost as a result of rework and/
or field delays while awaiting the design engineers’
disposition. Many long-term projects now implement
constructability reviews of these design outputs prior
to the start of construction.
The endorsement of CII’s philosophy and recogni-
tion of its inherent benefits provides the foundation
for a successful project. The common goal is to ensure
the timely delivery of quality steam generation and
environmental control equipment that is erected
safely, efficiently, and cost effectively, subject to spe-
cific project constraints. This is accomplished when the
39-4
project managers, superintendents, and construction
engineers work hand-in-hand with the engineering
groups early in a project’s development cycle.
Since construction costs for some projects can ex-
ceed 50% of a total project, the cost of labor presents
both the greatest opportunity and greatest risk for
almost any project. A design for constructability seeks
to minimize impacts and improve productivity through
the elimination of rework and/or corrective action,
improve material deliveries, and incorporate some type
of modularization.
Implementation
Typical barriers to constructability implementation,
as identified by CII, include lack of disciplined coordi-
nation, failure to dedicate an individual administra-
tor, and improper funding for the overall program. For
a constructability program to be effective, these bar-
riers must be recognized and overcome.
Evaluation
To help evaluate constructability efforts, feedback is
needed throughout the project. During construction, it
is important to obtain an objective assessment of the
design documents from contractors and subcontractors.
Coordination and distribution of design drawings
will be monitored and reviewed prior to issuance for
construction. Innovative approaches, erection se-
quences, and cost saving measures will be reviewed
to assure that the final product exhibits construction-
friendly components. Constructability will also con-
tribute to minimizing interference with existing plant
facilities, thereby minimizing the effects on the oper-
ating facility.
The benefits are most evident during the construc-
tion phase of a project once engineering and procure-
ment are essentially complete. If flexibility in the
project schedule has already been consumed by engi-
neering and procurement, the cost impact on the
project becomes significant. The cost of a day’s delay
early in a project is minimal, whereas, once construc-
tion has started, costs could exceed 100,000 U.S. dol-
lars for each day of delay. Savings and benefits lie in
the reliability and predictability provided to the con-
struction plan through the efficient use of labor and
equipment. Every job will have its share of delays due
to late deliveries, equipment failure, and acts of na-
ture. Therefore, the goal of constructability is to se-
lect those attributes of the project that can be controlled
and then exercise maximum influence over those of-
fering the largest payback. The proper utilization of
constructability minimizes project risks such as labor
availability and maximizes opportunities through
productivity improvements.
Integrated design process for retrofits
The integrated design process requires close coor-
dination of design, manufacture, shipping and con-
struction processes. Retrofit projects for complex util-
ity systems are unique and therefore require a signifi-
cant amount of design integration. Several key steps
are critical when these retrofit projects are considered:
Steam 41 / Construction
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
1. Determine the detailed scope early in the process.
2. Define the general arrangement of all components
in concert with existing structures and equipment.
3. Define the construction approach.
4. Perform joint project management, engineering
and construction reviews of the design.
5. Iterate the second, third, and fourth steps to ad-
vance and evolve the design.
The design/construction team must share a common
and detailed understanding of the defined scope as
early as possible. This scope description and the re-
sulting assignment of responsibilities establish the
direction of the project team.
Project definition for all members of the design and
construction team is not complete until participants
have a clear spatial understanding of new equipment
location within the existing facilities. Interferences are
relatively inexpensive to resolve at the design stage,
but can be devastating to the project budget and
schedule if recognized during the construction process.
Large retrofit projects typically span 15 to 30 months
from award to startup. This span is dependent upon the
number of units to be retrofit, the complexity of the in-
stallation, and the unit’s planned outage schedule. These
projects are impacted by numerous site-specific con-
straints that may lengthen the overall project.
When the total project and schedule integration
process is not followed, project management and en-
gineering will typically initiate the design process and
begin the fabrication of materials well before the in-
volvement of the construction manager and/or super-
intendent. This approach generally results in project
delays and increased costs after mobilization of the
construction team. Joint planning and an ongoing re-
view of the design by team members from project man-
agement, engineering and construction have fre-
quently been shown to result in a high quality, safe,
economical, and on-schedule project.
Integrating the different perspectives, knowledge
and concerns of these three key project disciplines
yields significant benefits. The first joint review only
begins the process. Ongoing reviews generate the
greatest long-term benefits. Significant design and
construction decisions must be made in ways that
balance the scope, schedule, and cost triangle to ben-
efit the overall project.
Some of the key decisions that need to be addressed
by the team are:
1. the best physical arrangement of the equipment,
2. supports for the new equipment,
3. utilization of existing or new steel,
4. defined and scheduled pre-outage, outage, and
post-outage activities,
5. planned outage schedule,
6. definition of the erection sequence,
7. existing access limitations and additional require-
ments,
8. shop or field modularization, and
9. field labor availability.
A critical period occurs early in a project when scope,
general arrangement, construction approach and
Steam 41 / Construction
High
Conceptual Planning
Ability to Influence Cost
Design
Procurement
Construction
Startup
Low
Start
Time
Complete
Fig. 4 The ability to influence cost diminishes as a construction
project progresses.
schedule decisions are being defined and key subcon-
tractors are being integrated into the project. Addi-
tional resources are needed to focus on technical, com-
mercial and interface issues associated with subcon-
tractors, architect-engineers, structural steel fabrica-
tors, and flue and duct fabricators. This support early
in the project provides the necessary attention to ef-
fectively address schedule-critical activities during a
time frame when resources are typically overloaded.
Once these specialized functions are executed, these
resources are dismissed and project team members
then consult as required.
Construction technology
The construction of steam and power generation
facilities, and all associated equipment, is a complex
and challenging undertaking. Each project presents
a unique set of objectives, subject to specific con-
straints and opportunities. Successful projects are the
result of detailed planning and forethought, as well
as the creative application of construction means and
methods to deal with the constraints, and to take ad-
vantage of the opportunities. Critical decisions regard-
ing product configuration, constructability, construc-
tion equipment selection and labor issues must be
made early and followed throughout the project.
Traditionally, the construction site supervisor has
acquired the necessary skills through experience, and
therefore is well-qualified. Technological advances in-
cluding computer-aided design, global positioning sys-
tems, and more powerful lift cranes have enabled con-
struction engineers and technicians to support super-
vision by refining the planning process and expedit-
ing the work in the field.
Aggressive schedules, improved financial perfor-
mance, increased scrutiny, and regulations regarding
safety and quality require that projects are executed
with increasingly refined margins for error, both tech-
nically and economically. The goals established for
these projects include: 1) reduced field operations costs,
2) a minimal project time span, 3) the construction of
a quality product, and 4) provision for a safe working
39-5
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
environment. The integration of technology into the
construction process increases the opportunity to ac-
complish these goals through the proper, effective and
innovative application of means, methods, techniques,
tooling and equipment.
A construction technology group normally supports
the field construction program. These engineers pro-
vide construction engineering services, construction
logistics, and constructability reviews for each specific
product and configuration. Typical outputs include
recommended shipping sizes and configurations, rig-
ging weight and center of gravity calculations, crane
placement drawings, heavy lift and hauling plans,
and structural analyses of existing facilities for im-
posed construction loads.
Approaches to construction –
erection methodology
There are three basic approaches that may be used
in a construction project: 1) knocked down, the tradi-
tional method, 2) field modularization, and 3) shop
modularization. The knocked down approach is based
on the erection of shop fabricated, standard-sized ship-
ping units that readily fit on a truck/trailer or rail car.
The standard shipping units are erected one piece at
a time in stick fashion. Field modularization combines
these traditional ship units into larger components, or
modules, at the construction site for final installation.
Off-site assembly, shop modularization, or prefabrica-
tion combine the traditional ship units into subassem-
blies at the manufacturer’s plant.
Modularization is an integrated approach to power
plant construction whose concepts must be incorpo-
rated at the earliest possible stages of a project’s plan-
ning. The most successful projects have continued com-
mitment to this approach by the customer, the equip-
ment supplier, and the erecting contractor.
While modularization may be cost effective, the ex-
tent of effective modularization is site specific.
Modularization divides plant materials into subsets,
or modules, that are assembled before being brought
to the construction site. (See Fig. 5.) The degree and
extent of modularization can vary considerably. In its
simplest form, a structural steel beam with shop-at-
tached clip angles is a module. At the opposite end of
the scale, a shop-assembled boiler complete with all
trim piping, instrumentation, and insulation and lag-
ging, or a 50-ton section of ductwork insulated and
lagged is also considered a module.
Boiler components have been modularized for some
time. Fig. 6 depicts furnace wall panels in which loose
boiler tubing and membrane stock are welded to form the
panels. Large modularized scrubber components are
shown in Fig. 7.
A modularized project requires more engineering
and design time than a conventional project. Planning
must consider the water and land routes used for ship-
ping the modules. Construction sites located on navi-
gable waterways have the greatest potential for ship-
ment of large modularized components. (See Fig. 8.)
Module unloading, site movements and erection
procedures must be carefully considered. Special con-
sideration must also be given to foundations, backfill-
39-6
ing and compacting at the site. Other concurrent site
activities must be evaluated when planning for
modularization.
Construction participation by all involved parties is
required in planning any project to enhance
constructability and identify intended erection methods.
The erection method is influenced by the following factors.
Retrofit versus new plant installation The construc-
tion logistics associated with retrofitting, repairing or
altering an existing unit are much different from those
required for constructing a new unit. Logistics for new
plant construction are further diversified, depending
on whether the unit is to be built on an existing plant
site, adjacent to existing units, or on a new site. Ret-
rofit operations are generally performed in a pre-out-
age/outage/post-outage mode.
In planning retrofit work, an erection method that
permits performing many tasks concurrently is cho-
sen. This optimizes equipment and labor and mini-
mizes outage times. When constructing on an exist-
ing plant site, the erection method must maintain a
productive interface between construction activities
and ongoing plant operations. Construction on a new
site offers a contractor the greatest amount of freedom
in selecting the most cost-effective, efficient method for
executing the work; however, potential obstructions in-
clude those areas of work occupied by other contractors.
Plant arrangement The overall plant arrangement
plays a key role in establishing the sequence for erect-
ing components and equipment. Plant arrangement
defines the available access routes for material flow
from the laydown and storage areas to the final in-
stallation points.
Scope The scope of work directly affects the con-
struction plan and completion of the construction.
Tools and equipment needed for one phase of the
project may also be influenced by the requirements
of other phases.
Parameters Product and component parameters,
including size, weight and shipping configurations,
dictate the type and size of material handling equip-
Fig. 5 Large scrubber modular components on a barge.
Steam 41 / Construction
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

tractors is required to achieve certain location toler-

ances and to complete the erection.
Schedule The project schedule, including customer-
specified start, finish and milestone dates, dictates the
required erection sequence, labor needs and timing for
project completion. The quality and skills of the local
labor force play major roles in the erection plan and
overall sequencing of the work.
Because cost is an important criterion governing
selection of the erection method, the economic advan-
tages and disadvantages of the other selection crite-
ria must also be evaluated. Costs of construction op-
erations versus component shipping configurations are
often arranged in a matrix. The shipping configura-
tion reflecting the lowest total cost is considered to be
the most effective approach and becomes the preferred
choice for erection. Tabulated construction costs are
coupled with corresponding costs for component en-
gineering, shop fabrication and assembly, and ship-
ment to the job site to identify the most effective over-
all approach for a specific project.
Extent and location of field welds Overall product
quality and constructability are enhanced by minimiz-
ing the number of field welds. The required welds must
be readily accessible to allow the use of state-of-the-
art equipment and processes.

Fig. 6 Raising furnace wall section into position.

ment and the need for special handling procedures,

methods, jigs and fixtures. Material type, thickness,
and required erection tolerances are considered in es-
tablishing methods for component alignment, weld-
ing, post weld heat treatment, stress relieving, and
nondestructive examination.
Site conditions Existing site conditions and acces-
sibility play major roles in determining the size, weight
and configuration of the components to be shipped.
Water accessibility represents the greatest opportunity
for shipping large shop-assembled modules; otherwise,
rail or truck shipments are required. If multiple trans-
portation modes are used, the size of the component
is limited by the most restrictive shipping method.
Shipping accessibility only partially controls the
extent of material and equipment shipments to the job
site. Upon arrival, the material must be off-loaded and
transported to its storage area or final installation
point. Material off-loading schemes depend upon the
mode of shipment and the site conditions at the off-
loading area. Transportation of the material is then
limited by the width, overhead clearances and load
limitations of existing roadways.
Contractor interface Interface with other contrac-
tors is an important part of a construction project. Once
portions of the project have been completed by indi-
vidual contractors, effective interfacing between con- Fig. 7 Modular components for an environmental control installation.

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Fig. 8 A barge carrying SCR components is positioned for off-loading.
The scope of work to be performed and the compo-
nent configuration influence the extent and location
of field welds. The construction engineer must provide
input regarding preferred field weld locations, sug-
gested component configurations for these weld loca-
tions, and intended welding processes.
Construction engineering and
rigging design
Background
Babcock & Wilcox Construction Co., Inc. (BWCC)
takes an engineered approach to the execution of
heavy lifts. Specialized tools, equipment, rigs, jigs and
fixtures are provided for each project.
Modern construction includes modularized compo-
nents that are erected on short timetables. To reduce
construction and shipping costs, the weight of support
steel components has been reduced. As a result, the
calculation of imposed erection loads is critical.
In recent years, customer specifications have required
the submittal of engineered rigging drawings and pro-
cedures prior to construction. These submittals often
require the stamp of a licensed professional engineer.
Engineering principles
The construction engineer involved with product
erection must be familiar with the product’s construc-
tion details and function as well as responsible for the
engineering, design and specification of all systems,
tools, equipment, devices and mechanisms required for
erection. This requires a command of engineering fun-
damentals and knowledge of principles taken from
civil, structural, mechanical and electrical engineer-
ing disciplines.
Engineered systems
Engineered systems required to support construc-
tion operations may generally be identified by:
1. material handling (discussed below),
2. rigs, jigs and fixtures,
3. temporary supports, shoring and reinforcement of
existing structural components,
4. access and protection structures,
39-8
5. temporary structures and construction facilities,
6. civil/site work, and
7. specialized tooling, machining and equipment.
Material handling and setting considerations
Like any phase of a construction project, material
handling operations must be planned and integrated
into the total construction plan. The size, weight and
shipping schedules of material and components to be
received and installed must be known in order to plan
for storage area needs and to schedule crews and equip-
ment. Special handling provisions and special inspection
and storage requirements must be known and accom-
modated. In addition, the plant structure must be de-
signed to support the loads involved during construction
and the clearances required to get equipment in place.
Material handling plans must reflect actual site con-
ditions including rail and truck access, locations and
condition of haul roads, and availability and location
of laydown areas and warehouses. Although most ma-
terial shipped to a construction site can be handled
with conventional construction equipment, material
handling plans must identify any special equipment or
fixtures required to handle large or unusual components.
Equipment used for material handling operations
may generally be grouped by function into two cat-
egories: 1) transporting, and 2) lifting.
Equipment for transporting material is limited to
that intended for on-site application, and does not in-
clude trucks, railroad cars or barges listed for mate-
rial delivery to the job site.
A wide range of equipment is available for mate-
rial transport and lifting on the job site. Selection and
use depend on the configuration and weight of the
material to be handled and the relative distance be-
tween transport points and available site clearances.
Selected techniques and types of equipment that can
be utilized for material transport and lifting are shown
in Figs. 9 through 11.
While this listing is intended to provide an idea of
the range of tools, methods and equipment available
for material handling, it is not all inclusive. Various
suppliers and manufacturers maintain and supply
their own version of the generic equipment identified.
The selection, specification and use of this equipment
require a thorough construction engineering effort
from the planning phase of the project through the
execution of the work.
Fig. 9 Hydraulic platform trailer.
Steam 41 / Construction
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Depending on the equipment selected or available,

various operations are involved to get the components
to their final in-place position. These operations, rep-
resented in Fig. 12, may be accomplished by use of a
single hydraulic crane or may require a sophisticated
handling system custom designed for the application.
(See Fig. 13.)
Serviceability
The serviceability of a material handling system is
a measure of how well the system performs its in-
tended function subject to conditions produced in its
work environment.
Imposed loads and forces
The weight of the component being handled is a Fig. 10 Hydraulic gantry system.
major consideration in the design and selection of the
material handling system; however, component The coefficients of static, rolling and sliding friction
weight is not the only load imposed. All systems oper- define friction loads. Depending on the arrangement
ate dynamically while simultaneously generating and of load handling components, friction may become a
being acted upon by forces that include steady-state significant part of the total design load.
and time-varying components. Forces are introduced Impact loads are associated with sudden shocks
by the operating environment, by the work being that occur during a load handling operation. An im-
done, by the inertia of the masses put into motion, and pact allowance (25% of the handled load) is typically
by the weights of the load and the system components.2 applied in the direction of load movement. Minimal
Imposed loads are generally categorized as gravity impact loading is achieved by moving components at
or nongravity. Furthermore, both loadings may be constant, slow speeds.
static or dynamic. While dynamic loading must be Nongravity loading conditions include wind load-
recognized in designing the material handling system, ing, seismic loading and stabilization. Most applicable
the magnitude of acceleration/deceleration loads is codes and specifications have reduced these dynamic
small in most cases. As a result, static loading gener- conditions to static load equivalents. For the purpose
ally governs the system design. of material handling system design, these conditions
Static gravity loading conditions are categorized as are therefore treated as such.
lifted load, dead load, live load, friction or impact. Wind loading, when imposed on material handling
The lifted load is the calculated rigging weight of system components, is evaluated and applied in ac-
the component being handled. This calculation must cordance with Uniform Building Code (UBC) or Ameri-
account for manufacturing variability and normally can National Standards Institute (ANSI) guidelines.
includes a safety factor. Shapiro suggests multiplying Seismic loading is not a major design consideration for
the calculated weight by 1.03 for mass produced items most material handling systems. Nevertheless, seismic forces
and by 1.07 for singular devices.2 may be evaluated with UBC or ANSI specifications.
Dead load is defined as the weight of the material Stabilization forces are those forces required to
handling system components themselves, independent maintain lateral stability of compression and flexural
of the component being lifted. In calculating this structural members. This force is arbitrarily consid-
weight, the same considerations must be made with
regard to potential dimensional variations in compo-
nents. The suggested weight parameters act as mul-
tipliers as they relate to imposed loading or induced
stress and as divisors as they provide stability or up-
lift resistance. The imposed dead load is the cumula-
tive weight of all other components supported from the
component being designed.
The live load is an allowance that accounts for the
weight of construction personnel, scaffolding, ash (slag
or dust accumulations), and snow or ice accumulations
on the handled component. Because these loads are
frequently unknown when the material handling sys-
tem is designed, they are applied on the basis of a speci-
fied unit weight per surface area or a specified den-
sity per volume.
Friction loads are those associated with a body’s
resistance to movement. Friction takes on various
forms depending on the system arrangement and load
handling application. Fig. 11 Manitowoc crane.

Steam 41 / Construction 39-9

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Tower Crane maintained throughout the course of load handling

with Main
Tower operations. The specific conditions of equilibrium are
and Boom stable, unstable, and neutral.
Load control
Load control is an assurance that the load will as-
sume a predetermined, expected orientation without
Counterbalancing
Crane with Main
deviation throughout the course of handling opera-
Boom and Mast tions or at any point in those operations.
Load distribution
Crawler Crane Throughout the load handling operation, the com-
with Main Boom
and Luffing Jib ponent being handled seeks a position of static equi-
librium. A lifted load always vertically aligns its cen-
ter of gravity with the centerline of the lifting hook.
Prudent arrangement and design of the material han-
Ringer Crane
with Mast, dling system is based on knowledge of the component’s
Main Boom
and Fixed Jib center of gravity as well as the magnitude of the re-
sultant loads and forces acting on the system.
Depending on the handling operations involved,
the relative position of a component’s center of grav-
ity with respect to its supports can vary with time. This
variation produces a time-dependent variation in the
magnitude of the support reactions, and thereby, the
Conventional
Crawler Crane Truck Crane with
load imposed on the material handling system. Con-
with Telescoping sider the steam drum illustrated in Fig. 15. Two sepa-
Main Boom Hydraulic Boom
rate sets of load blocks and rigging are used for rais-
Fig. 12 Configurations of typical lift cranes.
ing the drum to its final position in the boiler support
steel. Throughout the course of the raising operation,
it may be necessary to incline the drum to clear local
ered to be 2% of the total force developed in the com- interferences with boiler support steel. As the drum is
pression zone of the member being stabilized. In the inclined at some angle θ from the horizontal, the load
case of compression members, the compression zone imposed on each set of blocks varies in accordance with
is the total cross section; for flexural members, this the following expressions:
zone is limited to the compression flange.
 Y 
WL1 = 1 1 + tan θ  WL (1)
Load stability 2  L 
Load stability is the inherent tendency of a load in
equilibrium, either static or dynamic, to remain in
equilibrium and to minimize any translational or ro-
tational effects produced via the imposition of unfore- Guy Derrick
seen forces and/or moments throughout the course of
W
load handling operations. A rigging system (see Fig.
14) must be configured to ensure that load stability is
Stiffleg Derrick W

“Chicago Boom”
W
W
Monorail
Hoist and Load
W Blocks

Track System
on Rollers W
Taut Line or Cableway
System

Fig. 13 Site-specific handling system for an environmental control

installation. Fig. 14 Typical rigging configurations.

39-10 Steam 41 / Construction

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

ready access to support the construction effort. Gen-

erally, a numbered grid system is used in laydown
yards and warehouses to identify specific storage lo-
cations. Fig. 17 shows a typical storage layout.
To support the planned construction activities, ma-
terial must not only be on site and available, but must
be in good condition. In addition to inspection of the
material upon receipt, the material and the storage
areas are inspected periodically to satisfy specific stor-
age requirements and to ensure proper protection of
the material.
With the amount of material involved in most con-
struction projects, it is essential that an effective docu-
mentation system be used. A complete listing of items
to be received is needed to ensure that a complete in-
ventory is maintained. For each item, material receiv-
ing and storage records must effectively document
receipt and disbursement status, condition of the ma-
Fig. 15 Steam drum lift and support arrangement.
terial, and current storage location.
Construction of a fossil fuel unit
 Y 
WL 2 = 1 1 − tan θ  WL (2) The installation of a top-supported steam generat-
2 L  ing unit is unique in that the heaviest components are
at or near the top and most other major components
where are hung from steel rods. Field assembly of the boiler
WL1 = portion of WL supported by high end blocks begins by positioning the major upper components in
WL2 = portion of WL supported by low end blocks a manner that provides a design deflection after com-
WL = weight of component being raised pleting the boiler installation. While the following dis-
Y = 2 × (transverse distance between longitudi- cussion is primarily concerned with top-supported
nal centerline of drum and centerline of lift- units, many of the basic procedures apply to all units.
ing lugs)
L = center-to-center spacing between lifting lugs Structural supports
The design of the supporting structural steel must
Per these expressions, when the drum is horizontal, consider the loading and stresses encountered during
i.e., θ = 0 deg: the installation of the boiler. The major construction-
WL
WL1 = WL 2 = (3)
2
That is, the rigging weight of the drum is shared
equally by each set of load blocks. However, as the
angle θ is increased, the load transferred to the blocks
on the upper end of the drum is increased. Therefore,
each set of load blocks, rigging and drum lifting lugs
are conservatively sized to accommodate the total rig-
ging weight of the drum (Fig. 16).
Design loading
The material handling system design loading is es-
tablished by identifying the maximum of several criti-
cal load combinations and then multiplying this value
by a safety factor of 1.10. Typical combinations include:
lifted load + dead load + live load + impact,
lifted load + dead load + live load + friction, and
lifted load + dead load + live load + impact +
greatest of wind, seismic or stabilization load.
Friction and impact loading are mutually exclusive
events, and therefore are never considered to be a vi-
able combination.
Other site considerations – storage
Storage is also a critical issue. Storage areas must
be laid out and material placed in storage to provide Fig. 16 Typical utility boiler steam drum lift.

Steam 41 / Construction 39-11

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Fig. 17 Site laydown area.
imposed loads must be evaluated. Because certain
structural members may be temporarily omitted to
permit access for large subassemblies, the associated
additional structural loads must also be considered.
Before erection is started, all foundations must be
completed and checked for specification compliance.
Because most large units are top-supported, as discussed
in Chapter 26, erection of the structural supporting steel
is the first step in building the unit. This is done by con-
ventional methods, using cranes and derricks. Stairways
and walkways are completed to the fullest possible ex-
tent to provide safe access to all parts of the unit.
Because many of the structural members govern
the location of boiler and auxiliary components, sup-
porting steel must be aligned with established build-
ing centerlines. After the structure has been aligned
and plumbed, the members are rigidly connected with
high tensile bolts or by welding before supporting any
structural loads.
Assembly of pressure components
The construction schedule and plan include a timely
sequence for installation of boiler components. The
steam drum is usually the first major assembly placed
in the structure. All large or heavy components, su-
perheater modules, top headers, interconnecting pipes
and wall tube panels are positioned, following the plan,
in the boiler cavity while unrestricted space is avail-
able to access and hoist them.
39-12
Drums Drums for the largest boilers may weigh
more than 400 t (363 tm); they may be 100 ft (30.5 m)
in length and may be located more than 200 ft (61 m)
above the ground. To clear supporting steel, the drum
may be inclined by as much as 60 deg (1.05 rad) dur-
ing the lifting operation. Capacity and safety of the
drum rigging are of primary importance in selecting
the equipment and methods.
Fig. 16 shows a typical drum lifting arrangement us-
ing lugs that are shop-welded to the drum. Attachment
pieces for the top of tackle blocks are located on tempo-
rary steel members above the boiler structure. These
blocks should permit simple linkage connections at the
top support and drum attachments. The capacity of the
hoisting engine and the sizes of tackle blocks and wire
rope are determined with ample safety factors.
When the drum is in its final position, it is supported
from the top structural steel by U-bolts that permit lin-
ear movement with temperature variations. Fig. 18
shows a typical drum and support arrangement. The
drum is a major anchor point for other boiler compo-
nents and, for this reason, accurate location is impor-
tant. The structural members, platforms and stairways
that were omitted for drum erection are then installed.
Downcomers, headers and large pipes Plant access
consideration is important and the sequential plan
should be carefully followed in the erection of down-
comers, loose headers and large pipes. These compo-
nents are shipped in the longest lengths possible to
avoid costly field welds. Large downcomers are often
placed in the boiler cavity while steel is being erected
and are moved to their final location when convenient.
Without proper integration into the planning se-
quence, these components must be shipped in shorter
lengths or additional structural steel must be omitted
to provide clearances during erection.
Tube walls To reduce cost and the time required for
field erection, a large percentage of furnace enclosure
tubes are shop-assembled into membrane panels.
B&W’s preference is to furnish wide, long panels. How-
ever, as with any modularization approach, shipping
and field conditions determine the panel sizes that can
be provided. The wall panels are erected as-received
from the supplier or, if conditions permit, the construc-
tion plan may include on-site assembly into larger wall
sections. Panels may even be ground-assembled into
complete walls with headers, casing, buckstays and
doors attached.
Superheater, reheater and economizer These com-
ponents can be furnished with loose headers and in-
dividual elements or in shop-assembled modules with
or without headers. Again, the design features of the
particular unit and project determine the degree of
field or shop modularization. When large, heavy sur-
face modules are to be erected, the construction plan
normally includes early installation while access and
hoisting clearance are available.
Tube connections Tubes are attached to drums or
headers by welding, expanding, or a combination of
the two (see Fig. 19). Generally, tubes that withstand
pressures greater than 1500 psi (10,342 kPa) are ex-
panded and seal-welded or welded to shop-attached
stubs. Shop-assembled tube-to-header connections, such
Steam 41 / Construction
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Fig. 19 Expanding tube connections.

ments. ASME IX provides the requirements for quali-

fication of procedures and welding personnel.
Various conditions make field welding different in
many respects from welding in the shop (discussed in
Chapter 38). A typical field welding environment in-
cludes dust, wind, variable temperature, rain, high
scaffolding, locations remote from supply and main-
tenance facilities, and a mobile labor force. Under
these conditions, it is important to consider the selec-
tion of the welding processes and equipment. Key fac-
tors include simplicity, reliability, portability, ease of
Fig. 18 Radiant boiler steam drum in position.
maintenance, and availability of spare parts. Equally
important are the skills and availability of the
workforce.
as those in wall panels and superheater modules, are Manual and semiautomatic welding methods are
usually welded directly into the headers. (See Fig. 20.) therefore preferred for field erection of standard boiler
Design standards permit expanded tubes for low-pres- components. While there is a continuing search for and
sure boilers. Tube expanding, or rolling, is a process of evaluation of reliable automated welding equipment
cold-working the end of a tube into contact with the metal for field erection and repair, it is seldom used. For ex-
of the drum or header tube hole or seat. The end of the ample, use of orbital gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
tube is inserted into the hole and then plastically ex- or gas metal arc welding (GMAW) have seen limited
panded by internal pressure; relieving of the pressure applications due to the precise weld joint fitup require-
leaves the tube tightly seated in the drum or header. ments, development and tight control of welding param-
A typical roller expander is shown in Fig. 21. This eters and technique, limited space restriction for the
tool contains rolls set at a slight angle to the body of equipment, lack of highly trained operators and the as-
the expander, causing the tapered mandrel to feed sociated cost and maintenance of the welding systems.
inward when it is turned. For conditions of widely fluc-
tuating temperatures and bending loads, the ex-
panded joint must be seal-welded or replaced by a
shop-attached tube stub.
Field welding
The welds that are made in the erection of a steam
generating unit can be divided into two classes – those
for assembly of plate and structural materials to sup-
port the unit and those for assembly of tubes, pipes
and other pressure parts making up the steam gen-
erating unit. Welding on plate and structural materi-
als is performed in accordance with the Structural
Welding Code AWS D 1.1.
Welding that involves boiler pressure parts must
conform to the requirements of the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code, The fabrication Codes reference ASME
IX for Welding and Brazing Qualification require- Fig. 20 Headers with shop-assembled stubs.

Steam 41 / Construction 39-13

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Fig. 21 Position of expander and mandrel after tube is expanded and flared.
Processes and equipment
Manual GTAW, shielded metal arc welding (SMAW),
and flux core arc welding (FCAW) are the most common
processes used in the field. (See Chapter 38, Table 1.)
These processes are versatile and can be used on all field-
weld materials utilizing equipment that is simple and
easily maintained. In addition, most field welders are
qualified for the GTAW and SMAW processes.
For welding non-pressure parts or making non-pres-
sure attachments to pressure parts, there is increas-
ing use of semiautomatic welding. Welders trained and
qualified in GMAW or FCAW processes can make
quality welds at significantly higher deposition rates
compared to the GTAW or SMAW process.
As with the GTAW process, adequate precautions
must be taken to protect the weld area from the elements,
especially excessive wind. When a flux core welding elec-
trode that is self-shielded, i.e., does not require external
gas for protection of the molten weld puddle, is used for
erecting boiler casing and other structural components,
excessive wind must still be avoided.
Applications
Pressure welds Welds joining dissimilar metals are
typically made in the shop because they are often dif-
ficult to make under field conditions and require spe-
cial qualification. Field butt welds in tubes and pipes
are made using pre-machined weld joints that have
been covered with a protective cap. Thorough inspec-
tion and cleaning are still required before fitup and
welding to avoid weld defects.
Butt welds may be made with an open groove joint
or with a backing ring that is left in place. When an
open groove joint is used, the root pass is typically
made with the GTAW process because of the inherent
better control of the inside weld surface contour. The
groove is completed using the SMAW process.
When the weld joint contains a backing ring, the
entire weld is usually made with the SMAW process.
This method is normally used for the original erection
of riser and downcomer piping. Rings are never used
for furnace walls. However, they may be used for other
pressure boundary tube welds depending upon engi-
neering or customer requirements, and, if permitted,
is the preferred method of fabrication.
39-14
Seal welds Seal welds are used to make mechani-
cal joints fluid-tight. Joint strength is developed by pipe
threads, tubes rolled into drum holes containing
grooves, or header master handholes fitted with spe-
cially-designed plugs (see Fig. 22). The maximum size
of seal welds made without post weld heat treatment
is 0.375 in. (9.5 mm).
Special precautions are required to obtain sound
seal welds; welding over pipe threads is not permit-
ted. After seal welding, tubes should be lightly re-
rolled. Handhole plug seal welds should be thoroughly
cleaned and are preheated to avoid cracking.
Qualification of welding procedures
and personnel
Welding qualification requirements are contained in
the ASME Code, Section IX. The ASME fabrication
Codes and the National Board Inspection Code (NBIC),
published by the National Board of Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Inspectors, references this Code for qualification
of repairs and alterations to in-service boilers.
A welding procedure qualification test verifies that
required mechanical properties are obtained when
designated materials are welded by following a spe-
cific technique. BWCC has established many proce-
dural qualification records based upon the ASME
Code. These procedure qualifications support hun-
dreds of welding procedure specifications.
A welder qualification test is required to verify that
an individual has the skill to deposit sound weld metal
in a given position while following an established
welding procedure. Welders are qualified in accordance
with ASME IX standards either at the job site or at si-
multaneous testing sites by participating organizations.
Thermal treatment
Preheat Preheating the weld metal is the most ef-
fective way of preventing cracks in low alloy steel
welds because it reduces the cooling rate of the weld
and base metal. The required minimum preheat tem-
perature is specified in the field weld schedule and on
BWCC’s welding procedure specifications (WPS). Pre-
heating methods include the use of electric-resistance
blankets and oxy-gas or oxy-fuel torches. Special tem-
perature-indicating crayons are used to assure that
the proper preheat temperature has been attained.
(See also Chapter 38.)
Post weld heat treatment Requirements for post weld
stress relief are also specified in the field weld sched-
ule. Electric resistance heaters are commonly used for
field post weld heat. These heaters offer the advantages
of ease of application and precise temperature control.
Codes, inspections and examinations
The ASME Code requires a valid ASME Certifica-
tion of Authorization to install power boilers. To ob-
tain an ASME Certificate of Authorization, an orga-
nization is required to maintain a Quality Control
System that addresses the Code requirements. A re-
view is performed by ASME to evaluate the Quality
Control System and verify implementation. Once is-
sued, the Certificate of Authorization is renewed tri-
annually by review. A boiler installed in accordance
Steam 41 / Construction
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
with the ASME Code must be inspected by an autho-
rized inspector at various stages of assembly to assure
that all Code requirements are met.
Section I of the ASME Code contains requirements
for the installation of power boilers. ASME B31.1 con-
tains requirements for the installation of boiler and
non-boiler external piping. The state or jurisdictional
authority maintains rules and regulations that gov-
ern the installation of boilers and establishes the ap-
plicable governing Codes. Section I of the ASME Code
has been adopted by law in most states or jurisdictions.
Whereas ASME governs new construction, the NBIC
governs repairs and alterations to boilers and other
pressure-retaining items. The NBIC requires the repairs
and/or alterations to comply, to the extent possible, with
the original Code of construction. As with the ASME
Code, the NBIC is mandatory only when adopted by a
state or other jurisdictional authority.
Section I of the ASME Code specifies the nonde-
structive examination (NDE) requirements for new
construction of power boilers. ASME B31.1 specifies
the NDE requirements for boiler and non-boiler ex-
ternal piping. NDE requirements for repairs and al-
terations are specified in the NBIC. The type and ex-
tent of NDE must be considered during the proposal,
planning and scheduling processes. For all construc-
tion, the applicable regulations and any additional
NDE requirements exceeding the Code should clearly
be specified in contract documents. The nondestruc-
tive technologies are discussed in more depth in Chap-
ters 38 and 45.
Construction of environmental equipment
Regulatory requirements associated with the Clean
Air Act Amendments of 1990 caused many fossil fuel-
fired electric generating plants in the United States
(U.S.) to install, or plan for the installation of, emis-
sion reduction equipment. Many stations installed
sulfur dioxide (SO2) scrubbers in the early 1990s which
were then followed in the early 2000s by the installa-
tion of selective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems for
nitrogen oxides (NOx) removal.
While erection of environmental equipment is sig-
nificantly different from boiler erection, many of the
same principles and attributes of boiler erection ap-
ply. A modularized approach generally pays signifi-
Fig. 22 Welded handhole fitting for higher pressure boilers.
Steam 41 / Construction
cant dividends over stick-built construction at the job
site. The project benefits in both labor savings and in
the potential for a reduced site completion schedule
when high-cost field labor is replaced with lower-cost
shop labor.
The construction principles utilized for environmen-
tal equipment are the same. However, the method of
construction differs significantly. SCR projects predomi-
nantly consist of structural steel and fabricated plate,
while FGD system projects consist of fabricated plate,
structural steel, process equipment and piping. There is
little in the way of operating equipment with the excep-
tion of dampers, sonic horns or sootblowers, ammonia
vaporization equipment, and some piping and instru-
mentation. In these installations, the chemical process
required to support the operation utilizes additional
equipment to handle the lime or limestone reagents and
gypsum removal and drying.
Most SCR projects are designed with the reactor
and flues bottom-supported off structural steel. The
primary component of FGD systems is the absorber
tower which is independently bottom-supported on a
separate foundation. For SCR systems, close coordi-
nation is required between steel erection activities and
the installation of the interconnecting flues and reac-
tor. Complicating matters on a retrofit project is the
space available for the SCR. The process temperature
for most SCR systems requires the boiler flue gas to
be taken from an area immediately downstream of the
economizer, and before the air heater inlet. On large
boilers, this tie-in point can be more than one hun-
dred feet (tens of meters) above ground level. Also,
since a reactor can contain nearly a million pounds
(450,000 kg) of catalyst at a significant elevation
above grade, concerns for overturn and uplift forces
may require a complex foundation design.
At many sites constructed decades ago, little con-
sideration was given to future expansion and there-
fore, current space limitations are a serious concern.
Many projects are faced with a significant rerouting
of the boiler exit gas to a point where space is avail-
able for either an SCR or FGD system. The flue gas must
then be routed back to continue its path through the air
heater for SCR applications or to the stack for FGD sys-
tems. Each project poses a unique set of circumstances.
Sequencing and modularization
Early in the project, specific information about the
weight of ductwork sections and equipment must be
estimated. Many times the module boundaries are eas-
ily identified, due to equipment terminal points or ex-
pansion joint locations. Other times, sound judgments
must be made, based on experience. The erector is the
prime contributor to determining splice locations that
are best from a variety of standpoints, including ac-
cess, crane capacity and geometry.
The resulting erection sequence can then be used
in establishing schedule priorities for detail design,
material procurement and fabrication. To allow maxi-
mum flexibility for installation, schedule priorities
should be developed in accordance with erection plans.
Receiving materials far in advance of the time re-
quired at the job, or in a sequence that does not sup-
39-15
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
port planned erection, results in increased handling
costs. Without the proper materials, the constructor is
forced to work on activities that deviate from the in-
tended plan, increasing overall project cost.
The erector should complete a constructability re-
view prior to the issuance of key design outputs. This
review often uncovers missing or incorrect informa-
tion. Early identification of potential problems can al-
leviate costly field rework or production delays due to
additional engineering evaluations and the resulting
drawing revisions.
Once modules are identified and an erection se-
quence is established, the project team interacts with
plate fabricators for delivery options. A modular con-
struction approach provides the project team with the
opportunity to review and approve the manufacturer’s
plan for component fabrication. This process may re-
sult in on-site productivity improvements as the con-
structor advises on alternative shipping configurations
and rigging requirements, and gains valuable infor-
mation about the material to be received, thus help-
ing to identify the extent of preparatory work that will
be required on site prior to erection.
Fig. 23 is a typical arrangement for an SCR retro-
fit project. Identified in the figure are module bound-
aries utilized for design, procurement, planning and
erection activities. The individual modules are installed
in a defined sequence to maximize efficiency and mini-
mize erection time. This sequence, which usually starts
from the lowest to the highest point, builds from the
reactor back to the boiler and involves the erection of
sufficient steel to set the outlet or bypass flues. Once
the initial flues are set, steel progresses again to the
point where additional flue sections can be set and the
reactor built. Ideally, horizontal runs of ductwork are
bottom-supported, and require that the support steel
is first installed beneath the duct. Structural engineers
should be aware of the construction/erection plan so
that the steel erection sequence and requirements
support the equipment’s erection sequence. These ac-
tivities require close coordination with the design en-
gineers to ensure that the uncompleted steel structure
is adequate to support the initial duct sections as they
are installed. Cover-plating the existing steel is fre-
quently required prior to imposing additional loads
from the new structure and can be a time-consuming
and costly effort. If present, lead-based paint must be
abated from existing steel prior to any welding or
grinding operations. The use of bolt interface connec-
tions rather than welded connections could minimize
lead abatement requirements. Close coordination with
plant operations is also required as a result of the
numerous interferences with plant utilities supported
from the columns or beams being modified.
Tie-in to the unit is the last activity phase, accom-
plished during a planned unit outage. Depending
upon planned unit outages, however, there is flexibil-
ity in the erection sequence. Many times a tie-in out-
age occurs before construction of the SCR is initiated,
especially if the plant has a major outage scheduled
well in advance of the SCR completion. In these in-
stances, a gas bypass flue is installed which allows the
construction of the SCR during unit operation. This re-
39-16
quires dampers and blanking plates to allow the bal-
ance of construction to take place subsequent to the tie-
in. The blanking plates allow safe entry to the flues
during plant operation. However, this approach gen-
erally impacts the erection sequence and potentially im-
pacts the total construction cost. A second, shorter out-
age is then required to make the final tie-in of fluework.
Construction safety
A comprehensive safety program must be imple-
mented at each construction site. The objective is to pro-
mote an awareness of safety among personnel and cre-
ate a safe working environment to prevent injuries.
BWCC has developed a Safety Program Manual in sup-
port of a construction site safety program. The manual
has been specifically designed for construction and in-
cludes the requirements of 29 CFR 1926 Safety and
Health Regulations for Construction by the Occupa-
tional Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). The
contents of the Safety Program Manual include, but are
not limited to, the safety procedures outlined in Table 2.
Internal cleanliness of pressure parts
Manufacturing and shipping
Many problems can develop during operations be-
cause of dirt or other foreign matter in the circulating
system of a boiler. During the fabrication of drums,
tubes, headers, pipes or other pressure parts, precau-
tionary measures must be taken to assure internal
cleanliness. For boilers that use welded stub construc-
tion, the ends of all tubes and pipes, as well as the
stubs in the drums and headers, are closed with metal
caps and sealed with plastic tape. This usually makes
it unnecessary to clean these components in the field.
Inevitably there are a few closure caps displaced dur-
ing shipping, unloading and handling. In such in-
stances, the construction crew must examine the com-
ponents involved, perform any necessary cleaning,
and replace the caps as soon as possible.
Field assembly
Boiler pressure parts should be searched before
handhole and manhole closure fittings are installed.
Reasonably straight tubes between headers or drums
may be probed by passing a ball through them. Bent
tubes that will not clear themselves of foreign material
by gravity may be probed by blowing a tight-fitting
sponge through them. The butt welds in small diam-
eter tubes are examined radiographically for misalign-
ment or obstructions that may cause flow restrictions.
Headers are checked with a light and mirror immedi-
ately before the end handhole fittings are installed.
No foreign material may enter the pressure part sys-
tem during assembly. Closures are left in place until re-
moval for welding or positioning equipment. If shop-in-
stalled closures are removed to permit installation, tem-
porary closures are placed over the openings to prevent
debris from entering the equipment. Prior to flushing or
final closing of equipment, a visual inspection is made
and foreign objects are removed from the equipment.
Steam 41 / Construction
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Expansion Joint

Flue installed before outage

Catalyst
Flue installed during outage Block
Required temporary support
Tier 2 steel Catalyst
Sonic Block
Tier 3 steel Horn

Tier 4 steel Catalyst

Expansion Block
Joint

Damper Catalyst
Block

Future
Expansion Joint Catalyst
Sonic
Damper Damper Horn Block

Expansion
Joint

Economizer
Expansion
Joint

Expansion
Expansion Joint
Joint

Damper

Expansion
Joint

Air Heater

Fig. 23 Typical arrangement for an SCR retrofit project.

Removal of tube sections during repair or alteration
must be performed in a manner that prevents foreign
material from entering the tubes during the cutting
operation. Ends of existing tubes are plugged before
machining new weld preparations.
Post-construction testing
Hydrostatic testing
When all pressure part connections have been com-
pleted, the steam generating unit is tested at a pres-
sure specified by the applicable code; this is usually
1.5 times the maximum allowable working pressure
(MAWP). Before the test is applied, a final inspection
is made of all welding. External connections, including
all fittings, are completed within Code requirements.
Connections for flange safety valves are usually blanked.
Welded safety valves are closed with an internal plug.
Hydrostatic testing water must be clean and warm
enough to bring pressure part metal temperatures to
at least 70F (21C). Nondrainable superheaters and
reheaters are filled with demineralized water or con-
densate, if available. As a boiler is being filled, it is
vented at every available connection to allow water
to reach every circuit.
Hydrostatic pressure is applied after the boiler is
filled. If a boiler feed pump or other high capacity
pump is used, precautions must be taken to control the
pressure at all times. While water is being pumped into
the boiler, continuous inspection is made to detect any
leakage. During hydrostatic testing, safety precau-
tions must be observed, and nonessential personnel
must be kept away from the test area.
The test pressure must be held long enough to al-
low minute leaks to be detected. Following this hold-
ing period, pressure is reduced to MAWP and retained
for an inspection period. During final inspection, ev-
ery area of the pressure system is viewed for leakage
and repaired if necessary.
After inspection, the unit is drained and all
nondrainable parts are protected from freezing, if nec-

Steam 41 / Construction 39-17

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

essary. The refractory, insulation and casing work are Refractory materials
then completed in areas left open for inspection. The furnace and other wall areas of modern fossil
Air testing fuel boilers are made almost entirely of water-cooled
tubes. The increased use of membrane walls has re-
Gas-bearing components, such as the boiler, flues duced the use of refractory in these areas. However,
and ducts are field-tested for leakage and tightness. castable and plastic refractories may still be used to
All boilers are tested by one of two procedures. Boil- seal flat studded areas, wall penetrations, and door
ers designed to operate with a positive pressure, and wall box seals. (See Chapter 23.)
wherein furnace leaks would emit gases from the Other than membrane wall construction, when
boiler setting, are tested following a pressure-fired tubes are tangent or flat studded, several types of plas-
procedure. Units designed for suction or balanced tic refractory materials are applied to the outside of
draft are tested following the balanced draft procedure. tubes for insulation or sealing purposes. When an
The pressure-fired air test procedure is a pressure inner casing is to be applied directly against the tubes,
drop test. A test is considered satisfactory when the the refractory serves principally as an inert filler
pressure is raised to 15 in. wg (3.74 kPa) maximum material for the lanes between tubes. It has a binder
and does not drop more than 5 in. wg (1.25 kPa) in that cements it to the tubes and it is troweled flush
ten minutes. If pressure can not be maintained, leaks with the surface of the wall.
are sought and corrected and the test is rerun until Smaller boilers may have furnaces constructed of
satisfactory tightness is achieved. On large units, it is tubes on wide-spaced centers backed with a layer of
common to install temporary bulkheads in flue and brick or tile. Brickwork of this type is supported by the
duct runs for individual tests. pressure parts and held in place by studs. The brick
The balanced draft testing procedure is commonly is insulated and made air-tight by various combina-
performed by pressurizing the system with the forced tions of plastic refractory, plastic or block insulation
draft fan while throttling the dampers at the downstream and casing.
test terminal. With the system pressurized, all field welds High quality workmanship is mandatory in the ap-
are inspected by sight and sound to detect leaks. plication of refractory material. Construction details
are clearly outlined on drawings and instructions that
Assembly of nonpressure parts also designate the materials to be used. These mate-
rials must be applied to correct contour and thickness
and auxiliaries without voids or excessive cracking. Skilled mechan-
While pressure parts are being assembled and ics and close supervision are essential.
tested, work is in progress on nonpressure parts and
auxiliary equipment. These components, including air Casing
heaters, fuel equipment, fans, duct work, refractory, In general, inner or outer boiler casing is used in
insulation and casing, require a large portion of the areas that are not membraned. Outer casing is applied
construction labor. They must be scheduled with con- outside of insulating materials and has, for the most
sideration for items that must be assembled in a pre- part, been replaced by sheet metal lagging. Inner cas-
scribed sequence. For example, air heaters are fin- ing is positioned inside of insulation and may be pres-
ished prior to erection of flues and ducts. Pulverizers sure or nonpressure casing.
are placed early enough for piping, drives and other The primary purpose of pressure inner casing is to
auxiliaries to be completed. prevent air and gas leakage from a steam generating
unit. The inner casing is seal welded to prevent leak-
age from the boiler setting and also serves as a base
for the application of insulation and lagging.
Table 2 In most cases, modern boiler casings feature welded
Selected BWCC Safety Procedures construction. For pressure casing, it is essential that the
for Construction strength of the weld equal the strength of the plate, that
the welds be free of cracks and pinholes, and that they
Posting requirements Welding, thermal cutting and present a good appearance. For pressure casing, tight-
Medical facilities and compressed gas cylinders ness is checked by a pressure drop air test. Nonpressure
treatment Fire protection casings are given a thorough visual inspection.
Safety training Steel erection
Hazard communication Confined space entry Insulation
Accident and personal Lockout/tagout
injury reporting Excavation and trenching Selecting the type and thickness of insulation applied
Personal protective Radiation protection to boiler surfaces is an essential part of the design work.
equipment Documentation and record- Specifications are written and drawings are made to indi-
Job safety analysis keeping cate the applied materials and the method of attachment.
Housekeeping Project site safety inspections Typical standards specify insulation blocks or insu-
Operator pre-qualification Subcontractor safety lation blankets. Some plastic insulation is used for fill-
Lifting equipment Material safety data sheets ing voids. The thickness of the insulation for all sur-
Hand tools Fall protection
faces is selected to give a specific surface temperature,
Electrical Floor, wall openings and
Scaffolds and ladders stairways e.g., 130F (54C) with 80F (27C) ambient air tempera-
ture and 50 ft/s (15.2 m/s) surface velocity. The prime

39-18 Steam 41 / Construction

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
requisites for installing boiler insulation are that the
material be tight, free of voids, well anchored, and re-
inforced where necessary.
Ductwork with heavy stiffeners at frequent inter-
vals presents a difficult insulating job. With the stiff-
eners outside the flue and duct plate, the insulation
thickness is often increased over minimum require-
ments to assure adequate coverage of the stiffeners.
If the stiffeners are placed in a manner where stan-
dard insulation coverage is too costly, the insulation
may be placed over the stiffeners. As an alternative,
inner lagging may be applied over the stiffeners and
the minimum required insulation is placed over the
lagging. When insulation is applied at an appreciable
distance from a hot surface with a long vertical run,
air may circulate in the void. This increases heat
transfer into the insulation, which is undesirable.
Where vertical runs exceed 10 ft (3 m), horizontal
barriers are installed between the duct and/or tube
wall and insulation.
Sheet metal lagging
Outdoor boilers require the use of a durable water-
proof lagging. A light gauge metal lagging (galvanized
steel or aluminum) or outer casing is used on walls,
flues, ducts, air heaters, vestibules, windboxes, down-
comers, steam/water lines and other exposed compo-
nents. The metal covering does not seal against air
infiltration but serves as a barrier to protect the insu-
lation against water and physical damage. The cost
References
1. Constructability: A Primer, Publication 3-1, the Con-
struction Industry Institute, Constructability Task Force,
Bureau of Engineering Research, The University of Texas
at Austin, Austin, Texas, Third Printing, April, 1990.
Steam 41 / Construction
is reasonable and it is extensively used in both indoor
and outdoor installations.
Pre-operational inspection
A final inspection is made after erection work is com-
pleted and the unit is ready for operation. This is the
combined responsibility of the erection, service and
operating organizations.
Externally, all components of the unit are checked
for expansion clearances. Obscure corners are exam-
ined for any construction blocking or bracing that
might have been left in place. Points reviewed for ex-
pansion clearances are platforms and walkways con-
structed adjacent to external members that move with
the unit.
Of special importance in fossil fuel units is the re-
moval of combustible materials that may present an
explosion hazard during initial firing. Internal cavi-
ties are checked to ensure that all debris has been re-
moved. Tubes are given a final inspection for align-
ment, particularly those that might interfere with
sootblower operations. Movable connections between
tubes are examined for expansion clearances and to
see that all attachments are properly anchored.
On most units, construction schedules do not per-
mit completion of insulation before the unit is fired. It
is important that this work be completed in areas that
will be inaccessible or cause a safety hazard when the
unit is in operation.
2. Shapiro, H.I., Shapiro, J.P., and Shapiro, L.K., Ed.,
Cranes & Derricks, McGraw-Hill Education, November,
1980.
39-19
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Central station utility steam generating unit under construction.

39-20 Steam 41 / Construction