Tectonophysics 457 (2008) 128–142

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Tectonophysics
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / t e c t o

Grain coarsening maps for polymineralic carbonate mylonites: A calibration based on

data from different Helvetic nappes (Switzerland)
Andreas Ebert ⁎, Marco Herwegh, Alfons Berger, Adrian Pfiffner
Institute of Geological Sciences, Baltzerstrasse 1-3, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Microstructures of carbonate mylonites with 0–40 vol.% second-phase particles from different Helvetic
Received 25 September 2007 nappes (Switzerland) have been analyzed. While the mean calcite grain size Dcc increases with temperature
Received in revised form 5 May 2008 (T), second phases pin calcite grain boundaries. Two types of second phases can be distinguished: small
Accepted 8 May 2008
second phases included in calcite grains and larger second phases at calcite grain boundaries, both
Available online 16 May 2008
coarsening with volume fraction and T. These trends are controlled by an interaction of different
Keywords:
processes during deformation, including diffusion, dynamic recrystallization, grain growth and pinning. In
Coupled grain growth terms of Dcc−T dependencies, the microstructures of the investigated nappes are similar. The relationship
Recrystallization between Dcc and T differs for high T and low T. These observations can be explained by a change in the
Calcite simultaneous activity of dominant mechanisms (e.g., diffusion and dislocation creep) as a function of T and
Second phases second-phase content. In contrast, the relation log(dp) − 1 / T (dp second-phase grain size) is linear with
Zener drag constant slope for all nappes indicating that growth processes of second phases are identical. Despite
Helvetic Alps differences in fluid activity and strain rate between individual nappes, the microstructural relationships of
Dcc, second phases and T remain similar. Therefore, grain coarsening maps of second phase and
recrystallization controlled calcite aggregates are a representative tool to predict deformation conditions
and mechanisms for other shear zones developed under similar physical conditions.
© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
At mid to upper crustal levels of orogens, deformation is often
concentrated in high-strain shear zones consisting of carbonates (e.g.,
Schmid, 1975; Burkhard, 1990; Kennedy and Logan, 1997; Bestmann
et al., 2000; Molli et al., 2000; De Bresser et al., 2002; Ulrich et al., 2002;
Leiss and Molli, 2003; Herwegh et al., 2005b; Ebert et al., 2007a,b). In
these shear zones mylonitic microfabrics developed, which are
controlled by extrinsic parameters like temperature, stress, strain rate
(e.g., De Bresser et al., 2002; Herwegh et al., 2005b) and intrinsic
parameters like chemical impurities (e.g., Freund et al., 2001, 2004;
Herwegh et al., 2003), second-phase particles (e.g., Olgaard and Evans,
1986; Herwegh and Berger, 2004; Ebert et al., 2007b), rates of
recrystallization cycles (e.g., Herwegh and Kunze, 2002), synkinematic
fluids (e.g., Kirschner et al., 1999; Schenk et al., 2005), diffusion
coefficients and grain boundary width (e.g., Paterson, 1995), and/or
dislocation densities and distributions (e.g., Goetze and Kohlstedt, 1977;
Urai et al. 1986; De Bresser, 1991).
In nature, only few cases exist where carbonate mylonites are
nominally pure. The majority of carbonate mylonites contain other
phases, here called second phases. They can pin and drag grain
boundaries of the matrix phase, which results in a retardation of both
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +41 31 631 8768; fax: +41 31 631 4843.
E-mail address: ebert@geo.unibe.ch (A. Ebert).
the grain boundary mobility and grain coarsening (e.g., Zener in
Smith, 1948; Nes et al., 1985, Olgaard and Evans, 1986; Hillert, 1988,
Olgaard, 1990; Mas and Crowely, 1996; Evans et al., 2001, Herwegh
and Kunze, 2002; Herwegh and Berger, 2004; Ebert et al., 2007b). The
changes in microstructural processes will affect the physical and
rheological properties of a rock (e.g., Olgaard, 1990, Doherty et al.,
1997). The volume fraction fp and size dp of second phases influence
the degree of pinning and/or dragging. In general, a large number of
small grains are more effective in hindering grain coarsening than a
few large grains (e.g., Alexander et al., 1994; Fan et al., 1998; Stearns
and Harmer, 1996; Herwegh and Berger, 2004; Herwegh et al., 2005a;
Ebert et al., 2007b). This effect can be expressed with the equation
Dmax = c ⁎ dp/fpm (Zener cited in Smith, 1948; Olgaard and Evans, 1986;
Evans et al., 2001 and references therein) where Dmax is the matrix
grain diameter, m is an exponent and c is a constant. Besides fp and dp
of second phases, their shape and dispersion are additional key
parameters (see in Ryum et al., 1983; Olgaard and Evans, 1986; Mas
and Crowely, 1996; Fan et al., 1998, Evans et al., 2001; Ebert et al.,
2007b). The location of the second phases determines the m value.
Second phases that are randomly distributed, located along grain
boundaries or at grain triple junctions, respectively, result in m values
of 1, 1/2 and 1/3 (e.g., Olgaard and Evans, 1986).
Particularly under static conditions, both matrix and second
phases can grow and consequently interact with each other during
coarsening (Joesten, 1991; Hickey and Bell, 1996; Evans et al., 2001;

0040-1951/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2008.05.007
 A. Ebert et al. / Tectonophysics 457 (2008) 128–142
Solomatov et al., 2002; Berger and Herwegh, 2004), referred to as
coupled grain growth (Higgins et al., 1992; Voorhees, 1992; Alexander
et al., 1994; Chen and Fan, 1996; Stearns and Harmer, 1996; Fan et al.,
1998). In case of deformation, however, grain size reducing mechan-
isms are additionally active. Recently, Herwegh and Berger (2004),
Herwegh et al. (2005a) and Ebert et al. (2007a,b) demonstrated that
the combination of both grain growth and grain size reducing
mechanisms in polymineralic systems preserve dynamic steady state
microfabrics that are characteristic for the deformation conditions.
These studies, however, focused on individual large-scale shear zones
only. As a follow-up of this work, we will now compare the
microfabrics of polymineralic carbonate mylonites derived from
different thrusts of the Helvetic Alps. We present the effect of content,
size, type, and distribution of second phases and temperature/stress
on the calcite grain size. Based on these results, we discuss the
influence of different settings between the nappes and we recalibrate
grain coarsening maps of Herwegh et al. (2005a). Particularly the
latter allows future application of the concept to predict deformation
microfabrics of polymineralic carbonate rocks in mid-crustal levels.
In nature, temperature and stress go hand in hand, resulting in lower
rock strengths at elevated temperature conditions (e.g., Kohlstedt et al.,
1995). While temperature can be estimated with geothermometers in a
reliable manner, stress estimates are mainly based on the experimentally
calibrated paleopiezometric relationship between recrystallized grain size
and stress (e.g., Twiss, 1977; Rutter, 1995). Extrapolation of experimental
stress data towards natural conditions is particularly problematic for
Fig. 1. Cross-sections through the western (AB), central (CD) and eastern (EF) Helvetic nappe stack of Morcles/Diablerets, Dolden/Gelli/Wildhorn, and Glarus nappe complex
(modified after Burkhard, 1988; Escher et al., 1993; Pfiffner, 1993; Herwegh and Pfiffner, 2005). Numbers represent sample locations of approximately NW–SE sample profiles
projected onto the cross-sections.
129
carbonate rocks deformed under lower greenschist-facies conditions (de
Bresser et al., 2002; Herwegh et al., 2005a,b). Moreover, paleopiezometers
can only be applied to pure monomineralic aggregates; a restriction which
prohibits the use of paleopiezometer in the case of the polymineralic
samples of this study. For this reason, we will refer in the following only to
temperature, although we are well aware that the coupling
of temperature, stress, and strain rate control the microfabric. (e.g., Austin
and Evans, 2007; Austin et al., 2008).
2. Geological settings
The Helvetic nappes of Switzerland are one of the main structural units
of the Alpine orogen and represent a classical fold-and-thrust belt (e.g.,
Ramsay, 1981; Pfiffner, 1993). In the western part of the Swiss Alps, the
Aiguilles Rouges massif is overlain by the Morcles nappe (Fig. 1). The
Morcles nappe itself is overlain by the Diablerets, Mt. Gond, and Sublage
nappes (Masson et al., 1980; Ramsay, 1981; Escher et al., 1993; Pfiffner,
1993). The Helvetic nappes of Central Switzerland are built up of a nappe
stack consisting of the Doldenhorn, Gellihorn, and Wildhorn nappes
overlaying the Aar-Gastern massif (Fig. 1; Burkhard, 1988; Pfiffner et al.,
1997). In eastern Switzerland, the Helvetic zone can be subdivided into
two major tectonic units, the Infrahelvetic complex in the footwall, and the
Glarus nappe complex in the hanging wall of the Glarus thrust (Fig. 1,
Pfiffner, 1993; Schmid et al., 1996). Although all nappes were stacked and
deformed during the same time period ranging from Oligocene to
Miocene (Masson et al., 1980; Milnes and Pfiffner, 1980; Burkhard, 1988;
130 A. Ebert et al. / Tectonophysics 457 (2008) 128–142
Kirschner et al., 1996; Lihou, 1996; Pfiffner et al., 1997; Stampfli et al.,
2002), their internal tectonic structures vary along strike. While the
Morcles and Doldenhorn nappe represent large-scale recumbent folds, the
higher nappes are mostly thrust sheets made up of folded normal se-
quences. Imbrication and folding were accompanied by ductile deforma-
tion and pervasive stretching in the internal part with strain ratios of up to
X/Z=400 (Ramsay, 1981; Siddans, 1983; Dietrich, 1989; Dietrich and Casey,
1989). The Glarus nappe complex differs to the western and central nappe
stacks. It consists of one predominant major thrust, which accommodated
a much higher displacement of up to 40–50 km than the other nappes
(Schmid, 1975; Groshong et al., 1984; Pfiffner, 1985), while thrust related
strain was localized in a narrow zone of only a few meters in width
(Schmid, 1975; Milnes and Pfiffner, 1977; Ebert et al., 2007a).
For all three mid-crustal sections, peak metamorphic temperatures
increase from the diagenetic-anchizone transition in frontal parts to
lower greenschist-facies conditions in the rear (Frey et al., 1980;
Groshong et al., 1984; Burkhard and Kerrich, 1988; Frey, 1988; Dietrich
and Casey, 1989; Burkhard, 1990; Burkhard et al., 1992; Rahn et al.,
1994, 1995, 2002; Marquer et al., 1994; Crespo-Blanc et al., 1995;
Kirschner et al., 1995; Burkhard and Goy-Eggenberger, 2001; Herwegh
and Pfiffner, 2005; Herwegh et al., 2005a; Ebert et al., 2007a,b).
3. Analytical methods
In this study, we compare microstructures of polymineralic
carbonate mylonites from different large-scale shear zones (Morcles,
Fig. 2. Temperature estimations along the analyzed sample profiles from north to south. Numbers represent the locations of analyzed microstructures of this study. Used
thermometers and references are given in the legend of each diagram.
Diablerets, Doldenhorn, Gelli-Wildhorn, and Glarus nappe) with a
focus on important influencing parameters like temperature/stress
and second phases. Samples were collected that show strong
mylonitic fabrics, such as penetrative foliation and stretching linea-
tion. To investigate the effect of second phases, different lithologies
with varying contents and types of second phases were sampled
across the shear zone at different sample locations. Although, deforma-
tion continued on the retrograde P–T path resulting in further strain
localization within the shear zone (Ebert et al., 2007a,b), we will only
focus on the peak temperature structures in this study. To gain insight
into the temperature effect, samples were collected along NW–SE
transects of each basal thrust (Fig. 1). The sample profiles were chosen in
such a way that they are approximately normal to the isogrades of peak
metamorphic temperatures (see Herwegh and Berger, 2004; Herwegh
and Pfiffner, 2005; Ebert et al., 2007a,b and references therein). Sample
locations are projected onto the profile traces parallel to the axes of
large-scale folds and temperature isograds. The distances between the
localities along the thrusts range between 0.5 and 10 km (mean of 3–
5 km), which correspond to relative differences in peak metamorphic
temperatures of around 15–30 °C (Fig. 2). In each nappe, the localities are
numbered from north to south starting with 1 in the north (Fig. 1). The
distances between the locations in Fig. 2 are referred to distances
measured along the thrust plane, starting with 0 km at reference points
predefined in the north for each section.
Microstructural analyses were performed on the X–Z-plane
of polished and etched rock chips of carbonate mylonites. The X-
 A. Ebert et al. / Tectonophysics 457 (2008) 128–142
and Z-axes represent the stretching lineation and the axis oriented
normal to the foliation, respectively. Due to application of the two-
step etching procedure (see details in Herwegh, 2000; Ebert et al.,
2007a) grain and interface boundaries were modeled out resulting in
topographic differences between calcite grains and grain boundaries,
as well as between calcite and second phases. Digital images of the
microstructures were acquired with a Cam Scan (CS4) scanning
electron microscope. Note that two-step etching is only sensitive to
high angle grain boundaries and not to subgrain boundaries as
confirmed by a comparison of microstructures derived from SEM and
thin sections (Ebert et al., 2007c). In addition, twin boundaries also
become visible, although they can be discriminated from the high
angle grain boundaries by their straight and parallel traces. Using the
program Adobe Photoshop and the public domain software Image
SXM, grain boundaries of both calcite and second phases were hand-
traced and analyzed from the obtained digital SEM images. From the
resulting grain area, the equivalent circular grain diameter was
calculated for each grain (Herwegh and Berger, 2004; Ebert et al.,
2007b). From the grain area distribution, an area-weighted average
grain size Dcc was calculated (for more details see Ebert et al., 2007b),
which is close to the real 3-D grain size distribution (Berger and
Roselle, 2001; Herwegh et al., 2005b). To quantify the second-phase
influence on the grain boundaries of calcite, the Zener parameter
Z = dp/fp was determined (e.g., Zener in Smith, 1948; Herwegh and
Berger, 2004). The variable dp represents the number-weighted mean
grain size and fp the volume fraction of the second phases.
Furthermore, the types of second phases were distinguished and
separated into two groups, sheet silicates as predominant second
phase and remaining phases consisting mainly of quartz and
dolomite. This separation was made in light of determining growth
behaviors of sheet silicates and to gain insight into coupled grain
growth of the two main interacting phases calcite and sheet
silicates.
4. Results
4.1. Sample description
All samples have been derived from deformed Mesozoic carbo-
nates. Independent of their nappe origin, they show rather similar
microfabrics for samples deformed at same temperature conditions.
The carbonates represent strong mylonitic fabrics, which are
characterized by a well-developed foliation, strong textures and
elongated and orientated grains. The foliation is caused by μm- to
mm-thick layers that differ in impurity contents. The impurities are
represented by micro-scale second-phase particles, which are sheet
silicates, quartz, dolomite, albite, apatite, and ores. Dependent on
the stratigraphical units, their quantities vary in the range of b1 to
40 vol.%. The grayish appearance of some mylonites gives evidence
for well-dispersed organic carbon of nano-scale particle size
(Herwegh and Kunze, 2002). Detailed descriptions for the Morcles,
Doldenhorn, and Glarus nappe are given in Herwegh and Berger
(2004), Ebert (2006), and Ebert et al. (2007a,b). Veins of different
recrystallization degrees are abundant along each thrust. These were
only incorporated into the microstructural investigations when they
are totally recrystallized, as manifest by the occurrence of thin white
and very pure calcite bands that are parallel in orientation with
respect to the foliation.
4.2. Temperature
Peak metamorphic temperatures have been derived from a variety
of different geothermometers including calcite–dolomite and calcite–
graphite thermometry, illite crystallinity, fluid inclusions, vitrinite
reflectance, mineral parageneses, and/or oxygen isotope thermo-
meters. Details of analytics and temperature profiles for the Morcles,
131
Doldenhorn and Glarus nappe can be found in Herwegh and Berger
(2004), Herwegh and Pfiffner (2005), Ebert (2006), and Ebert et al.
(2007a,b). In case of the new temperature profile of the Diablerets
nappe, calcite–dolomite temperatures of this study were combined
with oxygen isotope thermometry and illite crystallinity data from
Dietrich and Casey (1989) and Crespo-Blanc et al. (1995) (Fig. 2). All
references of temperature estimates are labelled in Fig. 2.
The studied parts of the Helvetic nappes are characterized by peak
metamorphic conditions that range from around 200–250 °C in frontal
parts (N) to 350–400 °C in rear zones (S, Fig. 2). Resulting temperature
gradients along the thrust planes are all around 6 ± 1 °C per km. Least
square regressions were performed to obtain temperatures for the
individual sample locations for data sets from each nappe. Note that
although the absolute error of the temperature estimates for each
single thermometer is high (N30 °C, Herwegh and Pfiffner, 2005),
average values from different geothermometers yield smaller errors
(b10–15 °C, Fig. 2). The temperature estimates given in this study are
derived from the best-fit regression values at the specific sample
locations.
4.3. Steady state microstructure of calcite
All analyzed calcite aggregates show steady state deformation
microstructures (see also Means, 1981; Herwegh and Handy, 1996).
Processes like dynamic recrystallization, grain growth, mass transfer,
and inter- and intracrystalline deformation can stabilize the rock's
fabrics that are typical for specific metamorphic deformation condi-
tions. These fabrics are characterized by strong textures, unimodal
grain size distributions that are symmetric to slightly right-sided
skewed (Schmid et al., 1981; Herwegh and Kunze, 2002; Herwegh and
Berger, 2004; Herwegh et al., 2005b; Ebert et al., 2007a,b). As
indicated by experiments, shear strains of γ N 5–10 are sufficient to
create a steady state microstructure (e.g., Herwegh and Handy, 1996;
Pieri et al., 2001; Rybacki et al., 2003; Barnhoorn et al., 2004).
Moreover, strains of X/Z N 100 obtained along the Helvetic nappes
(Ramsay, 1981; Siddans, 1983; Dietrich, 1989; Dietrich and Casey,
1989), strong foliation parallel to the shear zone, and stretching
lineation confirm that the microstructures have reached high strains
and therefore steady state.
4.3.1. Calcite grain size influenced by second phases
As previously described, the effect of second phases can be
expressed in form of the Zener parameter Z (see Sections 1 and 3).
The relationship between the average grain size of calcite Dcc and Z for
each Helvetic nappe is given in Fig. 3. The deformation microstruc-
tures of impure and pure carbonate mylonites can be separated into
fabrics that are controlled by second phases (Z ≪ 100 µm) and by
dynamic recrystallization ( Z ≫ 100 µm), respectively. This relationship
was already presented by Herwegh and Berger (2004) and Herwegh et
al. (2005a) for the Doldenhorn nappe (note that some samples were
recalculated due to a calibration error yielding a slight shift of some
data points in the Dcc−Z diagram of Fig. 3c). Ebert et al. (2007b)
specified this transition zone in case of samples from the Morcles
nappe. They defined the transition between both fields by second-
phase contents fp of around 2 vol.%. Depending on deformation
temperatures, this boundary is oblique, i.e. with increasing tempera-
ture the transition shifts to larger Z values (Fig. 3). In case of the
investigated nappes, the boundaries are situated at similar Dcc−Z
values. The pure recrystallization controlled aggregates are character-
ized by a homogeneous calcite grain size, which is independent on the
second-phase content. In contrast, second phases of quantities of 2 to
40 vol.% pin the calcite grain boundaries and keep the grain size of
calcite smaller for second-phase controlled fabrics. The effect of the
impurities on the mean calcite grain size increases if larger numbers
(i.e. higher volume fraction) of second phases are located on grain
boundaries.
132 A. Ebert et al. / Tectonophysics 457 (2008) 128–142

Fig. 3. Relationship between mean calcite grain size Dcc, temperature and second phases for different impure carbonate mylonites from the investigated Helvetic nappes. Z = dp/fp
represents the Zener parameter (dp = grain size and fp = volume fraction of second phases). Each symbol characterizes samples from one location that is represented by the location
number in the symbol. Best fits are calculated for second phase and recrystallization controlled data, respectively, and resulting errors in grain size are given for both microstructure
types at left- and right-hand side of each trend line. In case of the Glarus nappe, only samples that were affected by cooling-induced strain localization represent enough second
phases to show a pinning effect (symbols with a cross insight of locations 3 and 4).

After Herwegh and Berger (2004) the average calcite grain size Dcc
of a second-phase controlled microstructure follows the modified
relationship after Zener (cited in Smith, 1948):
 mT
T dp
Dcc ¼ cdZ m ¼ cd
fp
where c is a temperature dependent constant, Z is the Zener parameter,
dp and fp are the mean grain size and volume fraction of the second
phases, respectively, and m⁎ is the slope of the Dcc–Z relation in Fig. 3.
In this study, the average of the exponent m⁎ is 0.24 ± 0.06 for the
Morcles nappe, 0.33 ± 0.09 for the Diablerets nappe, 0.32 ± 0.14 for the
Doldenhorn nappe, and 0.45 ± 0.02 for the Glarus nappe. Note that in
the latter case the value of m⁎ is only weakly defined due to the small
data set. The average value for m⁎ was calculated by weighting the
mean m⁎ of each data set of one nappe at constant temperature by the
number of all data points belonging to this data set. The resulting mean
m⁎ for all nappes is 0.30 ± 0.05.
for same Z value is similar for equivalent temperatures. As a great
advantage of this consistency, the calcite grain size can be estimated
for each second-phase content (size dp and volume fraction fp). This is
important in light of grain size and temperature dependent processes,
when different nappes or samples with variable second-phase
ð1Þ
contents have to be compared. Without correcting for similar Z
values, stress estimates and activation energies cannot be derived
from classical paleopiezometry or Arrhenius-type diagrams, respec-
tively (see below). In this sense, Eq. (1) can be modified as recently
suggested by Herwegh et al. (2005a) into an Arrhenius-type form:
   mT
−Qcc dp
Dcc ¼ c Vd exp d ð2Þ
RT fp
where c′ is a constant, Qcc an activation energy, R the gas constant,
and T the deformation temperature in K.
4.4. Microstructure of second phases

4.3.2. Calcite grain size influenced by deformation temperature
Besides the second-phase influence, the calcite grain size is
controlled by the deformation temperature. With increasing meta-
morphic conditions from anchizonal to lower greenschist-facies
conditions the calcite grain size increases from b5 to N50 μm
(Fig. 3). In the investigated Helvetic nappes, the grain size of calcite
Second phases are homogeneously distributed within each ana-
lyzed sample area. However, on a larger scale of some 100 μm to mm,
second phases are enriched in bands that define the foliation. The
second phases are covering a grain size range of b1 to 10 μm (Fig. 4).
They can be separated into particles that are situated at grain
boundaries only and particles that are included in the interior of
 A. Ebert et al. / Tectonophysics 457 (2008) 128–142 133

Fig. 4. The influence of volume fraction fp and temperature on the mean second phase grain size dp. Each symbol characterizes samples from one location that is represented by the
location number in the symbol. Symbols with a cross insight represent particles that are included in the calcite, while the other symbols represent the particles at the calcite grain
boundaries. For the Diablerets nappe Fig. a displays the relationship of all second phases, while in panel b the relationship of sheet silicates only is represented. The diagrams c and e
of the Morcles and Doldenhorn nappe, respectively, represent sheet silicates, while the diagrams of d and e show data points representing all second phases. The effect of retrograde
strain localization is given in panel d by samples of location 7 plotted as black squares.

calcite grains. The size dp and volume fraction fp of these included
second phases are always smaller than dp and fp of particles situated at
grain boundaries of calcite (Fig. 4). The transition between second
phases that are dropped or situated at calcite grain boundaries is
located at similar fp values in the diagrams of Fig. 4 for the Morcles and
Diablerets nappe. The variation in dp is more pronounced than
observed for the calcite grain size. This is due to the smaller number
of second-phase particles, especially in case of recrystallization
controlled samples.
At constant temperature conditions, the grain sizes dp of all second
phases increase with rising volume fractions fp in all nappes (Fig. 4).
Furthermore, at constant fp, dp increases by a factor of two to three
with increasing deformation temperatures from around 250 to 400 °C
(Fig. 4). As in the case of the calcite, the grain sizes of the second
134 A. Ebert et al. / Tectonophysics 457 (2008) 128–142
phases are similar at identical temperatures for all four Helvetic
nappes. The relationship of the second-phase grain size dp and the
volume fraction fp at constant temperature can be approximated by a
power law relationship in the form of:
dp ¼ kd fpn
with a constant k and an exponent n. The average of n for all nappes is
around 0.15 ± 0.05. Since k is temperature dependent, Eq. (3) can be
rewritten such that it includes an activation energy term:
 
−Qp
dp ¼ kVd exp d fpn
RT
here, k′ is a constant, Qp the activation energy for second-phase
growth, R the gas constant, and T the absolute temperature. In k′ the
dependency of other parameters influencing the second-phase grain
growth can be included. These are, for example, the diffusion constant
or the grain boundary width (e.g., see Paterson, 1995).
Additionally, second phases differ in mineralogy and shape. In this
study, they were subdivided into sheet silicates, which represent the
predominant second phase, and a minor component consisting of
quartz, dolomite, apatite, ores, and other minerals. In order to evaluate
whether there exists a different growth behavior of sheet silicates in
comparison to other second phases, the change in second-phase grain
size as function of their volume fraction is plotted in dependence of
temperature for sheet silicates and other second phases for the
Diablerets nappe (Fig. 4a, b). Except for the samples from location 5,
the small quantities of non-sheet-silicate second phases do not affect
the relationship. The trends in Fig. 4a and b do not differ significantly
given the errors. In case of location 5 (Fig. 4a), the volume fractions of
second phases other than sheet silicates are higher than for those of
sheet silicates only for total second-phase contents N10 vol.%. Because
of the small differences between plots a and b in Fig. 4 between sheet
silicates only and the data set including all second phases, only sheet
silicates were considered in Fig. 4c and e in case of the Morcles and
Doldenhorn nappes. Due to low second-phase contents (b5 vol.%) in
analyzed samples from the Glarus nappe (Fig. 4f), a considerable error
in the dp versus fp relationship results.
Retrograde strain localization can be observed along all thrusts
investigated (Herwegh and Pfiffner, 2005; Ebert et al., 2007a,b). The
samples of this study treated so far, all derived from the peak
temperature parts of the shear zones only. Fig. 4c demonstrates the
Fig. 5. Arrhenius-type diagrams illustrating the change of mean calcite grain size Dcc with temperature (given in 1/T in Kelvin) for a constant Z value of (a) Z = 500 μm and (b)
Z = 30 μm, i.e. for pure (recrystallization controlled) and impure (second-phase controlled) samples, respectively. Data points of each nappe are characterized by one symbol. In panel
b the dark-grey background of the data scatter of panel a is integrated to visualize the second-phase influence on the calcite grain size. Due to the outcrop conditions at location 2 of
the Glarus nappe, only samples affected by late retrograde strain localization could be sampled and therefore had to be corrected for strain localization. Error bars represent a
maximum variation in temperature of ± 15 °C and in calcite grain size of ±10%.
effect of retrograde strain localization on microfabrics from the Morcles
nappe. Again, the second phases are distinguished as either included
grains or grains at calcite grain boundaries. In localized samples, both
types of second phases display reduced grain sizes by ≈2 μm under
retrograde conditions independent on their volume fraction (Fig. 4c).
ð3Þ
5. Calibration of grain coarsening maps from steady state
deformation microstructures
The fact that all phases grew with increasing temperature means that
they will affect each other. Due to pinning, the second phases retard
ð4Þ grain growth of the matrix phase. Since the second phases grow with
temperature, the matrix phase becomes affected by the second-phase
growth as well as by thermally-induced grain growth itself. As
represented before (Fig. 3), the stabilized grain size in steady state
mylonites depends on temperature, volume fraction and size of second-
phase particles. This relationship can be calculated by combining Eqs. (2)
and (4), which results in:
    T
T −Qcc −Qp m mT ðn−1Þ
Dcc ¼ cVdk Vm d exp d exp d fp ð5Þ
RT RT
From this relation, grain coarsening maps can be obtained (see also
Herwegh et al., 2005a). Note that only the predominant second phase,
the sheet silicates, was incorporated in the calculation because of
presumably varying growth behaviors of different types of second
phases (see also Section 4.4). This equation has the potential to offer a
large variety of information provided that the necessary constants can
be calibrated (see below).
5.1. Estimation of activation energies for grain coarsening maps
5.1.1. Calcite
Activation energies for the dominating processes of microstructural
evolution can be derived from log(Dcc) vs. 1/T diagrams (Fig. 5); for
details see data repository in Herwegh et al. (2005a). The grain growth
behavior of the analyzed samples is represented in Fig. 5 for the different
nappes. The plotted data points are derived from Fig. 3. To minimize the
error, a best fit for each data set at constant temperature was
recalculated after Eq. (1) using the average m⁎ of each nappe. Note
that different m⁎ values were obtained for second-phase and recrys-
tallization controlled microstructures. The calcite grain size at Z values of
 A. Ebert et al. / Tectonophysics 457 (2008) 128–142
Fig. 6. Change of mean grain size dp of sheet silicates with temperature for a constant
volume fraction fp = 0.3 for the 4 investigated Helvetic nappes characterized by different
symbols.
30 and 500 μm for impure and pure samples, respectively, was used at
each temperature to calculate the activation energies in a log(Dcc) vs. 1/T
diagram (Fig. 5). In regard of temperature uncertainties, a maximum
error of ±15 °C was taken into account. Concerning variations in the
average grain size Dcc around the best fit in Fig. 3, a maximum error of
10% of the mean calcite grain size was assumed. These variations in Dcc
are presumably caused by local inhomogeneous distributions of second
phases in the calcite aggregates or local microstructural overprints by
retrograde strain localization that cannot be discriminated anymore. The
latter point can be the case for areas located at the transition from high
temperature to retrograde shear zones. In general, however, retrograde
strain localization can clearly be discriminated, even allowing recon-
struction of high temperature microstructures, as done for one sample of
the Glarus thrust from location 2. This step is necessary because the
outcrop geometry of this locality only allowed the collection of samples
affected by later strain localization (Ebert et al., 2007a). The data points
of each nappe in diagrams of Fig. 5 coincide for recrystallization and
second-phase controlled samples within the error. As demonstrated
above, second-phase affected microstructures are characterized by
smaller grain sizes than is the case for pure samples (Fig. 3), an effect that
is also abundant in Arrhenius-type diagrams (Fig. 5b). In the log(Dcc) vs.
1/T space, both recrystallization and second-phase controlled data of
each nappe indicate a non-linear relationship. The best fits above 320–
330 °C represent a steeper slope than is the case for the low temperature
data. The question, whether this trend can be defined by a linear fit with
a constant slope, by a gradual change in slope, or rather requires a
combination of a high and low temperature trend characterized by two
different slopes, will be discussed below. Consequently, activation
energies vary depending on the best fit used. Using the slope of the
whole data set yields activation energies of Qcc = 45± 12 kJ/mol and 56±
12 kJ/mol for impure and pure samples, respectively. Otherwise, Qcc
determined from the steep slope of the high temperature part only
is 69 ± 10 kJ/mol (second-phase controlled) and 84 ± 10 kJ/mol
(recrystallization controlled) and for the low temperature part with
a reduced slope, Qcc is 25± 4 kJ/mol (impure) and 33 ± 4 kJ/mol (pure).
5.1.2. Second phases
As for calcite, activation energies for second-phase grain growth
can be derived from the slope in log(dp) vs. 1/T diagrams (Herwegh
et al., 2005a). To compare similar second-phase microstructures,
second-phase grain sizes dp for varying temperatures at a constant
volume fraction of fp = 0.3 were selected. This fp value was chosen to
minimize the error, because there the data density of analyzed
samples is the highest. Note, for other fp, the relationship persists but
135
the data scatter increases. Although the relative variations in dp are
larger than is the case for the calcite grain size, dp shows no consistent
signs of a change in slope with increasing temperature. Therefore, we
chose a linear fit for the four nappes that is within the error (Fig. 6).
Resulting activation energies Qp were determined in the same way as
done for calcite yielding an average of Qp = 40 ± 7 kJ/mol (due to the
small data set of the Glarus nappe, these data were excluded, but if
included Qp = 45 ± 12 kJ/mol).
5.2. Discussion of resulting activation energies and their relevance on
coupled grain coarsening
The steady state microfabrics evolved in all nappes under similar
temperature/stress/strain rate conditions. Consequently, it is not
surprising to see that the relationship log(Dcc) vs. 1/T is comparable
for the different data sets (Fig. 5). Interestingly, the log(Dcc) vs. 1/T
relation is non-linear (Fig. 5). Herwegh et al. (2005b) already
discovered this behavior in a previous study and attributed it to
relative changes in grain growth and grain size reducing mechanisms.
In this light, the efficiency of grain growth increases in comparison to
grain size reduction with increasing temperature during the pre-
servation of dynamically-balanced steady state microfabrics. In order
to mathematically describe the microfabric changes of our new data
set, which extends over several Helvetic nappes, three hypotheses can
be considered: (a) a non-linear character of the log(Dcc) vs. 1/T relation
that is only apparent and results solely from the data scatter, (b) a low
and high temperature relationship with a transitional zone in
between, or (c) a log(Dcc) vs. 1/T trend that changes gradually with
temperature in a non-linear manner.
(a) Although the compilation of all nappe data results in a scatter, a
non-linear character of the log(Dcc) vs. 1/T relation results for each
nappe that is clearly beyond potential data scatter. Furthermore, to
expand the temperature range, microstructural analyzes from other
studies on natural carbonate mylonites were included (Fig. 7). Note
that only data that were not affected by cooling-induced strain
localization or annealing and data where the deformation tempera-
tures were well established were used for the model. The data scatter
Fig. 7. Change of mean calcite grain size Dcc with temperature for pure microfabrics for
this study (black dots) and other field studies derived from literature (gray dots)
(Be = Bestmann et al., 2000, Bu = Burkhard, 1990, Co = Covey-Crump and Rutter, 1989 and
Urai et al., 1990, De = De Bresser, 1991, Fe = Fernández et al., 2004, He = Heitzmann, 1987,
Hw = Herwegh & Pfiffner, 2005, Ke = Kennedy and Logan, 1997 and Kennedy and White,
2001, Ma = Mas and Crowley, 1996 & Urai et al., 1990, Mo = Molli et al., 2000, Sc = Schenk
et al., 2005, Ul = Ulrich et al., 2002). Note that number-weighted grain sizes were
recalculated into area-weighted grain sizes. Only totally recrystallized mylonites that
were not affected by retrograde strain localization, annealing and/or second-phase
influence were incorporated into this study. Moreover, only data with well-estimated
temperatures were included.
136 A. Ebert et al. / Tectonophysics 457 (2008) 128–142
of high temperature data from literature in Fig. 7 can be explained by
different strain rates or by an effect of annealing. Latter ones can be
excluded as Urai et al. (1990) redefined the microfabrics of Covey-
Crump and Rutter (1989) and Mas and Crowely (1996) into
deformation fabrics and as the fabrics of Ulrich et al. (2002) and
Molli et al. (2000) clearly indicate deformation microstructures.
Additionally, strain rates are similar to those in the Helvetic realm.
Heitzmann (1987) and Ulrich et al. (2002) estimated strain rates of
10− 12–10− 13 s− 1, Kennedy and Logan (1997) 10− 11 s− 1, and shear zone
descriptions of Bestmann et al. (2000) and Molli et al. (2000) should
give similar strain rates to those of the Helvetic nappes. Despite
potential differences in some physical parameters (e.g., strain rate)
between these data and the Helvetic data, the coincidence of the data
points is appealing and the existence of a non-linear trend is further
supported. The power law fit derived from averaging over the entire
Helvetic data would fit also with the high temperature data from
literature but yields too large grain sizes for temperatures below
250 °C (Fig. 7). For these reasons, the assumption of a single linear fit
to the log(Dcc) vs. 1/T data can be excluded.
(b) Alternatively, a low and high temperature relationship can be
assumed consisting of two different slopes and a rather abrupt
transition between 300 and 350 °C (Fig. 7). With integrated data from
literature, above 300–350 °C the activation energies Qcc yield 60 ± 8
and 80 ± 8 kJ/mol for impure and pure microfabrics, respectively. At
lower temperatures, Qcc reveal values of 32 ± 3 (impure) and 40 ± 3 kJ/
mol (pure). Therefore, different processes in high and low tempera-
ture as well as in pure and impure samples, respectively, may have
taken place, i.e. were rate limiting. Thus, temperature/stress and
second-phase pinning are the most relevant parameters to affect
microstructure modifying processes. These processes are stored
deformation energy driven grain boundary migration and subgrain
rotation recrystallization as well as surface energy driven grain
boundary migration. While dynamic recovery of the microfabric is
provoked by the first two processes and results in a reduction of
dislocations, the latter process is responsible for grain growth. In light
of the non-liner log(Dcc) vs. 1/T relation, microstructures below 300–
350 °C controlled by processes with lower activation energies reflect
microfabrics that are rate limited by grain growth, while above 300–
350 °C the grain growth component is steadily increasing, forcing
grain size reduction to be rate limiting.
(c) Rather than only one rate limiting active process at high and
low temperature, respectively, simultaneous activity of both processes
over the whole temperature range can be considered as well. In this
case, the presumed transition in the log(Dcc) vs. 1/T diagram can be
interpreted as a gradual change in predominance between these two
rate limiting processes.
Second-phase pinning also influences the deformation and growth
processes at constant temperature. While in pure samples the
microstructure is affected by the competition between grain growth
and grain size reducing processes only, dragging of grain boundaries
impedes an additional influence in case of impure microfabrics.
Nonetheless, also in second-phase controlled microstructures the
non-linear change in the log(Dcc)log(Dcc) vs. 1/T relation occurs (Fig. 5).
The estimated activation energies from impure microstructures are
lower than in pure ones. To which processes these activation energies
can be related is yet unclear, because the microstructural changes with
temperature in Fig. 5 do not indicate, whether pinning, growth of
calcite or second phases, diffusion or mass transfer along grain
boundaries, grain size reduction or other processes are rate limiting.
Since both the matrix grains and second phases change their
microstructures with increasing temperature, grain growth of both
phases has to occur simultaneously, which requires a close interaction
of the processes involved in this coupled grain coarsening behavior
(Figs. 8 and 9). With increasing temperature, the grain boundary
mobility of calcite increases (e.g., Evans et al., 2001) and so does the
ability to drop a second-phase particle. Due to the growth and
consumption cycles of second phases described above, dropped
second phases continuously become released from the calcite interior,
mainly by grain boundary migration. Therefore, small-sized second
phases are always abundant along the calcite grain boundaries.
However, with increasing grain boundary mobility, calcite grains are
more readily able to overgrow a larger number of second-phase
particles. Moreover, the lower the volume fraction of second phases,
the larger the inter-particle distances; a fact already manifest by the
Zener parameter Z. Due to larger transport distances, mass transfer is
reduced resulting in slower growth rates of second phases and
therefore in smaller grain sizes of the second phases (see also Fig. 4).
This in turn yields lower pinning forces that act on calcite grain
boundaries. Therefore, a higher percentage of second-phase particles
become included within calcite grains if their volume fractions are low
(Fig. 8). This implies that a considerable amount of second phases are
disconnected from the nutrients required to grow, which, in
combination with larger mass transport distances, further reduces
the average growth rate of second phases.
The influence of the growing second phases on simultaneously
coarsening calcite grains can be seen in Fig. 9 where, for constant
second-phase volume fractions fp, the grain growth trends of second
phases and calcite were calculated. It is evident that second phases
grow with increasing temperature (Fig. 6). Hence, for a constant fp, the
number of particles must decrease and the inter-particle distances
between second phases must increase simultaneously. This in turn
allows calcite grains to grow further until their grain boundaries
become pinned again by the now larger second phases.
In case of grain coarsening maps of Fig. 9, averaged values derived
from the whole data set of all nappes were used (see Section 4) to
determine (i) the temperature effect (dashed lines), (ii) the grain
coarsening trends at constant fp (oblique vertical lines), and (iii) the
boundary between second-phase and recrystallization controlled field.
The effect of different calcite activation energies Qcc becomes visible by
differences between Fig. 9a–d. Note that the shift and/or change in slope
of temperature and fp trends due to variations in m, n and Qp (see error
bars in Fig. 9a) are distinctly lower than caused by different Qcc.
Therefore, we focus in the following on the effect of Qcc on coupled grain
coarsening. Four grain coarsening maps were constructed for the
following conditions: (a and b) Qcc derived from the high and low
temperature branch of Fig. 5, respectively, (c) average Qcc obtained by a
linear regression over the entire data set, and (d) a combination of low
and high temperature Qcc for the corresponding temperature ranges
below and above 325 °C from Fig. 7. (a) In Fig. 9a, the calculated grain
coarsening map yields too small grain sizes Dcc for 300 °C and slightly
Fig. 8. The relation between included (ndropped) and all (nall) second phases is given in
dependence of volume fraction of second phases fp and temperature (different
symbols); the Diablerets nappe as an example. Symbols represent microstructures of
locations 2–5 (samples from location 1 are characterized by too less included second
phases). The relative number of included second phases increases with lower volume
fractions and larger calcite grain sizes, i.e. with rising temperature.
 A. Ebert et al. / Tectonophysics 457 (2008) 128–142 137

Fig. 9. Grain coarsening maps of calcite in second-phase (light grey) and recrystallization (white area) controlled microstructures derived from Eq. (5) with mean values of activation
energies of second phases Qp, exponents m and n, and constants c′ and k′ derived from averaged values from all 4 Helvetic nappes. Variations in activation energies of calcite Qcc
result in different grain coarsening maps (panels a–d), see discussion. The letters for Qcc in grey and white above each map represent Qcc values for second-phase and recrystallization
controlled microstructures, respectively. The change of Dcc at constant volume fractions fp of second phases is represented by oblique lines. In case of diagram (d) trends ≥350 °C and
b 350 °C are calculated with Qcc determined from high and low temperature data of Fig. 7, respectively. Dark-grey fields reflect areas with fpN0.5, for which equation 5 is not valid
anymore.

too high Dcc at 400 °C. (b) In case of low temperature Qcc (Fig. 9b), the low
temperature trends fit well with the natural data set, but the grain sizes
at higher temperatures are much too small (compare with Fig. 3). Both,
low and high temperature Qcc, give good agreements with the nature
only for either low or high temperatures, respectively. (c and d)
Coarsening maps for both scenarios fit very well with the natural data
set of the Helvetic nappes. However, the use of different Qcc for low and
high temperatures, respectively, yields slightly better fits for tempera-
tures of 400 and 250 °C than is the case for the linear regression over the
entire data set. Thus, the calculated grain coarsening maps further
support the hypothesis of at least two processes with different activation
energies that were actively involved in the preservation of steady state
microfabrics. Moreover, Qcc must differ between pure and impure
samples, otherwise the boundary between second-phase and recrys-
tallization controlled fields would be vertical at a constant Z value. In
contrast to Herwegh et al. (2005a), grain growth trends at constant fp in
the maps of Fig. 9c and d do not cross the boundary between the second-
phase and recrystallization controlled field, indicating that the boundary
between the two fields is controlled only by second-phase volume
fraction as small as 2 vol.%.
The coupled grain coarsening trends in our maps are only valid if
no mineral reactions occur. In case of calcite and second phases like
sheet silicates and quartz, reactions to wollastonite, gehlenite and
feldspar occur at temperatures above 700–800 °C (Zhu et al., 1994;
Mazzucato and Gualtieri, 2000; Cultrone et al., 2001).
5.3. Comparison with experiments
Note that the activation energies Q estimated in the aforemen-
tioned manner are solely based on the quantified microstructural
changes. Therefore, these values represent estimates of the activation
processes responsible for the development of deformation micro-
structures. This approach is in contrast to grain growth and rock
deformation experiments, where conventionally activation energies
for processes affecting the mechanical response of a rock are
determined. For that reason, absolute values of activation energies
derived from these two different approaches cannot be directly
compared. However, we can (1) compare relative changes between
experimental and natural data sets or (2) recalculate microstructure
based activation energies for the experimentally obtained micro-
structures in the same way as done for the ones of this study.
(1) Generally, experimental studies yield larger Q estimates than
result from natural studies. In case of static grain growth in
experiments, values tend to be between 100 and 230 kJ/mol (Evans
et al., 2001 and references therein). Q estimations for diffusion and
138 A. Ebert et al. / Tectonophysics 457 (2008) 128–142

nappes were observed, although the fluid history might have been
different (see above). Variations in Q between other field observations
and our study may be explained either by effects like second-phase
pinning, retrograde strain localization, or annealing. Furthermore,
compared to strain rates in experiments, which are several orders of
magnitude faster and shift the relationship log(Dcc) vs. 1/T to the left
(Fig. 10), strain rate variations between 10− 11 to 10− 13 s− 1 between
different shear zones of this study have a subordinate influence only
and range in the same error as the data scatter itself. However, the
shift of experimental data in Fig. 10 clearly indicate that strain rate has
an influence on the microstructure but its variations between natural
shear zones are too small to result in distinct different microstruc-
tures. Thus, the effect of strain rate has to be considered if lab data are
extrapolated to nature.

6. General discussion

Fig. 10. Change of mean calcite grain size Dcc with temperature for pure microfabrics of
natural samples (right side) and experiments (left side). Grain sizes of experiments
6.1. The Zener parameter revisited
were recalculated into area-weighted grain sizes. Symbols and references of natural
microstructures see Fig. 7. References for data points of experimental studies are given In the past couple of years, various studies revealed that the Zener
in the diagram. Note that an increase in strain rate induces a shift of the data scatter to relation represents a useful way to describe microfabrics of poly-
the left. Activation energies of low and high temperature microstructures are similar in
mineralic rocks that consist of a predominant matrix phase (e.g., Mas
experiments and nature, respectively.
and Crowely, 1996; Krabbendam et al., 2003; Herwegh and Berger,
2004; Herwegh et al., 2005a,b). The original version of the Zener
parameter Z was in the form of Z = dp/fp (Zener in Smith, 1948). Zener
dislocation creep represent larger values of 200–300 kJ/mol and
and others (see references in Olgaard and Evans, 1986) presumed
200–500 kJ/mol, respectively (De Bresser et al., 2002 references
random dispersions of second phases in the poly-phase aggregates. If
therein; Herwegh et al., 2003; Freund et al., 2004). For natural
second phases are dispersed along grain boundaries and grain triple
samples, Q values of 30–50 kJ/mol were modeled for static grain
junctions, the stabilized matrix grain size is proportional to dp/fpm,
growth (Herwegh and Berger, 2003), while 78–125 kJ/mol were
where m = 1/2 or 1/3, respectively (e.g., Olgaard and Evans, 1986; Fan
obtained for deformation processes in natural mylonites (De
et al., 1998). In our study a similar relation to Mas and Crowely (1996)
Bresser et al., 2002). Despite these differences in the absolute
with Dcc/dp = 1.5 ⁎ f−p 1/3 (Fig. 11) was obtained for second-phase
estimates between nature and experiment, the general tendency
controlled microstructures suggesting that the second phases are
of larger activation energies for deformation than for static
predominantly distributed along grain triple junctions. In our case,
processes seems to hold in both cases.
however, the observed microstructures indicate rather non-systema-
(2) It is appealing to see that deformation fabrics of Carrara marbles
tic distributions of second phases because they are situated within
deformed at different temperatures but similar strain rates (Pieri
calcite grains, along grain boundaries, at four-grain junctions, and in
et al., 2001; Barnhoorn et al., 2004) indicate a variation in
case of large second-phase grains they even occur along grain
microstructure based activation energies between high
boundaries of several calcite grains (Herwegh and Berger, 2004,
(75 kJ/mol) and low temperature (44 kJ/mol) fabrics yielding
Ebert et al., 2007b). A discrimination into second phases located at
similar values as obtained for the natural samples (Fig.10). In terms
specific locations in the microfabric becomes therefore rather subjective.
of rheology, such dependence between temperature/stress and Q
Following Zener's original definition, we therefore defined m to be
was already suggested by Renner et al. (2002). These authors
1, i.e. we excluded a specification of second-phase locations in the
attributed changing Q values to variations in the resistance of a
crystal to deformation due to the so-called back stress. However, it
remained unclear how exactly Q was changing, an information
which might now be obtained from the microstructure. In terms of
composite flow (see above, Herwegh et al., 2005b), the tempera-
ture/stress dependent changes in the simultaneously active
dislocation and diffusion creep deformation mechanisms would
also result in a change in ‘bulk’ activation energy. To be conclusive
with this respect, however, more high-strain experiments per-
formed over a wide range of strain rate and temperature
conditions are required. Nonetheless, there still remain differences
caused by a variety of different settings in experiments and nature
probably affecting the competition of different deformation
processes (e.g., higher temperatures, faster strain rates, different
impurities and/or deviations in fluid contents).
The effects of second phases, chemical impurities, and dry or wet
deformation conditions affect microstructures in experiments as well
as in nature (e.g., De Bresser et al., 2002; Herwegh et al., 2003;
Herwegh and Berger, 2004; Freund et al., 2004). De Bresser et al.
(2005) suggest that the effect of water in experiments seems not to Fig. 11. Change of the relationship mean calcite grain size Dcc / second phase grain size
dp versus volume fraction of second phases fp for different temperature conditions
have a large influence at low Q values similar to this study, even if the (represented by the symbols and the location numbers in the symbols) of the Morcles
occurrence of fluids would enhance diffusion processes. This agrees nappe for second-phase controlled microfabrics ( fp N 1%). The best fits for all locations
with our study, where no microstructural differences between the are given as well as the mean fit derived from all best fits.
 A. Ebert et al. / Tectonophysics 457 (2008) 128–142
microfabrics. This has the advantage that in the Z versus Dcc space,
microstructural data are spread over wider ranges of Z values, while they
collapse to a narrow Z range for m≪1. As a consequence, a clear
discrimination between second-phase and recrystallization controlled
microstructures becomes possible allowing to detect the critical volume
fraction of the second phases required to dominate the calcite microfabric.
Furthermore, temperature induced variations are more clearly visible.
6.2. The role of annealing, retrograde strain localization, fluids and strain
rate on calcite microstructures
Care has to be taken in respect to cooling-induced retrograde strain
localization as well as annealing because both settings will change the
microstructure. A considerable effect of annealing on the mean calcite
grain size can be neglected as the mylonites of this study reflect typical
deformation microfabrics with symmetric to right-sided skewed grain
size distributions as well as by elongated grain shapes. These
characteristics are contrasting to results derived from studies on
experimentally annealed microfabrics showing polygonal, isometri-
cally shaped grains and evolutions towards left skewed grain size
distributions (Heilbronner and Tullis, 2002; Barnhoorn et al., 2005).
Furthermore, the absence of bimodal grain size distributions, higher
twin densities and smaller grain sizes allows excluding a late cooling-
induced strain localization (Ebert et al., 2007a,b). Exceptions are few
samples from the Morcles nappe that have specifically been collected
to study the effect of localization on the microfabric (Fig. 4d). These
show similar relationships in the grain coarsening maps but at lower
temperatures and therefore at lower grain sizes as obtained for peak
metamorphic conditions. Consequently, all other microstructures of
this study reflect dynamically stabilized fabrics that are controlled by
peak metamorphic conditions and second phases (a). In addition,
(b) different fluid activities and strain rates between the Helvetic nappes
have also to be considered to potentially affect the microfabrics as
proposed by different experimental studies (e.g., Rutter, 1974; Schmid
et al., 1977, 1987; Walker et al., 1990; De Bresser et al., 2005).
(a) The influence of temperature and second phases on the calcite
microfabric was already discussed in detail by Herwegh and
Kunze (2002), Herwegh and Berger (2004) and Ebert et al.
(2007b). Their assumptions and conclusions can be transferred
to all analyzed microstructures of this study (Fig. 3). The calcite
microstructures can be subdivided into second-phase and
recrystallization controlled fabrics (Fig. 3). While in pure
samples, cycles of recrystallization lead to a constant steady
state grain size, in second-phase rich samples, the calcite grain
growth is reduced due to pinning. An increase in temperature
results in an enhanced growth rate promoting larger steady
state calcite grain sizes in both types of microstructures. Within
the errors, all data show the same log(Dcc) vs. 1/T relation for
both recrystallization and second-phase controlled microfab-
rics (Fig. 5a,b).
(b) Variations in stable isotope compositions of calcite across and
along individual thrusts as well as between the different
Helvetic nappes indicate differences in fluid flow (Burkhard and
Kerrich, 1988; Marquer et al., 1994; Crespo-Blanc et al., 1995;
Kirschner et al., 1999; Badertscher et al., 2002). These
inferences are further supported by a varying intensity in the
occurrence of synkinematic veins. Strain rate estimates suggest
variations in strain rate from 10− 11 s− 1 for the Doldenhorn
nappe (Herwegh et al., 2005b) and the high temperature part of
the Glarus thrust (Ebert et al., 2007a) to 10− 12 s− 1 in the Morcles
nappe (Ebert et al., 2007b). The errors of these strain rate
calculations can be as high as one order of magnitude. As
mentioned above, there exist no differences in grain size of
calcite and second phases at similar temperatures between the
nappes (Figs. 5 and 6). Therefore, the assumption that different
139
fluid flows and strain rates have caused drastic changes in grain
size can be excluded. Despite differences in the fluid flux, this
either suggests that (1) in an incremental point of view, always
a similar amount of fluid was present in all nappes, (2) the time
integrated fluid flux documented by stable isotopes is not
related to the high temperature history of the shear zones but
reflects a late deformation episode related to strain localization,
or (3) the amount of fluid was not important for the formation
of the steady state microfabrics. At the present stage it is not
conclusive if the fluid flow changed with time or if the amount
of fluids was different between the nappes. However, mass
transfer via grain boundary migration, diffusion or dissolution–
precipitation is affected by fluids along grain boundaries and
therefore fluids should influence the recrystallization behavior
and consequently the microstructure of a rock. Concerning the
tectonites investigated in this study, fact is that grain
boundaries were wet, perhaps even saturated and that the
microstructures resemble between the different shear zones.
If fluid saturation was different, the observation suggests that
as long as enough fluid is present, i.e. the grain boundaries are
wet, the microfabric is not affected by the amount of
fluid passing the rock. This is in agreement with Schenk
et al. (2005), who did not observe any microstructural
variations due to different fluid activities in natural large-
scale shear zones.
6.2.1. Processes related to steady state grain sizes of second phases
In regard of second phases, similar and temperature invariant slopes
for all nappes suggest that only one rate limiting mechanism (Fig. 6) is
controlling the second-phase microstructure over the temperature
range investigated. The second-phase grain size dp increases linearly
with higher volume fractions fp at constant temperature, which indicates
a transport controlled growth (Fig. 4). The lower fp the larger are the
inter-particle distances and the slower is the growth rate caused by a
reduced mass transfer rate along the calcite grain boundaries between
the second-phase particles. At this point, it is important to note that the
grain coarsening of second phases observed in this study cannot solely
be related to a simple Ostwald ripening and/or a coalescence of particles
as proposed by various authors (e.g., Eberl et al. 1990; Alexander et al.,
1994; Chen and Fan, 1996; Fan and Chen, 1997). Grain size distributions,
grain shapes, and grain orientations rather reflect a cyclical behavior of
nucleation, grain growth, deformation and dissolution, where nowadays
microfabrics just reflect a frozen stage of a rather dynamic behavior
(discussed in detail in Herwegh and Jenni, 2001 and Ebert et al., 2007b).
This is also nicely reflected in samples undergoing retrograde strain
localization. In Fig. 4d, both, included second phases and those at calcite
grain boundaries have reduced their grain sizes due to ongoing
deformation under retrograde conditions. The localization effect on
the microfabrics is further supported by the occurrence of bimodal grain
size distributions of second phases and calcite, as well as by higher twin
densities with low temperature type II twins (after Burkhard, 1993),
strongly sutured calcite grain boundaries and relicts of former larger
calcite grains (Ebert et al., 2007b). Particularly, the observation that
included second phases also have reduced their grain sizes implies that
calcite grain boundaries must have moved to release the formerly
included particles, which in turn readapted their grain sizes to the new
extrinsic conditions of deformation. If such a retrograde adaptation
would not have occurred, at least the dropped second phases should still
represent grain sizes similar to those of non-localized samples from the
same outcrop (location 7). Moreover, Fig. 4 indicates that annealing, i.e.
second-phase grain growth after deformation can be excluded because
otherwise a grain size jump between non and included second-phase
grain sizes should occur. This can be explained by the fact that once
second phases are dropped, they cannot grow anymore after deforma-
tion has stopped, which is in contrast to non-included ones. Latter ones
should then represent larger dp values or if Ostwald ripening has
140 A. Ebert et al. / Tectonophysics 457 (2008) 128–142
occurred a shift of grain size distributions to larger grain sizes (e.g., Eberl
et al., 1990).
6.3. Rheology
The previously described temperature/stress/strain rate induced
variations in microfabrics might also affect rheology. The microfabric
features mentioned above and the occurrence of dynamic recovery
processes indicate dislocation creep as dominant deformation
mechanism. As suggested by Ter Heege et al. (2002, 2004) and Bai
and Raj (2005), a combination of dislocation and diffusion creep might
occur in microfabrics, where large and small grains in the same
aggregate deform by these two mechanisms, respectively. As
suggested recently by numerical models of Herwegh et al. (2005b),
the contribution of the two deformation mechanisms during the
preservation of a bulk steady state fabric may change with
temperature. Compared to dislocation creep, the component of
diffusion creep may increase with rising temperature conditions.
However, in the temperature range investigated in this study, the
contribution of diffusion creep has to remain small because of strong
textures and the occurrence of dislocations in both second-phase and
recrystallization controlled microfabrics (Herwegh and Berger, 2004;
Ebert et al., 2007a,b). Note that the assumption of composite flow is
only valid, if the grains nucleated in the aforementioned cycles are
small enough to be deformed under diffusion creep conditions. The
validity of this assumption has to be tested in future approaches.
Second phases did not significantly influence the rock's rheology as
already discussed in Ebert et al. (2007b). Impure layers seem to be
characterized by similar strength as pure ones as can be inferred from
parallel bands of pure and impure layers and lacking evidences of
boudinage or fracturing of the layers with progressive strain. The
deformation behavior of the second phases by granular flow and their
recrystallization are represented and discussed in detail for carbonate
mylonites from the Doldenhorn thrust in Herwegh and Jenni (2001)
and the Morcles thrust in Ebert et al. (2007b).
7. Summary and conclusions
Under deformational conditions, the whole system consisting of
matrix mineral and second phases is dynamically active. Microstruc-
tures are controlled by temperature, stress, strain rate and intrinsic
parameters like the occurrence of second phases. Dependent on these
parameters, stabilized systems evolve, where the average grain sizes of
matrix mineral and second phases are coupled with each other in
dependence on the volume fraction of the phases. As Figs. 9 and 10
display, each microstructure represents specific deformation conditions
and can therefore be used in future studies to determine physical
parameters like temperature or microstructural parameters describing
coupled grain coarsening. In this sense, the advantage of dynamic steady
state microfabrics is their time and strain invariance. Due to the fact that
steady state microstructures can already be reached at low strains of
γ = 5–10, microstructures of high-strain shear zones will reflect specific
extrinsic and intrinsic conditions under which the system was evolved.
The large data set of this study combined with data from other tectonic
settings show that it is possible to predict grain coarsening in stabilized
deformation microfabrics of polymineralic carbonate systems. There-
fore, our grain coarsening map is a useful tool for field geologists,
modelers, and material scientists (ceramists and metallurgists), since
microstructures behave similar in solid materials during hot working
and high temperature annealing. Although differences persist in
synkinematic fluid flow, strain rate, mineral compositions, shear zone
geometry and large-scale tectonic structures between different nappes
studied in this project, relationships between matrix grain size of calcite,
second-phase influence and temperature/stress are similar. Thus, the
variations in fluid flow, strain rate and rock types between shear zones
at the best induce variations in microstructures responsible for the
datascatter observed in the samples investigated. Since tectonic nappe
settings are similar in thrusts all over in the mid to upper earth crust, as
indicated by similar strain rates of high temperature shear zones in the
range of 10− 11–10− 13 s− 1 (e.g., Heitzmann, 1987; Kennedy and Logan,
1997; Ulrich et al., 2002; Herwegh et al., 2005b; Ebert et al., 2007a,b), it is
very likely that microstructures of mylonites from other similar shear
zones show similar microstructures as shown in this study. Similarly,
fluids are mostly abundant and as concluded in this study, the amount of
fluids is unimportant in light of dynamic microstructural modifications
as long as it is above a specific threshold. Moreover, in case of carbonate
mylonites, chemical variations of calcite as well as types of second
phases do not differ much in the earth crust at mid-crustal levels.
Therefore, the coarsening maps derived from 5 Helvetic nappes of this
study can be expected to be valid for other settings in the earth crust at
similar temperature ranges located between diagenesis to greenschist-
facies metamorphic conditions.
However, the settings and resulting fabrics are not directly
transferable to experimental studies. Apparent different microstruc-
tures between nature and experiments are likely caused by large
strain rate differences of 5–10 orders of magnitude as Fig. 10 reflects.
In spite of this, experiments also indicate that activation energies and
therefore bulk processes change with temperature/stress (Fig. 10).
The grain coarsening maps provide an important base for all future
investigations, where predictions about changes in polymineralic
fabrics with increasing depth are required. Potential field for the
application of grain coarsening maps will therefore be: numerical
modeling, rock mechanics, petrology, geodynamics and geophysics.
Acknowledgments
We acknowledge the anonymous reviewers for their helpful and
constructive reviews. This manuscript also benefited from stimulating
discussions with Nick Austin and Brian Evans. We thank the Swiss
National Sciences Foundation for the financial support of this project
by grants 21-66889.01 and 200020-103720.
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