Turbomachinery Technology Seminar

Gas Turbine
Air/Fuel/Water
Management

CNERPIllAR@
Solar Turbines
 Contents

Page

INTRODUCTION 54-l
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 54-1
CONTAMINANTS 54-2
DERIVATION OF TOTAL CONTAMINANT
CONCENTRATION 54-3
STANDARDS FOR AIR/FUEL/WATER QUALITY 54-4
GAS PATH COATINGS 54-4
COMPRESSOR MATERIALS 54-5
TURBINE MATERIALS 54-6
APPLICATION 54-7
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS 54-8
SUMMARY 54-9
REFERENCES 54-9

Copyright by Solar Turbines Incorporated

TrS54/489
 Gas Turbine Air/Fuel/Water
Management
L.L. Hsu
Chief Engineer,
Process Engineering

INTRODUCTION EVAPORATIVE
AIR FUEL . WATER
The longevity of a turbine in the field is deter- t
mined by the extent of its operation within design TREATMENT TREATMENT TREATMENT
limits under mechanical and thermal loads as
well as the effect of the “environment” on gas path
surfaces in undermining component material
properties. This “environment” is essentially all TURBINE
ENVIRONMENT
constituents entrained in the fluids entering the (Gases, Liquids, Solids)
gas turbine such as air, fuel and injected water
(or steam).
Materials for critical gas path components, CHEMICAL EFFECTS
(Oxidation/Corrosion)
MECHANICAL EFFECTS
(Erosion/Abrasion)
4
such as rotating and stationary airfoils in both
NOTE: @ Control of Total Contaminants
compressor and turbine sections, are carefully
@ Secondary Control of Evaporative Cooler Water 54001
selected for their mechanical strength properties
as well as their oxidation/corrosion resistance. In Figure 1. Schematic of Air/Fuel/Water
order to ensure that the component surface Management Concept
- has adequate resistance against environmental
effects, coatings can be utilized to provide an
added measure of protection. Because of the wide range of environments
The concept of air/fuel/water management is that prevail in geographic locations worldwide
represented schematically in Figure 1. This and the absence of reliable data on airborne
shows that, instead of separate restrictions on constituents, concentrations of airborne contam-
air/fuel/water quality, limits on combined con- inants are difficult to assess and estimated
centrations of harmful contaminants comprising values are generally relied upon. Nevertheless,
the total gas turbine environment are specified. even estimated values in Eq. 1 will clearly identify
Such an approach allows for more realistic the relative contribution of contaminants borne
cognizance of critical contaminants in the hot gas by air, fuel and water to the total concentration in
stream as well as greater flexibility in accom- the hot section.
modating site specific conditions. Contaminants entering the gas turbine can be
in the form of gas, liquid or solid phases, depend-
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES ing on geographic location and prevailing condi-
tions, as depicted in Figure 2.
In order to utilize air/fuel/water management as a
In the compressor, the degradation by air-
means of total corrosion control for land-based
borne contaminants, including water carry-over
gas turbines, it is necessary to define the maxi-
from evaporative coolers, is of primary concern
mum allowable concentrations of each harmful
because of electrochemical reactions that occur
contaminant as a combined sum of concentra-
during shutdown or in stagnated recesses where
tions in air, fuel and water:
water is entrapped. During operation, some of the
Total Concentration = [Air] + [Fuel] + [Water] (1) solid constituents in the airstream are largely

54-1
 Solid
Water Water Contaminants
Fuel + Insoluble + Soluble + ;zure) + ga;r;;;;,,
Contaminants
(Hydrocarbons)
Contaminants
Silicates) 1
1 Air
I

FUEL 1 Industrial gas turbines are used in all kinds of

WATER
I
geographic locations worldwide, with an equal
I ,-, COMBUSTOR diversity in ambient air quality. The sizes of the
r

A’R A i r Evap. EXHAUST most commonly found airborne contaminants are

“C l e a n e r - Cooler -
COMPRESSOR
I 1
I W Water Vapor Liquid
Ambient + (Ambient + + Water
Air Droplets
Evaporated)
Solid
Gas Phase Contaminants
+ ~a~?$~~s~ + (Salts, Aerosols, etc.)
Figure 2. Diagram of Fluids and Entrained Species
Entering Industrial Gas Turbine
centrifuged to the outer shrouds or deposited on
gas path surfaces. Surviving constituents includ-
ing particulate fines and gases travel to the hot
section where they combine with contaminants
borne by fuel and water in the combustor to
produce energetic hot gases containing poten-
tially corrosive and/or fouling specie.
In the face of this onslaught of effluent gases
from the combustor, degradation of turbine airfoil
surfaces is expected to occur at a very slow con-
trolled rate with the expectation that the airfoils
remain mechanically functional between hot sec-
tion overhauls. In instances where it is known that
the air/fuel/water quality would exceed specifica-
tion limits, protective coatings are relied upon to
delay the threshold of unacceptable substrate
degradation, as shown in Figure 3. From the
standpoint of air/fuel/water management, the
trade-offs are cost of additional equipment for
filtration and cleanup, material degradation, cost
of coatings, and projected maintenance.
shown in Figure 4 (Ref. 1). Other industry-related,
TURBINE site-specific contaminants include factory dis-
charge, exhaust fumes (including gas turbine
1
exhaust reingestion), fertilizer, and mineral ore.
Contaminant concentrations, which can vary
daily and/or seasonally, are also subject to
climatic conditions such as prevailing wind direc-
tion, wind speed, temperature, relative humidity
and precipitation. Despite the deployment of air
filters in all but the most innocuous environments,
experience shows that inevitably some of these
ambient air constituents will find their way into the
compressor inlet and, thus, act upon compressor
and turbine gas path components. In environ-
ments with low humidity and high temperatures,
evaporative cooling is often used for power
augmentation, which enhances the potential for
introducing water droplets into the air inlet.
Although many of these ambient constituents
are present in extremely low concentrations,
some of the larger turbines require very high
airflows which would cause the net effect of these
constituents to increase significantly. For exam-
ple, at an air-to-fuel ratio of 68:l and an airflow
rate of 80 Ib/sec (36 kg/set), a potentially fouling
contaminant present at 0.1 ppmw in the air would
travel through the compressor at the rate of 0.03
Ib/hr (0.014 kg/hr). Assuming a capture rate of
IO%, a fouling rate of 25 Ib/yr (11 kg/yr) could be
expected. Under these conditions, 0.1 ppmw in
the air, which may seem relatively innocuous, is
equivalent to 6.8 ppmw in fuel.

Burned and Unburned Hydrocarbons

Coated Salt Droplets and Fly-Ash

Component
Salt Nuclei
Uncoated
Component Erosion Causing Particles
Life

Blade Fouling Particles

LIFE b 54-00 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1 2 4 6 10 20

PARTICLE SIZE, MICROMETERS 54404
Figure 3. Relative Degradation of Coated and
Uncoated Alloys Figure 4. Size of Common Airborne Contaminants

54-2
Fuel Water
The types of fuels used in gas turbines are known Water chemistry and treatment - a technology in
to vary significantly in levels of corrosive con- itself - plays a critical role in gas turbine cor-
taminants as well as in their physical and thermal rosion. Contaminants in water injected into the
characteristics (Ref. 2). Typical contaminants combustor for emissions control can be con-
that could be present in gaseous and liquid sidered as being equivalent to contaminants in
fuels are shown in Figures 5 and 6 respectively fuel because water flow rates are closely
(Ref. 3). It is evident that hot corrosion degrada- matched to fuel flow. Typical water-to-fuel ratios
tion by sulfur, vanadium, lead, and sodium + range from 0.51 to 1 .O:l for industrial gas
potassium salts is of primary concern. With some turbines.
lower grade fuel types, particulate concentration As with air and fuel, the two key concerns are
is also critical because of the presence of ash- corrosion and deposition/fouling. These are re-
forming constituents, especially for fuels with lated to two types of soluble constituents found
high aromatic content, resulting in increased in water: 1) sodium and potassium ions (other
potential for ash deposition and turbine fouling. corrosive species such as vanadium and lead are
For example, water removal can reduce the negligibly soluble in water); 2) all other dissolved
level of sodium and potassium salts because, ions. The former are actively involved in hot cor-
being water soluble, they are segregated to the rosion phenomena, while the latter contribute to
water or moisture portion of the fuel. However, deposition/fouling.
water-insoluble species such as vanadium, lead As an example, a gas turbine burning 100 mil-
and sulfur, being organically bound to the hydro- lion Btu/hr (106,000 MJ/hr) of a 20,000 Btu/lb (46
carbon fuel, are not removable in-situ except as MJ/kg) natural gas fuel with water injection at a
part of condensable liquid ‘hydrocarbons. water-fuel ratio of 1 .O: 1 can potentially deposit as
much as 150 lb (68 kg) in 30,000 hours of opera-
I I tion of a particular contaminant that is present in
GASEOUS
FUELS water at 0.5 ppmw.

DERIVATION OF TOTAL CONTAMINANT

1 1 gfFter 1 1 Landfill 1 1 Others 1
CONCENTRATION
Regardless of the media through which con-
l Hydrogen l Hydrogen l Chlorides l Depends taminants are introduced into the gas turbine, the
Sulfide Sulfide Fluorides on Gas
Alkali Salts
l
Sources net effect in the turbine section can be expressed
l l Water l Sulfur
l Solids Dioxide as a sum of the contaminants contributed by air,
fuel and water. One accepted convention is to ex-
Figure 5. Types of Gaseous Fuels and Their press total contaminant concentration as a fuel
Contaminants equivalent concentration (FEC) in ppmw with
reference to a standard fuel with lower heating
value (LHV) of 18,380 Btu/lb (42,753 kJ/kg):
I I
LIQUID
FUELS
Total Concentration = [Air] + [Fuel] + [Water] (1)
I 4
.
I
Ti = [(AFR)Ai + (CFR)Ci] + [Fi] + [(WFR)Wi] (2)
I I I I
Non-
Crude Distillate Residual
Hydrocarbons where:
.
l Water l Water l Same as l Depends on Ti = Total concentration of ith contaminant
l Alkali Salts l Alkali Salts Crude Process and entering the gas turbine
l Sediment l Sediment Handling
l Vanadium l Calcium AFR = Air-to-fuel ratio
l Calcium l Sulfur Ai = Concentration of ith contaminant in
l Sulfur l Vanadium*
l Lead* ambient air
*Result of Mishandling CFR = Carry-over water (from evaporative
cooling)-to-fuel ratio
Figure 6. Types of Liquid Fuels and Their Ci = Concentration of ith contaminant in
Contaminants evaporative cooling water

54-3
 Fi = Concentration of ith contaminant in
fuel supply
WFR = Injected water-to-fuel ratio (or steam)
Wi = Concentration of ith contaminant in
injected water
Consideration of the air term in Eq. 2 leads to
the incorporation of additional factors that affect
air quality, such as rated efficiency of air
cleaners, rate of water carry-over, demister
efficiency, and steady-state evaporative cooling
water quality (with set blowdown and makeup
rates). Details of the derivation are provided in
Ref. 4. The final expression has the following
form:
18,380
Ti = - [Fi( 1 -K) + (AFR)( 1 -N)Aiamb
LHV
4.99x10-dR(LHV)(l-E)Ci
+ (WFR)Wi +
Y
where:
Ti = Total concentration of ith contaminant
normalized to a fuel
with LHV of 18,380 Btu/lb, ppmw FEC
Fi = Concentration of ith contaminant in
fuel, ppmw
K = Efficiency rating for fuel cleanup system
AFR = Air-to-fuel ratio
N = Efficiency rating for air cleanup system
Aiamb =
Concentration of ith contaminant in
ambient air, ppmw
WFR = Water-to-fuel ratio
Wi = Concentration of ith contaminant in
injected water at point of entry into
combustor, ppmw
R = Rate of water carry-over from
evaporative cooler, gal./min
L H V = Lower Heating Value of actual fuel,
Btu/lb
E = Efficiency rating for mist eliminator
system
Ci = Concentration of ith contaminant in
evaporative cooler feedwater, ppmw
Y = Fuel flow rate, Btu/hr (kJ/hr)
STANDARDS FOR AIR/FUEL/WATER
QUALITY
Establishing standards for air/fuel/water quality
for turbomachinery is a challenging process
that must necessarily incorporate information
from several sources. Gas turbine models differ
considerably from manufacturer to manufacturer
in terms of materials used (alloys and coatings)
and, more importantly, in design and per-
formance objectives. However, standards ( for
air/fuel/water quality are generally developed so
that they are applicable to all models, provided
that these standards are technically and eco-
nomically justifiable.
Some of the salient issues that are considered
in establishing or revising such standards
include:
l Design Objectives
l Performance Objectives
l Material Properties
l Mechanisms of Degradation
l Laboratory Results
l Field Experience
l Industry Standards (ASTM, API, etc.)
3 (3) l Other Manufacturer’ s Standards
Understanding these issues and how they in-
terrelate is important in order to define standards
that will achieve target component lives. The sub-
sequent application of these standards to field
gas turbines in a cost-optimized manner is the
objective of this methodology of air/fuel/water
management.
GAS PATH COATINGS
The requirements of material strength and dura-
bility for gas path components are crucial to over-
all design integrity. Traditional design strategy
requires alloys that can be relied upon primarily
to meet mechanical strength objectives. Inherent
environmental resistance is a secondary consid-
eration that can be corrected by metallurgical or
chemical modification of the surface, in the form
of a protective coating.
With developments in advanced alloys, it has
become apparent that this reliance on coatings
is increasingly vital. High performance require-
ments coupled with long-term operation general-
ly dictate that the protection provided by the
coating, in preventing corrodents from gaining
access to the alloy, cannot compromise substrate
properties. Therefore, coating properties and ef-
fects on substrate alloy are increasingly impor-
tant factors in the selection of materials.
For most superalloys, high temperature
mechanical strength is usually attained at the
expense of environmental resistance. This is
illustrated in Figure 7 which shows the relation-
ship between rupture strength and corrosion
54-4
 CHROMIUM CONTENT, Wt. % l Large number of airfoil components can
10 20 30
lead to high coating costs
Degradation mechanisms in, the compressor
section can be categorized into ‘three modes:
chemical, electrochemical and mechanical, as
depicted schematically in Figure 8.

Chemical Degradation
02

ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE - 5rl407

ALLOY

Figure 7. Mechanical Strength versus i

Environmental Resistance OXIDATION

CORROSION c ACIDIC WATER

PRODUCTS
resistance, with the latter directly proportional. to
chromium content. Nickel-based alloys, used in
rotating hardware, are generally stronger than GRAIN
ALLOY
cobalt alloys because of solid solution and grain BOUNDARY
-
AmACK
boundary strengthening phases and reduced CORROSION
chromium levels. On the other hand, cobalt alloys
with higher chromium levels are typically superior Electrochemical Degradation
in oxidation/corrosion resistance. CORROSIO
PRODUCTS CONDENSED
WATER
COMPRESSOR MATERIALS CONTAINING

Compressor components are more sensitive to

the quality of ingested air than are turbine
Alloy #l Alloy #2
components for the industrial gas turbine. Con- (Less Noble) - WATER Wl-IH
sequently, they can be subjected to erosive GALVANIC ACTION
/ DISSOLVED SALTS
CORROSION
degradation as well as corrosion. Because of the PRODUCTS \
AT DIFFERENT
CONCENTRATIONS
lower temperatures that prevail in the compres-
sor, oxidation and corrosion by airborne con-
taminants is relatively slow and electrochemical
or galvanic corrosion is of primary concern.
The selection of materials and coatings for
CONCENTRATION CELL
I ALLOY

54411

compressor components is influenced by the fol- Mechanical Degradation

lowing factors: PARTICULATE
l Maximum temperature is generally less than IMPINGEMENT
/
\I
1000°F (538°C)
l Wide range of temperatures between first

and final stages

EROSION
l Enhanced susceptibility to ambient air qual-
ity because of proximity to air inlet / SOLID DEPOSITS

l Vulnerability to moisture condensation and

deposition of contaminants ALLOY

- Vulnerability to cleaning practices and
cleaning media composition DEPOSITION
!a012

l Primary degradation mechanism is electro-

chemical corrosion with some erosion in the Figure 8. Modes of Substrate Alloy Degradation in
early stages Compressor

54-5
 Chemical degradation, also commonly known
as oxidation and corrosion, generally occurs at
elevated temperatures because reaction kinetics
are exponentially related to the temperature.
Therefore, in the absence of other factors, oxida-
tion/corrosion rates are very low near ambient
temperatures and considerably higher in the lat-
ter stages of the compressor. Electrochemical
degradation in contrast, is a low temperature
phenomenon that is associated with the
presence of condensed water. As is implied by
the term, a potential difference is established in
water as a result of dissimilar materials or con-
centration gradients in the water, thus causing
galvanic reactions to occur and metal loss at the
anodic end of the couple. The third mode,
mechanlcal degradation, is essentially erosion
by particuiates in the airstream.
Protective coatings can also be functionally
grouped into corresponding categories as shown
in Figure 9. In principle, barrier coatings are
used to restrict contact between oxygen/corro-
dents and the substrate metal, thus minimizing
oxidation/corrosion rates. To resist electrochemi-
cal degradation, sacrificial coatings are used.
These coatings require intimate contact between
water (containing dissolved salts or electrolytes)
and the coated metal surfaces to promote dis-
solution of the less noble constituent within the
coating. The third coating type, hard coatings,
presents a hard surface to the impinging par-
ticles, hence reducing material losses.
Some coatings, such as inorganic aluminum
paints, impart both barrier and sacrificial re-
sistance to corrodents, while others, such as
electroless nickel, are barrier coatings only.
Corn pressor
Gas Path
Coatings
I 1
Chemical Electrochemical
Resistance Resistance
I I
Barrier Coatings Sacrificial Coatings Hard Coatings
l Diffusion Aluminide l Electroplate l Diffusion
l Electroless Ni l Flame Spray Aluminide
l Electroplate l Boriding
l Vapor Deposition
l Conversion l Inorganic Paint l Hard Chrome
Coatings
l Glass
l
Figure 9. Types of Compressor Coatings
TURBINE MATERIALS
In the hot section, degradation occurs very readi-
ly via reactions of gas phase or condensed liquid
phase with the solid substrate surface. ‘The
physiochemical phenomena that govern the
degradation reactions, such as chemical kinetics
(reaction and solid state diffusion rates) and
thermodynamics (reaction constants, activation
energies and equilibrium constants), are signifi-
cantly enhanced because of the high tempera-
tures, resulting in potentially aggressive hot
section environment.
The typical environment in the turbine region
consists of contaminants entrained in air, fuel and
injected water, as well as reaction products of
hydrocarbon combustion. Upon exiting the com-
bustor, these various specie enter the turbine and
cool down as the gas stream is expanded across
the various stages of the gas producer and power
turbine. Certain specie in the gas stream could
condense out if the maximum vapor pressure has
been exceeded for that particular temperature. In
other words, the “dewpoint” has been reached
and condensation in the form of liquid or even
solid phases can occur on airfoil surfaces. These
condensates are highly reactive because of the
favorable kinetics and thermodynamics that
prevail in the liquid-solid reactions between con-
densate and base metal.
Regardless of the temperature or the material,
the basic phenomenon that occurs at the surface
is oxldatlon: the conversion of load-bearing me-
tals (or metal alloys) to weak and non-load bear-
ing metal oxides. This tendency to react with
oxygen and form oxides can differ greatly
depending on the metal element and its standard
free energy of formation.
Of all the useful elements found in structural
alloys, aluminum and chromium oxides have
proved to be most effective in high temperature
service. Once formed, the oxide scale serves as
Physical a physical barrier to corrodents. Ideally, this
Resistance oxide scale should be dense, thin, adherent,
I
stable, impervious and rapidly replenished in
order to ensure that it remains in place throughout
the target component life.
The role of turbine coatings is to produce an
Plate optimized oxide scale superior to that of the sub-
Carbide Coatings
strate alloy and to serve as reservoirs to maintain
54409
continuous scale formation The functions of an
ideal hot section coating include:
54-6
 Ability to produce an adherent oxide scale
Serves as a reservoir to continue replenish-
ing scale
Inhibits diffusion of substrate elements out-
wards into coating
Inhibits diffusion of oxygen and corrodents
inwards
Presence of thermodynamically stable
phases that can resist reacting with c o r r o
dents that penetrate oxide scale
APPLICATION
To illustrate this methodology of air/fuel/water
management for total corrosion control, a hypo-
thetical example of an industrial* turbine applica-
tion operating with both water injection and
evaporative cooling is presented. Sodium +
potassium concentrations were selected as the
critical contaminants of interest.
Example
Power Output - 4 0 0 0 h p (2983 kW)

The need for thermal resistance or thermal bar- Duty - Continuous

rier capability has grown in significance in recent Fuel - Natural gas (pipeline
years because design temperatures are increas- quality) 20,500 Btu/lb
ingly being raised for greater power output. The (47,684 kJ/kg) LHV
insulating capability of ceramic oxides is derived Installation - Inland, dry lake bed
from a fundamental property of the coating
Air-Fuel Ratio - 689
material-thermal conductivity. Metallic coatings
have thermal conductivities comparable to that of Ambient Temperature - 100°F (43°C) maximum
superalloys and a r e inherently incapable of Relative Humidity - 40-500/o m e a n
providing significant thermal resistance. Ceramic Precipitation - 20-30 i n c h e s
oxides, on the other hand, have shown excellent (508-762 mm) annual
thermal barrier capability and are increasingly
exploited in hot section applications. Emissions - New Source
Performance
The requirements of a thermal barrier coating Standards (NSPS)
differ from those of metallic coatings in that the
Water-Fuel Ratio - 0.6:l
following properties are desirable:
Water Source - Municipal water
l Low thermal conductivity
(potable water)
l Low elastic modulus
Operating parameters used in this example,
l High specific heat
along with appropriate calculations for sodium +
l Thermal expansion matched with potassium concentrations in air (Including water
substrate alloy carry-over), fuel and water terms, are listed in
l Good adherence to substrate Table 1. Certain assumptions were made in order
l Resistance to corrodents
to perform the calculations. For example, am-
bient sodium + potassium concentrations in air
0 Crystallographic phase stability with and fuel are arbitrarily defined at 0.1 and 0.05
exposure to high temperatures
ppmw respectively. The former is based on esti-
Thermal barrier coatings, such as magnesium mated air quality for an inland, high salt location:
zirconate, calcium titanate and yttria-stablized the latter is based on actual measurements of
zirconia, have seen years of service in combus- pipeline natural gas performed by a commercial
tors, primarily in flight engines. Advancements in laboratory.
coating processes, particularly in plasma spray- An air cleanup factor of 97% is selected as a
ing and physical vapor deposition techniques, conservative but realistic, time-averaged value
have led to significant gains in coating perfor- for generic air cleaners. The fuel flow rate of 40
mance and reliability. million Btu/hr (42,204 MJ/hr) is sized for a 4000-
Potential applications of thermal barrier coat- hp (29839kW) gas turbine. The value of 50 ppmw
ings to rugged and heavy duty components in sodium + potassium in potable water is predi-
industrial gas turbines are increasingly viable. cated on San Diego city water quality. Evapora-
Considerable development activity is currently in tive cooling water carry-over is estimated at 10%
progress in on-going R&D at Solar involving of flow to the header, rated at 1 gal./min (4 L/min)
combustors, injector tips (Ref. 5) and turbine for this gas turbine size. For a once-through
nozzles. system, sodium + potassium concentration in

54-7
Table 1. Total Site Analysis for Sodium + Potassium

Configuration A B c D

Air Cleaner Air Cleaner and

No Air Cleaner and Demister and
Type of Treatment Treatment Only Demister Water Treatment

Air
Concentration in Ambient Air,, ppmw 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Air-to-Fuel Ratio 68 68 68 68
Air Cleanup Factor 0 0.97 0.97 0.97
Concentration in ppmw
Air, FEC 6.10 0.18 0.18 0.18
Fuel
In Fuel, ppmw 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050
Fuel LHV, Btullb 20,500 20,500 20,500 20,500
Fuel Cleanup Factor 0 0 0 0
Fuel Flow Rate, million Btu/hr 40 40 40 40 .
Concentration in Fuel, ppmw FEC 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04
Injected Water
Concentration in Injected Water, ppmw 50 50 50 1
Water-to-Fuel Ratio 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Concentration in Injected Water, ppmwFEC 26.90 26.90 26.90 0.54
Carry-Over Water
Concentration In E/C Water, ppmw 50 50 50 50
E/C Carry-Over Rate, gpm 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100
Mist Eliminator Efficiency, % 0 0 0.9 0.9
Concentration in E/C Water, ppmw FEC 1.15 1.15 0.11 0.11
T o t a l C o n c e n t r a t ippmw
on, FEC 34.19 28.27 27.23 0.87

Maximum Manufacturer’s Standard: Allowable Na + K - 1 ppmw FEC

FEC = Fuel Equivalent Concentration

evaporative cooler water is assumed to be
approximately constant at 50 ppmw.
The values shown in Column A of Table 1
reflect sodium + potassium concentration levels
in the absence of any treatment of air and
injected water - a strictly hypothetical circum-
stance. Columns B, C and D show the incremen-
tal effects of air filtration, mist eliminator, and a
water treatment skid employing reverse osmosis
-and ion exchange processing such that the
sodium + potassium concentrations are reduced
from 50 to 1 ppmw in injected water.
The total sodium + potassium concentration
values at the bottom of each column in Table 1
clearly indicate the relative effect of each device
in reducing the combined sum. The largest effect
is derived from treatment of injected water, to
reduce sodium + potassium concentrations by
over one order of magnitude. Because con-
taminants in injected water are only mitigated by
the appropriate water-fuel ratio, the net effect of
this water treatment is the reduction of total
concentrations from 27 ppmw to 0.5 ppmw, thus
complying with the manufacturer’s standard of 1
ppmw FEC maximum.
Further optimization of the package in Column
D can be performed upon consideration of other
operating costs including: air cleaner media
replacement, maintenance of water treatment
cylinders and waste disposal, cost of water, and
relative costs and salt concentration effects of
once-through versus recycling evaporative
coolers.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
The control of component degradation via air/
fuel/water management is not cost-free. Figure
10 is a simplistic representation of how trade-offs
between extreme contaminant control and zero
control can be developed. In any gas turbine
application, the total cost of power is the primary

54-8

CONTAMINANT LEVEL IN GAS TURBINE ENVIRONMENT
54010
Figure IO. Schema tic Representation of Trade-Offs
in Total Corrosion Control
concern. Therefore, the objective is to configure
the power plant so that contaminants are con-
trolled only to the extent that the total cost of
power, including the initial costs of coatings and
treatment package as well as maintenance costs,
such as parts replacement/refurbishment, are
minimal. Figure 10 is not intended to give dollar
values for a specific application but rather to set
forth the concept of locating that configuration
where a contaminant control balance can be
reached to minimize power cost.
In reality, the curve representing the ownership
and operating costs of ancillary equipment is not
monotonic but is usually a step function. For
instance, adding a polishing stage to a reverse
osmosis water treatment package would add to
the ownership cost and, at the same time, remove
contaminants to a lower level. This would result
in improved hot section environment and lower
hot section corrosion rates. Conversely, con-
sideration of coating costs and component
rework during overhaul should be weighed
against increased capital costs for added ancil-
lary equipment and the cost of money over the
operating lifetime of the plant.
Further development is required to correlate
this methodology of air/fuel/water management
with life-cycle costs in a comprehensive eco-
nomic analysis. This expanded approach would
utilize an interactive algorithm to calculate the
life-cycle costs as a function of air/fuel/water
quality, critical component life, operating char-
acteristics, scheduled downtimes for inspec-
tion and overhaul, cost of parts replacement/
refurbishment, and other operating expenses
including consumables and maintenance, capi-
tal expenditure, cost of money and projected
revenues.
54-9
SUMMARY
This paper describes the concept of air/fuel/
water management as a viable approach to total
corrosion control for land-based gas turbines.
The significance of contaminants borne by air,
fuel and water is also discussed in the context of
degradation mechanisms in both compressor
and turbine sections. The roles of gas path
materials and coatings are shown to be integral
to gas turbine durability in that appropriate selec-
tion of coating and substrate will adequately
resist environmental degradation and, hence,
extend the useful life of critical components.
The relationship between air/fuel/water man-
agement and protective coatings is essentially
that of “prevention” versus “cure”,* In order to allow
the “cure” to be effective, a certain measure of
“prevention” must necessarily be incorporated,
such as air filtration, mist elimination and reverse
osmosis. An optimally balanced power package
will result in acceptable deterioration of the
component surface in the time period between
overhaul and subsequent restoration of the com-
ponent surface by stripping and recoating at
overhaul. With this integrated approach, the
economics of plant operation, including events
like unscheduled shutdown, component failure,
performance deterioration and repair costs, can
be minimized.
REFERENCES
1. L.L. Hsu, “Total Corrosion Control for
Industrial Gas Turbines: Airborne Contam-
inants and Their Impact on Air/Fuel/Water
Management,” ASME 88-G%65, Amsterdam,
June 1988.
2, W.S. Hung, “Gas Turbine Fuels,” TTS 53,
Solar Turbines Incorporated, 1989.
3. R.T. LeCren Section 2, Symposium on
Air/Fuel/Water Management for Solar Gas
Turbines, Solar Turbines Incorporated, San
Diego, 1986.
4. Solar Turbines Incorporated, “Fuel, Air, and
Water (or Steam) for Solar Gas Turbines”,
. ES 9-98 Rev. B, Appendix B, 1987,
5. M. van Roode and L.L. Hsu, “Comparative
Evaluation of High Temperature Coatings for
Corrosion Protection of Fuel Injector Tips,”
Surfaces and Coatings Technology, Vol.
32, No. 1-4, 1987.