IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON GEOSCIENCE AND REMOTE SENSING, VOL. GE-20, NO.
3, JULY 1982 343
Radar Image Processing
Discrimination
RONALD G. BLOM AND
Abstract-Radar images have unique radiometric and geometric char-
acteristics which present unique problems and opportunities for geolog-
ical application. This paper reviews preprocessing and analytical tech-
niques found useful or promising for applications of radar images to
geologic problems such as rock-type discrimination. The use of coher-
ent monochromatic illumination in radar images results in image
speckle noise which interferes with characterization of the imaged sur-
face. Median value filtering of the radar images removes speckle with
minimal edge effects and resolution degradation. Variations in radar
scene illumination due to uncompensated sensor platform motions or
antenna pattern effects can be somewhat corrected for by mean and
variance equalization in a direction perpendicular to the resulting image
gradient. Registration of radar images to a map base and compensation
of terrain induced image distortion can be accomplished by registration
to digital elevation models and knowledge of imaging geometry. Analy-
sis of SEASAT images with coregistered LANDSAT images indicates that
the radar data can make a significant contribution to rock-type discrimi-
nation, especially if textural measures are incorporated. The sensitivity
of radar backscatter to local slopes makes radar images an excellent me-
dium from which to extract textural measures. Three techniques for
extraction of the textural data inherent in the radar images are pre-
sented. Computation of image tone variance over various areas can
numerically encode image texture. Hue-saturation-intensity split spec-
trum processing displays low-frequency variations in color while pre-
serving high-frequency detail. The use of Fourier bandpass filtering re-
sults in a radar image texture map which separates geologic units based
upon spatial frequencies characteristic of the unit.
INTRODUCTION
THIS PAPER reviews image processing and image enhance-
ment techniques found useful for improving the geologic
utility of digital radar images. Recent work has concentrated
on determining the potential of radar images to contribute to
the discrimination of rock- and surface-type both indepen-
dently and coregistered to LANDSAT multispectral images.
The approach has emphasized systematic exploitation of the
strengths of radar imaging systems while minitizini the ef-
fects of their weaknesses. This paper is intended to formally
review some the material presented at the IEEE International
Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium [1], [2].
The paper is organized into three sections. Preprocessing
covers two methods found useful for minimizing problems
with radar image speckle and uneven scene illumination. Also
reported is a method for geometric correction of topographi-
cally induced distortions inherent in radar images as a conse-
quence of ranging to a nonflat surface. Registration and anal-
Manuscript received October 10, 1981; revised March 4, 1982. This
work was supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration.
R. G. Blom is with the Radar Remote Sensing Team, Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91103.
M. Daily was with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute
of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91103. He is now with Mobil Oil, Dallas,
TX.
0196-2892/82/0700-0343$00.75
for Rock-Type
MICHAEL DAILY
ysis of SEASAT and LANDSAT images outlines results obtained
by simultaneous analysis of these two image types for discrimi-
nation of sedimentary rock types. The great potential of using
radar image texture is indicated in this section. Radar image
texture analysis focuses on three methods which show prom-
ise for extraction and display of this information. Two of
these methods are the subject of individual papers in press
however, collective presentation and review is highiy useful.
PREPROCESSING
All imaging systems yield images which have certain radio-
metric and geometric artifacts which need to be recognized.
Some of the artifacts need to be treated to improve the value
and interpretability of the images. A familiar example of this
type of artifact is the six line stripping of LANDSAT images. In
the case of radar images there are two common types of arti-
facts which, when treated, improve the utility of the images
for rock- and surface-type discrimination. This is especially
true when automatic classification routines are to be used.
The first of these problems is uneven scene illumination caused
by uncorrected antenna pattern effects and the second is
image speckle resulting from the use of coherent monochro-
matic light to illuminate the scene.
A. Mean and Variance Correction
An unevenly illuminated radar scene results when uncom-
pensated or excessive sensor platform (spacecraft or aircraft)
motions cause the imaged terrain to receive varying illumina-
tion. Or, as was commonly a problem with SEASAT images, the
time varying receiver gain was mispositioned. Radar image
grey levels which are partly location dependent rather than a
function of the surface backscatter characteristics are the con-
sequence. When image grey levels are to be used to infer back-
scatter characteristics of the terrain and hence surface type,
the uneven scene illumination is a major handicap.
A useful technique for minimizing the effects of uneven
scene illumination is image mean and variance equalization on
a range or azimuth line by line basis. In the case of SEASAT
images with grey level gradients in the range direction the
mean and variance correction is applied on a range line by line
basis. Fig. 1 shows before and after examples of this process-
ing. Application of this technique results in an image which
appears evenly illuminated across the swath. In images which
have serious antenna pattern problems the poor signal-to-noise
ratio in inadequately illuminated regions is emphasized. Per-
haps the major shortcoming of this technique is its misapplica-
tion to images which cover terrain with natural backscatter
variations which very monotonically across the image. Such
situations are uncommon but not unknown. For example
© 1982 IEEE
 344 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON GEOSCIENCE AND REMOTE SENSING, VOL. GE-20, NO. 3, JULY 1982

KM
ILLUMINATION / 1KM ILLUMINATION
0 5 10 DIRECTION IN 0 5 10 DIRECTION
(a) (b)
Fig. 1. (a) SEASAT radar image of Isle de la Gonave, Haiti, with pro-
nounced brightness gradient. Far range of image (right or east side)
was inadequately illuminated due to mispositioning of time varying
receiver gain intended to compensate for antenna pattern. Image
covers approximately 90 X 90 km area and north is up (approxi-
mately). Image acquired on August 17, 1978, orbit 737. (b) SEASAT
radar image of Isle de la Gonave, Haiti as in Fig. l(a) treated with
mean and variance equalization procedure in the range direction.
Note the improvement in ability to distinguish features on the right
or east side of the image.

SEASAT images of the western Mojave Desert in Califomia show
the near range is composed of radar bright mountainous ter-
rain and the far range is composed of radar dark desert terrain
[3]. The interpreter must analyze the scene prior to applica-
tion of mean and variance equalization to determine if it is
needed. This will prevent distortion of the data that would
result from the processing of a scene such as the desert scene
mentioned.
B. Median Value Filtering
An unavoidable result of using coherent monochromatic
light to illuminate a surface is speckle; a granular image texture
which results from interference of dephased but coherent
energy [4]. The phenomenon of speckle is easily seen in the
laboratory by illuminating a wall with a laser. The illuminated
area will have spots in it. In a radar image, speckle manifests
itself as a granular texture with dimensions of up to a few pix-
els in multilook images. The most common way of dealing with
speckle is through noncoherent averaging or "looks". In the
case of SEASAT imagery the possible resolution in the azimuth
direction is on the order of 6 m using one look. However, a
one-look image is very seriously degraded by the speckle.
Four-look radar imagery is commonly produced. While this re-
sults in an image which is reasonably pleasing to the eye and
which retains most of the resolution of the system, the resid-
ual speckle causes problems for automatic classification rou-
tines. Taking more looks through further averaging usually
results in an unacceptable resolution degradation. Because
an automatic classifier expects a given surface to be repre-
sented by a certain image tone or brightness the renegade data
points caused by speckle remaining in a four-look image are a
hindrance.
We have found that a very effective means of handling the
speckle problem is by using a median value filter on the four-
look image. Although considerably more consumptive of com-
puter time than a simple average value filter, the benefits are
considerable. Pratt [5] contains a discussion on median filter-
ing. Boundaries, edges and resolution suffer much less when
subjected to a median value filter as compared to an average
value filter. This results from the fact that a single wildly dif-
fering pixel (speckle) in a filter operating window of, say, 3 X
3 pixels has a much smaller effect on the local median than the
local average. Selection of the operating window size is radar
system and scene dependent but partly driven by observer
preference. We have found that median value filters of the
order 3 X 3, 5 X 5 or 7 X 7 pixels window size to usually be
adequate to control speckle with minimal undesirable effects.
To illustrate the effect of the median value filter, Fig. 2
shows a SEASAT radar image of an agricultural scene in which
one halt is a conventional four-look presentation and the
other half is a result of median value filtering with an oper-
ating window size of 5 X 5 pixels. The potential improvement
in automatic classification accuracy through this process is
clear. Note that the field boundaries are quite free of edge ef-
fects and resolution degradation is minimal.
To confirm that the median value filtration process improves
the utility of radar images for surface-type discrimination a
test was cunstructed. Coregistered SEASAT and LANDSAT
data (described below) were analyzed with an automatic clas-
sification routine called linear discriminant analysis (also de-
BLOM AND DAILY: RADAR IMAGE PROCESSING 345

Fig. 2. SEASAT radar image of agricultural fields in the Imperial Valley

of California. One half of this four look, 25-m resolution image has
been median value filtered with 5 X 5 pixel operating window. Note
the excellent suppression of image speckle with minimal resolution
degradation. The tonal variations of the agricultural fields relate to
state of cultivation and moisture variations. Image supplied by David
Drake.
 346 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON GEOSCIENCE AND REMOTE SENSING, VOL. GE-20, NO. 3, JULY 1982
scribed below). This routine, among other features, evaluates
and ranks the discrimination power of the variables given it. To
evaluate the effect of the median value filter, the linear discrim-
inant analysis program was given training areas from the
coregistered SEASAT and LANDSAT imagery using a 5 X 5
median-filtered SEASAT image, an unfiltered SEASAT image,
and then both SEASAT images together. The LANDSAT data
set was the same for each test and consisted of four bands plus
ratios. The contribution of the radar image to the rock-type
discrimination increased from 4 to 7 percent when the median-
filtered radar image was substituted for the unfiltered image.
The utility ranking of the radar image improved from sixth to
fourth with the median value filtered image. When the discrim-
inant analysis program had its choice of both radar images the
unfiltered image was selected last among the available variables.
The result indicates that the median filter has positive effects
on the usefulness of radar data for this type of analysis. Adap-
tive filters under development may prove superior to the
median filter [6], however, most image processing facilities
probably have median value filters presently available for use.
C. Geometric Rectification Using Elevation Data
Current work in radar image processing for rock-type dis-
crimination includes multisensor studies requiring coregistered
radar and Multispectral Scanner (MSS) data sets [1]. In previ-
ous work [2], [7], this registration was achieved by tedious
manual identification of tiepoints common to both images fol-
lowed by rubber-sheet deformation based on a polynomial fit
to the tiepoint geometry. For the relatively flat sites studied
(Death Valley, California, and San Rafael Swell, Utah) this
technique gave satisfactory results but was extremely labo-
rious. The next generation of multisensor studies will focus on
areas of moderate relief and valley-ridge topography. A cor-
rect sampling of such topography implies the identification of
tiepoints in each valley and on each ridge, which for a SEASAT
radar image (100 km on a side) and 2-km mean drainage spac-
ing would require identifying 104 tiepoints. This level of ef-
fort is prohibitive in terms of computer and analyst resources.
Recently, a new technique has been developed [8] that cor-
rects relief displacement by applying a radar-specific distortion
model to digital elevation data. This technique requires the
identification of a sparse array (ten or so) of tiepoints between
the radar image and a simulated sun-illuminated scene having
ground range geometry. This step registers the radar image
with the elevation data. The radar image is then corrected,
line by line, by computing relief displacement vectors based on
knowledge of radar sensor height and terrain elevation. Image
intensity is not currently correoted for slope effects.
Utilization of radar data for multisensor studies will require
the use of scatterometer data to determine correct image
brightness after slope removal. Image correlation and storage
must also have wide dynamic range to accomodate the intense
foreslope returns. Until this correction is available, the geo-
metrically rectified scenes are being used for improved map-
ping of lineaments.
In moderately steep terrain, most radar lineaments occupy
straight drainage channels where fault-generated breccias have
been differentially eroded. These straight channels will suffer
apparent changes in orientation and length on radar images
because of the different relief displacement-affecting points at
different elevations. Long lineaments composed of many
aligned short drainages crossing several drainage basins may be
totally disrupted. In this case, each short segment will be ro-
tated, converting a straight linear feature into a zigzag pattern
on the radar image.
These distortions are removed by the rectification proce-
dure, permitting a clearer view of the structural elements in
the scene. The SEASAT SAR images represent an extreme case
because of the small incidence angle (steep depression angle);
future satellite radar images will be much more tractable due
to imaging geometry which results in considerably less dis-
tortion. Because the rectification procedure automatically
converts the radar image to the map base of the digital eleva-
tion model, registration of the radar image to other data sets in
the same map base becomes a trivial matter.
REGISTRATION AND ANALYSIS OF SEASAT AND
LANDSAT IMAGES
In order to explore the possible contributions of radar images
to rock-type discrimination when used simultaneously with
multispectral images a SEASAT image and a LANDSAT multi-
spectral image were coregistered. The registration technique
used was rotation, followed by manual selection of identical
points (tiepoints) and computation of a polynomial to distort
the radar image to the LANDSAT. Conventional autoregistra-
tion techniques do not work because of the low correlation be-
tween the LANDSAT and SEASAT images. Manual registration
is tedious in the extreme, particularly for the 90 km X 90 km
scene area registered. The rectification technique discussed
previously was not available at the time the registration was
done.
The study area is the San Rafael Swell in eastern Utah. This
area is a broad upfold (anticline) in which a variety of sedi-
mentary rock types are exposed. This area is arid, hence the
vegetation density is low (ranging from 0-20 percent except in
isolated alluvial and upland areas) and consequently does not
obscure the rocks and complicate the analysis.
As an example of the simultaneous display of the coregistered
SEASAT and LANDSAT data of the San Rafael Swell, Fig. 3 is
a color ratio composite of the LANDSAT data with the SEA-
SAT image data controlling the intensity. Color ratio compos-
iting is a common image-processing technique applied to
LANDSAT images because it emphasizes band-to-band contrasts
reflecting surface composition [9]. Because the values ofband
ratios are not greatly influenced by incident light levels, com-
positional information is easier to interpret where topographi-
cally induced light level variations occur. While this is desirable
from this standpoint it also greatly subdues the information
available in textural and topographic variations. The image in
Fig. 3 displays the compositional information of the LAND-
SAT color ratio composite technique as colors while the sensi-
tivity of the SEASAT image to topography and texture
reintroduces this information in a dramatic way. The only
drawback of this display technique is that geologic units of
very low backscatter (such as smooth shales) go black because
they are black in the SEASAT image. Despite this minor
BLOM AND DAILY: RADAR IMAGE PROCESSING 347

Fig. 3. Coregistered SEASAT and LANDSAT image ofSan Rafael Swell,

Utah. The LANDSAT image is a color ratio composite which enhances
band-to-band differences indicative to surface composition. This in-
creases ability to separate rock types while simultaneously suppressing
topographic detaiL Using the coregistered SEASAT image to mod-
ulate image intensity reintroduces topographic expression in a dramatic
manner due to radar sensitivity to slopes. This effect is especially no-
ticeable in the lower (south) portion of the image where the linear dis-
continuity indicates the boundary of the SEASAT image. LANDSAT
image acquired September 29, 1972. SEASAT image acquired August
24, 1978, orbit 853.

drawback this is a very effective display method because of
the simultaneous enhancement of both compositional and
topographic information.
A. Linear Discrimination Analysis
Stepwise linear discriminant analysis, computer program
BMD 007M of the UCLA Biomedical Programs [101, was used
to evaluate the rock discrimination capabilities of the coregis-
tered SEASAT-LANDSAT image data set. The program is a
supervised classifier which evaluates the utility of each variable
given to it for discrimination among the assigned groups. In the
case of the San Rafael Swell test-area, the various rock types are
the groups to be discriminated and the variables are the
LANDSAT multispectral data (bands plus band ratios), and
SEASAT radar data.
The discriminant analysis program is used in the following
manner. Areas on the images of known rock types are selected
as training areas. The LANDSAT and SEASAT image data
pertaining to these areas are extracted. The program computes
means and standard deviations for each variable in each train-
ing area. It then examines the available variables and decides
which is the best for discriminating among the rock units
 348 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON GEOSCIENCE AND REMOTE SENSING, VOL. GE-20, NO. 3, JULY 1982

represented by the training areas. Using this first selected vari- the texture at that scale is encoded in the variance measure-
able it computes discriminant functions for each group to at- ment. The variance will reach a maximum when the area over
tempt to separate the members of the training sets into their which it is computed is sufficiently large to encompass the
correct groups. Then the program surveys the remaining vari- tonal variations characteristic of the texture of the sampled
ables, adds the next most useful for group separation and again surface.
attempts to separate the members of the training set into their In a radar image, the pixel-to-pixel variation in backscatter
correct groups using, now, two variables. Various statistical (image brightness) is a function of the distribution of such
measures separability
of are computed at each step. The pro- things as gullies, boulders, and of the surface roughness. To
gram proceeds thus in a stepwise manner until all the useful make a variance picture of a digital radar image one computes
variables are used in the computation of the discriminant the variance over a given area, say 3 pixels by 3 pixels and re-
functions. places the value the center pixel with the computed vari-
of
The results of the program thus give the user several useful ance. The computing window is then moved one pixel and the
pieces of information. First of all, it determines if sufficient process repeated until the entire image has been processed. In
information exists in the data to separate the groups it is de- the case of the San Rafael Swell test-site, variance pictures
sired to separate. Secondly, it ranks the variables in the order were computed with window sizes of 3 X 3, 5 X 5, 7 X 7,
of their utility for separating the units and attaches some sta- 15 X 15, 31 X 31, and 61 X 61 pixels. The results were added
tistical measures to this. Thirdly, a truth table is printed at to the rock-type discrimination data base using the previously
each step so that it can be determined which variable contrib- described linear discriminant analysis computer program.
utes most to the discrimination among specific groups. Classification accuracy of the thirteen rock units used as the
Groups which are inseparable can also thus be isolated and training areas in the linear discriminant analysis increased 14
analyzed. The discriminant functions computed from the percent over the analysis without using the variance informa-
training sets can be used to classify unknown members into tion based on a sample size of 4164 pixels. Overall accuracy
the available groups. In principle, one could use these discrim- with the combined data base was 79 pecent, an increase of 21
inant functions to classify each pixel in an image but for large percent over using the LANDSAT data only. In addition, some
images it is more effilcient to use the transformations com- rock units which are inseparable with just the LANDSAT and
puted by the program to generate an image which should show SEASAT data become separable with the addition of SEASAT
the greatest visual separation between the selected rock units. variance data. The linear discriminant analysis program
Obvious potential problems associated with this type of anal- indicated the most useful variance window sizes for this
ysis are selection of nonrepresentative training areas or selec- application were the larger ones; 31 X 31, 61 X 61, and 15 X
tion of groups with high variability. 15 pixels ranked in that order.
The first results from discriminant analysis indicated that the No satisfactory pictures have been produced yet from the
best of the SEASAT radar images (mean and variance equalized discriminant analysis procedure using the variance data be-
and median filtered) contributed an additional 7 percent to cause of problems associated with computing the variance in
rock-type discrimination. This result is based only upon use of areas of rugged topography. The image brightness component
the albedo or radar backscatter information in the SEASAT contributed by specular returns dominates the variance pic-
image. A technique was developed which increased the rock- tures in topographically rugged areas and interferes with the
type discrimination accuracy contribution of the radar data to display of the various rock types. The problems appear to be
21 percent by incorporation of textural information. This solvable by elimination of extremely bright areas in the com-
warrants considerable discussion and is detailed in the next putation of the variance pictures. This work is currently in
section. progress. If this problem can be overcome, the variance pic-
ture idea should prove useful in rock and surface discrimina-
RADAR IMAGE TEXTURE ANALYSIS tion efforts. In its present form it can probably be applied to
Texture as expressed on aerial photographs is commonly areas of relatively gentle topography. The problem will also
used by photointerpreters as one clue indicative of lithology, be less severe with radar imagery produced from systems with
or at least of grain size. For example, it is common knowledge more favorable imaging geometry than SEASAT (i.e., a larger in-
that sandstones have a coarser textured drainage pattern than cidence angle). The dramatic improvements in classification
shales which is easily discriminable on air photos. Thus even accuracy gained by incorporation of textural information from
though a sandstone and a shale might have the same image the radar data indicates that this is a potentially very valuable
tone, they might be discriminated by their texture. In an ef- research area.
fort to quantify image texture in a fashion interpretable by an
automatic classifier we have been experimenting with several B. HSI Split Spectrum Processing
techniques. A different approach to the problem of encoding texture ex-
perimented with is hue-saturation and intensity (HSI) encod-
A. Variance Pictures ing of low- and high-pass images (split spectrum processing).
Because image texture is the spatial variation of image tone HSI split spectrum processing capitalizes on the fact that
(or brightness level) one means of expression is to compute the tone variations in a radar image are driven by two distinct
variance (standard deviation squared) of image tone over a physical mechanisms having rather different characteristic
local area. By measuring the variance over different sized areas scales. Large-scale (low-spatial frequency) features are dom-
BLOM AND DAILY: RADAR IMAGE PROCESSING
TOTAL IMAGE SPECTRUM
z X \ </ / SURFACE PROPERTIES
1- y X /' TOPOGRAPHY
SPECKLE
F LOW-PASS FILTER
SPATIAL FREQUENCY
Fig. 4. Schematic spectrum of radar image showing contributions from
regional scattering variations (surface properties), specular returns
from smaU topographic irregularities (topography) and speckle noise.
HUE= INTENSITY=
K1 X LOW PASS K2 X HIGH PASS
I- ~~~SATURATION= K
SPATIAL FREOUENCY
Fig. 5. Encoding key for hue-saturation-intensity split spectrum pro-
cessing. Low-spatial frequencies are assigned hues while high-spatial
frequencies are assigned intensity. Saturation is set to a constant.
inated by surface backscatter variations such as vegetation and
rock type whereas, high-spatial frequencies are heavily modu-
lated by local slope effects. An additional component is radar
speckle, which is especially evident at the highest spatial fre-
quencies. These relationships are shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 4.
In order to separate and encode the different physical mech-
anisms, we filter an input scene into high-pass (HP) and low-
pass (LP) pictures, then use the LP picture to encode hue, the
HP picture to modulate intensity, and vary image saturation
interactively to achieve a pleasing display. Fig. 5 shows sche-
matically the spatial components that contribute to the color
picture.
The method has been applied to a SEASAT image of an area
near Patrick Draw, Wyoming, shown in Fig. 6. In a conven-
tional radar image of this site, subtle low-frequency tone vari-
ations associated with rock and vegetation indicative of the
geologic structure are swamped by heavily modulated high-fre-
quency returns from gullies. In contrast, the HSI split spec-
trum picture clearly expresses the geologic structures in color
while retaining details such as drainages and lineaments. A
detailed analysis of this scene is the subject of a separate pa-
per [11]. The most important aspects of this technique are
that it adds significantly to geologic interpretability through
the use of color and is a simple process to implement. The
expansion of the radar image into the color dimension allows
the subtle low-frequency backscatter variations to be readily
perceived by an interpreter.
A. Bandpass Texture Classification
The third method of texture analysis explored has been to
compute two-dimensional Fourier transforms of the image and
display various portions of the spectrum. The procedure con-
sists of computing the two-dimensional Fourier transform of
the picture, and bandpass filtering the result into roughly 10
349
ORIGINAL SCENE
j HIGH-PASS FILTER
J \,
*N
'SURFACE-DOMINATED' COMPONE NT 'TOPOGRAPHY-DOMINATED' COMPONENT
HUE INTENSITY
Fig. 6. Ilustration of hue-saturation-intensity split-spectrum processing
showing original SEASAT image (approximately 30 x 30 km), high-
pass and low-pass filtered images and the resultant hue saturation and
intensity encoded image. The Wainsutter Arch is an anticline (upfolded
structure) which is much more easily located on the final image than
the originaL SEASAT image acquired August 21, 1978, orbit 789.
channels. Each of these will contain only those frequencies
passed by their respective filter. An activity image is generated
for each of these bandpass filtered images whose brightness at
each point is proportional to the local variation in brightness.
These activity images can now be treated as input to standard
classification algorithms. The output of this procedure is a
map whose units are distinct from one another with respect to
spatial frequency content. The technique is schematically il-
lustrated in Fig. 7.
Initial experimentation with the technique has utilized arti-
ficial images made from digital terrain maps. These artifical
images have precisely controlled geometric and radiometric
characteristics and thus are excellent test cases. An example
of the results of this process is shown in Fig. 8 where a texture
map has been derived from a digital terrain model. The same
process can be applied to radar images to map geologic con-
trasts expressed in image texture.
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper has been shown that the utility of radar
it
images for rock- and surface-type discrimination can be in-
creased through certain image processing techniques. Radar
image speckle can be effectively controlled by median value
filtering without undue resolution degradation. This process
350 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON GEOSCIENCE AND REMOTE SENSING, VOL. GE-20, NO. 3, JULY 1982

Fig. 7. Block diagram of the two-dimensional Fourier bandpass texture

classification scheme. Only three of several channels are shown for
clarity. Functional components of the procedure are bandpass filter-
ing into approximately 10 channels, variance computation and gener-
ation of activity images, and the multispectral classification to pro-
duce the final texture image.

23-32 CYCLES
Fig. 8. Illustration of Fourier bandpass texture classification scheme. Input is a shaded, simulated image (DMA digital ele-
vation model) of an area in Tennessee. Four filter band images are shown with the corresponding variance pictures. These
are classified into an unsupervised seven-cluster image which groups based upon textural contrasts in the image. A pre-
liminary geologic map is shown in which coarser textures are inferred to represent coarser rock types such as conglomerates
(Cg) and sandstone (ss) while fmer texture represent shales (sh). Actually, all of the rock types are found in each area
but the texture is responsive to the dominant lithology.
BLOM AND DAILY: RADAR IMAGE PROCESSING
decreases the effect of speckle noise on the characterization of
a given surface. The problem of uneven scene illumination
caused by imaging system problems can be treated through
mean and variance equalization in a direction normal to the
image gradient. Although some distortion of the data is in-
evitable with this process, the result is usually an improvement
over a severe image gradient. Care must be taken not to apply
the equalization process to an image where the terrain has a [3] dar," R. Blom and M. Daily, "Seasat views California with imaging ra-
natural backscatter gradient. Radar image distortions can be
removed through rectification by registration to digital eleva-
tion models and x, y, z translations controlled by knowledge
of topography and imaging geometry. Slope-dependent back-
scatter corrections cannot be compensated for in the present
model. The rectification technique enhances the structural [71 M. I. Daily,
geological value of the images by elimination of lineament ro-
tations and length distortions. The fact that the rectified radar
image is in a map base and thus can be readily registered to
other map base data sets is very important.
Analysis of coregistered SEASAT and LANDSAT images
reveals that the radar image data can make a several percent
contribution in rock-type discrimination over LANDSAT data
alone. Incorporation of textural measures from the radar images [101 W. per 883, pp. 1-35, 1974.
greatly increases their value and results in an additional 14-per-
cent gain in discrimination ability. The variance data used for [II] M. I. Daily, "Hue-saturation-intensity split-spectrum processing
this experiment are difficult to display however. Other tex-
ture measures found very useful are hue saturation-intensity
split spectrum processing, and fourier bandpass filtering. The
former has the advantage of displaying low-frequency tonal
variations in color while preserving high-frequency detail in
black and white. This added dimension of color to the radar
image is a potentially powerful image-enhancement tool. The
bandpass filtering technique results in a radar-image texture
map which separates rock units based on their characteristic
spatial frequency distributions. This technique can be of con-
siderable value heavily vegetated
in terrains where only the
erosional differences between various rock types can be per-
ceived in the image.
Various geologic applications of radar images may be signifi-
cantly aided through the use of the methods described and it is
hoped that this discussion will stimulate the generation of ad-
ditional methods of exploiting the geologic information in
radar images.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to acknowledge the support of S. Conrow,
D. Harrison, A. Holmes, the Image Processing Laboratory, the
Team. Thanks
JPL Photolabs, and the SEASAT Data Utilization
are due to D. Hill for typing the manuscript. M. Abrams and
D. Drake provided valuable discussion. Comments by M.
Settle and two anonymous reviewers significantly improved
this manuscript.
351
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*
Ronald G. Blom received the B.A. degree in ge-
ology from the University of California at Santa
Barbara in 1974 and the M.S. degree in geology
at California State University Northridge in
For the last four years he has worked in the
Radar Remote Sensing Group at the Jet Propul-
sion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA. His research in-
terests include development of multispectral
and microwave remote sensing techniques for
resource and planetary exploration problems.
Michael Daily holds degrees in geology and geo-
chemistry from the University of Houston and
the California Institute of Technology, respec-
tively, and is completing the Ph.D. degree in
geology at the University of California at Santa
Barbara.
From 1975 to 1981 he was a Scientist at the
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA, spe-
cializing in the geologic applications of imaging
radar. He is currently a Research Geologist
with Mobil Oil in Dallas, TX.