INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

UNIT VIII: Intelligence and Higher Cognitive Processes.

WHAT IS COGNITION?

Imagine all of your thoughts as if they were physical entities, swirling rapidly inside your mind.
How is it possible that the brain is able to move from one thought to the next in an organized,
orderly fashion? The brain is endlessly perceiving, processing, planning, organizing, and
remembering it is always active. Yet, you don't notice most of your brain's activity as you move
throughout your daily routine. This is only one facet of the complex processes involved in
cognition. Simply put, cognition is thinking, and it encompasses the processes associated with
perception, knowledge, problem solving, judgment, language, and memory. Scientists who study
cognition are searching for ways to understand how we integrate, organize, and utilize our
conscious cognitive experiences without being aware of all of the unconscious work that our
brains are doing (for example, Kahneman, 2011).

COGNITION

Upon waking each morning, you begin thinking contemplating the tasks that you must complete
that day. In what order should you run your errands? Should you go to the bank, the cleaners, or
the grocery store? These thoughts are one example of cognition at work. Exceptionally complex,
cognition is an essential feature of human consciousness, yet not all aspects of cognition are
consciously experienced.
Cognitive psychology is the field of psychology dedicated to examining how people think. It
attempts to explain how and why we think the way we do by studying the interactions among human
thinking, emotion, creativity, language, and problem solving, in addition to other cognitive
processes. Cognitive psychologists strive to determine and measure different types of intelligence,
why some people are better at problem solving than others, and how emotional intelligence affects
success in the workplace, among countless other topics. They also sometimes focus on how we
organize thoughts and information gathered from our environments into meaningful categories of
thought, which will be discussed later.

LANGUAGE

Language is a communication system that involves using words and systematic rules to organize
those words to transmit information from one individual to another. While language is a form of
communication, not all communication is language. Many species communicate with one another
through their postures, movements, odours, or vocalisations. This communication is crucial for
species that need to interact and develop social relationships with their co specifics. However, many
people have asserted that it is language that makes humans unique among all of the animal species
(Corballis & Suddendorf, 2007; Tomasello & Rakoczy, 2003). This section will focus on what
distinguishes language as a special form of communication, how the use of language develops, and
how language affects the way we think.

LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT

When we speak one language, we agree that words are representations of ideas, people, places, and
events. The given language that children learn is connected to their culture and surroundings. But can
words themselves shape the way we think about things? Psychologists have long investigated the
question of whether language shapes thoughts and actions, or whether our thoughts and beliefs shape
our language.

Two researchers, Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, began this investigation in the 1940s. They
wanted to understand how the language habits of a community encourage members of that
community to interpret language in a particular manner (Sapir, 1941/1964). Sapir and Whorf
proposed that language determines thought, suggesting, for example, that a person whose community
language did not have past- tense verbs would be challenged to think about the past (Whorf, 1956).

Researchers have since identified this view as too absolute, pointing out a lack of empiricism behind
what Sapir and Whorf proposed (Abler, 2013; Boroditsky, 2011; van Troyer, 1994). Today,
psychologists continue to study and debate the relationship between language and thought.

Language may indeed influence the way that we think, an idea known as linguistic determinism. One
recent demonstration of this phenomenon involved differences in the way that English and Mandarin
Chinese speakers talk and think about time. English speakers tend to talk about time using terms that
describe changes along a horizontal dimension, for example, saying something like I'm running
behind schedule or Don't get ahead of yourself. While Mandarin Chinese speakers also describe time
in horizontal terms, it is not uncommon to also use terms associated with a vertical arrangement.

For example, the past might be described as being up and the future as being down. It turns out that
these differences in language translate into differences in performance on cognitive tests designed to
measure how quickly an individual can recognize temporal relationships. Specifically, when given a
series of tasks with vertical priming, Mandarin Chinese speakers were faster at recognizing temporal
relationships between months. Indeed, Boroditsky (2001) sees these results as suggesting that habits
in language encourage habits in thought (p. 12).

One group of researchers who wanted to investigate how language influences thought compared how
English speakers and the Dani people of Papua New Guinea think and speak about color. The Dani
have two words for color: one word for light and one word for dark. In contrast, the English language
has 11 color words. Researchers hypothesized that the number of color terms could limit the ways
that the Dani people conceptualized color. However, the Dani were able to distinguish colors with the
same ability as English speakers, despite having fewer words at their disposal (Berlin & Kay, 1969).

A recent review of research aimed at determining how language might affect something like color
perception suggests that language can influence perceptual phenomena, especially in the left
hemisphere of the brain. You may recall from earlier chapters that the left hemisphere is associated
with language for most people. However, the right (less linguistic hemisphere) of the brain is less
affected by linguistic influences on perception (Regier & Kay, 2009).

PROBLEM SOLVING
People face problems every day usually, multiple problems throughout the day. Sometimes these
problems are straightforward: To double a recipe for pizza dough, for example, all that is required is
that each ingredient in the recipe be doubled. Sometimes, however, the problems we encounter are
more complex. For example, say you have a work deadline, and you must mail a printed copy of a
report to your supervisor by the end of the business day. The report is time-sensitive and must be sent
overnight. You finished the report last night, but your printer will not work today. What should you
do? First, you need to identify the problem and then apply a strategy for solving the problem.

Problem-solving strategies

When you are presented with a problem whether it is a complex mathematical problem or a broken
printer, how do you solve it? Before finding a solution to the problem, the problem must first be
clearly identified. After that, one of many problem solving strategies can be applied, hopefully
resulting in a solution.

A problem-solving strategy is a plan of action used to and a solution.

Different strategies have different action plans associated with them (Table: Problem-Solving
Strategies). For example, a well- known strategy is trial and error. The old adage, if at f i rst you
don't succeed, try, try again describes trial and error. In terms of your broken printer, you could try
checking the ink levels, and if that doesn't work, you could check to make sure the paper tray isn't
jammed. Or maybe the printer isn't actually connected to your laptop. When using trial and error, you
would continue to try different solutions until you solved your problem. Although trial and error is
not typically one of the most time-efficient strategies, it is a commonly used one.
Problem-Solving Strategies
Method Description Example
Trial and error Continue trying different Restarting phone, turning o Wi-Fi,
solutions until problem is turning on Bluetooth in order to
solved determine why your phone is
malfunctioning
Algorithm Step-by-step problem- Instruction manual for installing new
solving formula software on your computer

Heuristic General problem-solving Working backwards; breaking a task into

frame- work steps

Another type of strategy is an algorithm. An algorithm is a problem-solving formula that provides

you with step-by-step instructions used to achieve a desired outcome (Kahneman, 2011). You can
think of an algorithm as a recipe with highly detailed instructions that produce the same result every
time they are performed. Algorithms are used frequently in our everyday lives, especially in computer
science. When you run a search on the Internet, search engines like Google use algorithms to decide
which entries will appear first in your list of results. Facebook also uses algorithms to decide which
posts to display on your newsfeed. Can you identify other situations in which algorithms are used?

A heuristic is another type of problem solving strategy. While an algorithm must be followed exactly
to produce a correct result, a heuristic is a general problem-solving framework (Tversky &
Kahneman, 1974). You can think of these as mental shortcuts that are used to solve problems. A rule
of thumb is an example of a heuristic. Such a rule saves the person time and energy when making a
decision, but despite its time-saving characteristics, it is not always the best method for making a
rational decision.

Different types of heuristics are used in different types of situations, but the impulse to use a heuristic
occurs when one of five conditions is met (Pratkanis, 1989):

• When one is faced with too much information

• When the time to make a decision is limited

• When the decision to be made is unimportant

• When there is access to very little information to use in making the decision

• When an appropriate heuristic happens to come to mind in the same moment

Working backwards is a useful heuristic in which you begin solving the problem by focusing on the
end result.

Another useful heuristic is the practice of accomplishing a large goal or task by breaking it into a
series of smaller steps. Students often use this common method to complete a large research project
or long essay for college. For example, students typically brainstorm, develop a thesis or main topic,
research the chosen topic, organize their information into an outline, write a rough draft, revise and
edit the rough draft, develop a final draft, organize the references list, and proofread their work
before turning in the project. The large task becomes less overwhelming when it is broken down into
a series of small steps.

INTELLIGENCE

Cognitive psychologists study intelligence. What is intelligence, and how does it vary from person to
person? Are street smarts a kind of intelligence, and if so, how do they relate to other types of
intelligence? What does an IQ test really measure? These questions and more will be explored in this
chapter as you study thinking and intelligence.

In popular understanding, intelligence means mental abilities enabling one to think rationally, learn
readily, act purposefully, and deal effectively with one's environment. In psychological testing, it is a
term that has been given many different technical meanings concerned with mental abilities such as
verbal reasoning, quantitative thinking, abstract analysis, manipulation of geometric shapes,
recognition of similarities and differences between pictured objects.

Definitions of Intelligence

• Stoddard describes intelligence, treating it as a theoretical composite whose elements may

be operationally tested. Intelligence is the ability to undertake activities that are characterised
by (1) difficulty, (2) complexity, (3) abstractness, (4) economy, (5) adaptiveness to goal, (6)
social value, and (7) the emergence of originals, and to maintain such activities under
conditions that demand a concentration of energy and a resistance to emotional forces.

• According to the Dictionary of Psychology, Intelligence refers to the ability to function

effectively with problems, whereas intellect refers to the rational thought functions of the human
mind.
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

I. TWO FACTOR THEORY

The first and for many years the most influential theory of trait organization based on a statistical
analysis of test scores was the two factor theory. This attempt in analysing the nature of intelligence
was made by English psychologist Charles Spearman in the University of London where he was
Professor of Psychology in 1904. He proposed that intellectual abilities were comprised of two
factors, general ability or common ability, known as "g" factor and group of specific abilities known
as "s" factor.

General mental ability (g) is a factor necessary for any kind of intellectual functioning.
Characteristics of "g" are as follows:

(i) It is an universal inborn ability.

(ii) It is general mental energy.

(iii) It is constant in the sense that for any individual in respect of all the correlated abilities,
it remains the same.

(iv) The amount of "g" differs from individual to individual.

(v) It is used in every life activity.

(vi) Greater the "g" in an individual, greater the success in life.

(vii) It is merely a value of magnitude and not something concrete.

Performance on any task requires the operation of an additional "specific mental capability" (s) which
is specific to that task. Characteristics of "s" are as follows:

(i) It is learnt and acquired in the environment.

(ii) It varies from activity to activity in the same individual.

(iii) Individuals differ in the amount of "s" ability.

This theory was the outcome of a deep and thorough observation of a mathematical data of
coefficients of correlation between different abilities. Although two types of factors, general and
specific, are posited by this theory, it is only the single factor "g" that accounts for correlation. In
contrast to other theories of trait relations, therefore it could be more precisely characterized as a
single factor theory, although the original designation has persisted.
 II. THORNDIKE’S MULTI-FACTOR THEORY :

Thorndike believed that there was nothing like General Ability. Each mental activity requires an
aggregate of different set of abilities. He distinguished the following four attributes of intelligence :

(a) Level—refers to the level of difficulty of a task that can be solved.

(b) Range—refers to a number of tasks at any given degree of difficulty.
(c) Area—means the total number of situations at each level to which the individual is able to respond.
(d) Speed—is the rapidity with which we can respond to the items.

III. THURSTONE’S THEORY: PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES/GROUP

FACTOR THEORY :

It states that intelligent activities are not an expression of innumerable highly specific factors, as
Thorndike claimed. Nor is it the expression primarily of a general factor that pervades all mental
activities. It is the essence of intelligence, as Spearman held. Instead, the analysis of interpretation of
Spearman and others led them to the conclusion that ‘certain’ mental operations have in common a
‘primary’ factor that gives them psychological and functional unity and that differentiates them from
other mental operations. These mental operations then constitute a group. A second group of mental
operation has its own unifying primary factor, and so on. In other words, there are a number of groups of
mental abilities, each of which has its own primary factor, giving the group a functional unity and
cohesiveness. Each of these primary factors is said to be relatively independent of the others.

Thurstone has given the following six primary factors:

(i) The Number Factor (N)—Ability to do Numerical Calculations rapidly and accurately.
(ii) The Verbal Factor (V)—Found in tests involving Verbal Comprehension.
(iii) The Space Factor (S)—involved in any task in which the subject manipulates the imaginary
object in space.
(iv) Memory (M)—Involving ability to memorize quickly.
(v) The Word Fluency Factor (W)—Involved whenever the subject is asked to think of isolated
words at a rapid rate.
(vi) The Reasoning Factor (R)—Found in tasks that require a subject to discover a rule or principle
involved in a series or groups of letters.

Based on these factors Thurstone constructed a new test of intelligence known as ‘‘Test of Primary
Mental Abilities (PMA).’’
 IV. GUILFORD’S MODEL OF STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT (SI-MODEL)
Guilford (1967, 1985, 1988) proposed a three dimensional structure of intellect model. According to
Guilford every intellectual task can be classified according to it’s
(1) content,
(2) the mental operation involved and
(3) the Product resulting from the operation

• He further classified content into five categories, namely, Visual, Auditory, Symbolic, Semantic
and Behavioral.
• He classified operations into five categories, namely, Cognition, Memory retention, Memory
recording, Divergent production, Convergent production and evaluation.
• He classified products into six categories, namely, Units, Classes, Relations, Systems,
Transformations and Implications.

Educational Significance of the ‘SI’ Model

Guilford's structure of intellect model has served several useful functions for educators. Some
school districts have used the model to develop aspects of their curriculum, and some commercial
companies have used the model as a guide in the construction of curricular materials.
This is the most comprehensive model taking into consideration all possible aspects of intellectual
activity.
Two very significant educational implications of the SI model are:
 (1) In the present world, knowledge is expanding very fast, forcing specialization even at
the earlier stages of the educative process. Special aspects of intellectual activity are
involved in the different specialization processes both academic and professional. It is
therefore needed "a prior" knowledge about the specific ability of each student to place
him in the right line of specialization. SI model and analysis of the individual under its
guidance can just pinpoint the individual's abilities and provide ones a secure base on
which his future learning is to be based.
(2) When some students with adequate intelligence fails to learn, corrective learning (also
known as cognitive therapy) in that case first requires an accurate measure of his
abilities, and some concrete steps for utilizing his strengths and developing him where
he is weak. Mere knowledge of IQ here is of little use. Only assessment made by SI
model tests can provide here an academically acceptable method of dealing with the
problems. This can be a great diagnostic use of this theory.
The international Encyclopedia of Education too states, "Guilford's SI model theory has led to the
development of many educationally appropriate measures particularly in the area of creativity."

V. GARDENER’S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE :

Howard Gardner in his book ‘‘Frames of Mind, The Theory of Multiple Intelligence’’ (1983), puts
forth a new and different view of human intellectual competencies. He argues boldly and cogently
that we are all born with potential to develop a multiplicity of Intelligence, most of which have been
overlooked in our testing society, and all of which can be drawn upon to make us competent
individuals. The potential for musical accomplishments, bodily mastery and spatial reasoning, and the
capacities to understand ourselves as well as others are, Gardner argues, ‘‘the multiple forms of
intelligence that we must add to the conventional—and typical tested—logical and linguistic skills
long called I.Q.’’.

The multiple intelligence theory is that people possess eight types of intelligence : linguistic, logical,
spatial, musical, motor ability, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic intelligence.

VI. STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY:

Psychologist Robert Sternberg (1985) has constructed a three—pronged, or triarchic theory of
intelligence. The Three types are :

• Analytical Intelligence—is what we generally think of as academic ability. It enables us to

solve problems and to acquire new knowledge. Problem—solving skill include encoding
information, combining and comparing pieces of information and generating a solution.
 • Creative Intelligence—is defined by the abilities to cope with novel situations and to profit
from experience. The ability to quickly relate novel situations to familiar situations (that is, to
perceive similarities and differences) fosters adaptation. Moreover, as a result of experience,
we also become able to solve problems more rapidly.
• Practical Intelligence—or ‘‘street smarts’’, enable people to adapt to the demands of their
environment. For example, keeping a job by adapting one’s behavior to the employer’s
requirements is adaptive. But if the employer is making unreasonable demands, reshaping the
environment (by changing the employer’s attitudes) or selecting an alternate environment (by
finding a more suitable job) is also adaptive.

VII. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is now recognized as one of the major scientific endeavours of the
twentieth century. In the last decade, there has been an extraordinary growth in the practical
application of AI to many fields: expert systems in industry, natural language understanding
systems, robotics and so on. This growth has been fuelled by unprecedented support from American,
European and Japanese governments.
AI is the science of designing computers to do things which would be considered intelligent if done
by people. It can solve the problems in all the areas including education. Like all other new fields,
Intelligent Computer Aided Instructions (ICAI) is both derivative and innovative. On the one hand,
ICAI researchers bring with them or adopt theories and methodologies from associated disciplines
such as psychology and computer science. On the other hand, ICAI is innovative in that it
contributes ideas back to associated disciplines and also-as it must if it is to justify its own label -
generates research of its own.
Intelligent machines are often referred so as self-organizing systems. In the strict sense of the words,
such machines cannot exist since they would have to operate without external motivation of any
kind. However, if external motivation is allowed, so that the system can be provided with criteria
with which to evaluate its response, learning can occur.
It is all too apparent that any major advance in the development of AI per se depends on the state of
our knowledge of biological phenomena. But it can be confidently predicted that continued work in
this field will yield useful and probably unexpected results, which will greatly affect the design of
Philosophy and implementation of future electronic system.
Thus artificial intelligence has nothing to do with what we have understood "What human
intelligence is” in this very chapter. And, intelligence tests are, therefore, going to exist in one form
or another, under one name or another till mankind is to exist on the earth.
 VIII.CREATIVITY
Creativity is the ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities. Very
creative people often have intense knowledge about something, work on it for years, look at novel
solutions, seek out the advice and help of other experts, and take risks. Although creativity is often
associated with the arts, it is actually a vital form of intelligence that drives people in many
disciplines to discover something new. Creativity can be found in every area of life, from the way
you decorate your residence to a new way of understanding how a cell works.
Creativity is often assessed as a function of one's ability to engage in divergent thinking. Divergent
thinking can be described as thinking outside the box; it allows an individual to arrive at unique,
multiple solutions to a given problem. In contrast, convergent thinking describes the ability to
provide a correct or well-established answer or solution to a problem (Cropley, 2006; Gilford,
1967).

IX. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

DEFINITIONS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
According to Emmerling & Goleman, there are various definitions of EI that are complementary to
each other; each one aims at understanding one‘s own and others emotions. In 1990, Salovey &
Mayer coined the term ―Emotional Intelligenceǁ and they defined Emotional Intelligence as a
subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others‘ feelings and
emotions to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one‘s thinking and
actions. This was the very first definition of EI which was then redefined in 1997 and it stated EI as,
"the ability to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason
with emotion and regulate emotion in self and others. Review of literature suggests that this
definition of EI is accepted and adopted by most of the scholars and researchers around the world .
Goleman published his book Emotional Intelligence, Why it matters more than IQ and it instantly
became a worldwide best seller, he defined EI as an ability which include self-control, zeal and
persistence and the ability to motivate oneself and later he redefined EI as the capacity for
recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves and for managing
emotions effectively in ourselves and others . Bar-On introduced the term-Emotional Quotient‘ (EQ)
in his doctoral dissertation as an analogue to Intelligent Quotient (IQ). He defined emotional
intelligence as ―an array of non cognitive capabilities, competencies and skills that influence one‘s
ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures. The most compendious
definition of EI was offered by Martinez he defined EI against most common definitions, as non-
cognitive skills, which surrounds skills that help person in dealing with daily life. He defined EI as
"an array of noncognitive skills, capabilities and competencies that influence a person's ability to
cope with environmental demands and pressures".
The most formal definition of EI refers to the ability to identify and express emotions, understand
emotions, assimilate emotions in thought, and regulate positive and negative emotions in oneself
and others.Talking about competency in perception of emotion: it consists of recognition of
emotion-related facial and voice cues of others and awareness of one‘s own body states relating to
emotion. Competency in understanding one‘s own and others emotions involves knowing the causes
and consequences of different emotions as well as being able to differentiate between varying
emotions. This conceptualization suggest that the competencies of perception, understanding,
utilizing and managing emotions effectively in the self and others comprise the core of emotional
intelligence.

MODELS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Different theories attempt to understanding and explaining the skills, traits, and abilities associated
with emotional intelligence. While some might argue that the goal of research should be to identify
and define a singular theoretical framework to be labelled as the ―correctǁ version of emotional
intelligence, another approach would be to acknowledge that having multiple theories can often
serve to elucidate additional aspects of complex psychological constructs. All of the theories and
models in conceptualization of EI are under the umbrella of three main lines of thought including:
trait approach, ability approach and mixed approach these are the models proposed by Mayer and
Salovey, Bar-on and Goleman. Each of their theoretical framework conceptualise emotional
intelligence from one of two perspectives: as a form of pure intelligence consisting of mental ability
only , or as a mixed intelligence consisting of both mental ability and personality characteristics like
optimism, adaptability and well-being.
Till now, the only ability model of emotional intelligence is that proposed by Mayer and Salovey,
they considered EI as a form of pure intelligence consisting of cognitive ability only. The two mixed
models distinguish from each other; the differences in which are attributed to the varying beliefs of
what constitutes emotional intelligence. Reuven Bar-On conceptualised a model with personality
dimensions, emphasizing the co-dependence of the ability aspects of emotional intelligence with
personality traits and their application to well-being. On the other hand, Daniel Goleman proposed a
mixed model in terms of performance by combining an individual‘s abilities and personality
implementing their corresponding effects in the workplace.

A) Mayer-Salovey-Caruso ability model

Peter Salovey and John Mayer first coined the term "emotional intelligence" in 1990 and have
continued to conduct research on the significance of the construct. They conceptualised Ability-
Based Emotional Intelligence Model which was based on the work of Gardner and his view on
personal intelligence. Their model entails five broad areas: knowing one‘s own emotions, managing
one‘s own emotions, self-motivation, recognizing emotions of others and handling relationships
with others. Salovey and Mayer redefined emotional intelligence and proposed four branches; the
first branch, emotional perception, is the ability to be self-aware of emotions and to express
emotions and emotional needs accurately to others. It also includes the ability to distinguish between
accurate and inaccurate or honest and tricky emotional expressions. The second branch, emotional
assimilation, is the ability to distinguish among the different emotions one is feeling and to identify
those that are influencing their thought processes by directing attention to important information.
Just like Emotional mood swings change the individual‘s thinking pattern from optimistic to
pessimistic, encouraging consideration of multiple points of view. Emotional states distinctively
encourage specific problem-solving approaches such as happiness state facilitates inductive
reasoning and creativity. The third branch, emotional understanding, is the ability to understand
complex emotions and the ability to identify transitions from one emotion to the other such as the
transition from anger to satisfaction or from anger to shame. Lastly, the fourth branch, emotion
management, is the ability to stay open to both pleasant and unpleasant feelings, the ability to
reflectively connect or detach from an emotion depending upon it being judged to be informative or
utility and regulate emotions in both ourselves and in others. Mayer et. al, explain that the four
branches function hierarchically with the perception of emotions acting as the most basic or bottom
branch, and emotional management as the most complex or top branch.

B) Goleman’s Competency Model

Daniel Goleman popularised the concept of emotional intelligence in 1995, when he wrote the
landmark book ‘Emotional Intelligence’. He defined emotional intelligence as "abilities of being
able to motivate oneself and survive in the face of frustrations; to control impulse and delay
gratification; to manage one's moods and keep distress from swamping the ability to think; to
empathize and to hope". Goleman's model outlines the four constructs of emotional intelligence.
Self-awareness is the ability to identify one's emotions and recognize their impact while using gut
feelings to guide decisions. Self-management, involves controlling one's emotions and impulses and
thereby adapting to changing circumstances. Social awareness consists of the ability to sense,
understand, and react to other's emotions while comprehending social networks. Finally, relationship
management entails the ability to inspire, influence, and develop others while managing conflict.
Goleman‘s model includes a set of emotional competencies within each construct of emotional
intelligence, he opined that Emotional competencies are not innate talents, rather learned
capabilities that must be worked on and developed to achieve outstanding performance.
C) Bar-On’s Mixed Model
Bar-On introduced the term ‘Emotional Quotient‘ (EQ) in his doctoral dissertation as an analogue to
Intelligent Quotient (IQ). His model of emotional intelligence can be viewed as a mixed
intelligence, also consisting of cognitive ability and aspects of personality, health and well being. It
relates to the potential for performance and success and is considered process-oriented rather than
outcome-oriented. He defined emotional intelligence as ―an array of non cognitive capabilities,
competencies and skills that influence one‘s ability to succeed in coping with environmental
demands and pressures. The definition encompasses a number of areas like emotional self-
awareness, assertiveness, self-regard, self actualization, independence, empathy, interpersonal
relationship, social responsibility, problem solving, reality testing, flexibility, stress tolerance,
impulse control, happiness and optimism.
Insufficient emotional intelligence can mean a lack of success and the existence of emotional
problems. Bar-On, considers that emotional intelligence and cognitive intelligence contribute
equally to a person‘s general intelligence, which eventually indicates potential success in one‘s life.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT

Emotional Intelligence as a concept is not unknown to the Indian reader and from the last one
decade a lot of research has been done in India in the field of EI. However the similarities between
an Emotionally Intelligent person as surmised by Mayer et al. and ―Sthithapragnya as described
by Lord Krishna in the Bhagavad-Gita were unknown. The Bhagavad-Gita stresses on the
effectiveness of being able to control and manage emotions. A Sthithapragnya according to Krishna
is one who remains unperturbed in the face of calamity, and takes good or evil with equanimity. He
is neither happy when something good happens, nor is he affected when things go against him. This
does not mean that he lacks sensitivity. He has the ability to keep his emotions in check and the skill
of withdrawing his feelings away from the object of pleasure or pain. Even as a tortoise withdraws
its head and legs inside the protective cover of its shell whenever it faces danger, so does an
emotionally stable person withdraw all his emotions and feelings within himself and remains
unperturbed. He has the power to emotionally attach or detach from any situation, at his will. This is
not far from what Mayer and Salovey list as the skills pertaining to the fourth branch of their ‘ability
model’.
• Ability to be open to feelings, both pleasant and unpleasant
• Ability to monitor and reflect on emotions
• Ability to engage, prolong, or detach from an emotional state
• Ability to manage emotions in oneself, and the
• Ability to manage emotions in others.
Research conducted in the field of EI in India has been vast, talking about gender differences; the
studies conducted in India show gender have no influence on the EI of a person. According to many
studies on Leadership, it is clear that gender plays no role in effective leadership; it is the EI of the
person which influences leadership. Studies show a significant relationship among dimensions of
EI and found that ultimately it is the emotional and personal competencies that we need to identify
and measure if we want to be able to predict performance at workplace resulting in its effectiveness,
thereby enhancing the worth of the human capital. EI has also been associated with cooperative
solutions, which results in more effective conflict management. EI can also be used as a soft tool, to
enhance the competencies of individuals and teams in Indian organizations and help them to gain
competitive advantage.