BCS 3701 Artificial Intelligence-Module 1

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence:

Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence in
machines that are programmed to think and act like humans. It involves the
development of algorithms and computer programs that can perform tasks that
typically require human intelligence such as visual perception, speech recognition,
decision-making, and language translation. AI has the potential to revolutionize
many industries and has a wide range of applications, from virtual personal
assistants to self-driving cars.

Intelligence is composed of:

 Reasoning
 Learning
 Problem-Solving
 Perception
 Linguistic Intelligence

Simulation of Sophisticated & Intelligent Behavior:

Artificial intelligence is the simulation of human intelligence processes by

machines, especially computer systems. Specific applications of AI include expert
systems, natural language processing, and speech recognition and machine vision.

Intelligent Behaviors:
 Persisting.
 Thinking and communicating with clarity and precision.
 Managing impulsivity.
 Gathering data through all senses.
 Listening with understanding and empathy.
 Creating, imagining, and innovating.
  Thinking flexibly.
 Responding with wonderment and awe.

Simulation is a model whereas AI is trying to impute a model. With simulation you

can build a model first and then validate it. Very often AI is trying to figure out
something from nothing and simulation you build a model that you can see and
test and validate and then you use that model to find information within it.

A Deeper Dive into the Coeus Creative Group Behavioral Intelligence Model. Our 4
easy to remember categories (Explain, Predict, Influence, and Control) establish
an internal and external awareness of behavioral meaning, coupled with a
framework for internal and external behavioral modification strategies.

Problem solving in games of AI:

The reflex agent of AI directly maps states into action. Whenever these agents fail
to operate in an environment where the state of mapping is too large and not
easily performed by the agent, then the stated problem dissolves and sent to a
problem-solving domain which breaks the large stored problem into the smaller
storage area and resolves one by one. The final integrated action will be the
desired outcomes.
On the basis of the problem and their working domain, different types of
problem-solving agent defined and use at an atomic level without any internal
state visible with a problem-solving algorithm. The problem-solving agent
performs precisely by defining problems and several solutions. So we can say that
problem solving is a part of artificial intelligence that encompasses a number of
techniques such as a tree, B-tree, heuristic algorithms to solve a problem.
We can also say that a problem-solving agent is a result-driven agent and always
focuses on satisfying the goals.
There are basically three types of problem in artificial
intelligence:
1. Ignorable: In which solution steps can be ignored.
2. Recoverable: In which solution steps can be undone.
3. Irrecoverable: Solution steps cannot be undo.
Steps problem-solving in AI: The problem of AI is directly associated with the
nature of humans and their activities. So we need a number of finite steps to
solve a problem which makes human easy works.
These are the following steps which require solving a problem:
 Problem definition: Detailed specification of inputs and acceptable system
solutions.
 Problem analysis: Analyse the problem thoroughly.
 Knowledge Representation: collect detailed information about the
problem and define all possible techniques.
 Problem-solving: Selection of best techniques.

Components to formulate the associated problem:

 Initial State: This state requires an initial state for the problem which starts
the AI agent towards a specified goal. In this state new methods also
initialize problem domain solving by a specific class.
 Action: This stage of problem formulation works with function with a
specific class taken from the initial state and all possible actions done in this
stage.
 Transition: This stage of problem formulation integrates the actual action
done by the previous action stage and collects the final stage to forward it
to their next stage.
  Goal test: This stage determines that the specified goal achieved by the
integrated transition model or not, whenever the goal achieves stop the
action and forward into the next stage to determine the cost to achieve the
goal.
 Path costing: This component of problem-solving numerical assigned what
will be the cost to achieve the goal. It requires all hardware software and
human working cost.

Natural language:
A natural language is a human language, such as English or Standard Mandarin, as
opposed to a constructed language, an artificial language, a machine language, or
the language of formal logic. Also called ordinary language.
The theory of universal grammar proposes that all-natural languages have certain
underlying rules that shape and limit the structure of the specific grammar for any
given language.
Natural language processing (also known as computational linguistics) is the
scientific study of language from a computational perspective, with a focus on the
interactions between natural (human) languages and computers.

Essential Concepts
 All languages are systematic. They are governed by a set of interrelated
systems that include phonology, graphics
(usually), morphology, syntax, lexicon, and semantics.
 All natural languages are conventional and arbitrary. They obey rules, such
as assigning a particular word to a particular thing or concept. But there is
no reason that this particular word was originally assigned to this particular
thing or concept.
 All natural languages are redundant, meaning that the information in a
sentence is signaled in more than one way.
 All natural languages change. There are various ways a language can
change and various reasons for this change.
Automated reasoning:
Automated reasoning is mostly used with deductive reasoning to find, check and
verify mathematical proofs using a computing system. Using an automated
reasoning system to check proofs ensures that the user has not made a mistake in
their calculations.
Tools:
Tools and techniques of automated reasoning include the classical logics and
calculi, fuzzy logic, Bayesian inference, reasoning with maximal entropy and many
less formal ad hoc techniques.

For example, if it's Saturday, then it's the weekend. Automated reasoning uses a
technique called SAT solving. It uses tools called SAT solvers to search for
satisfying assignments to arguments in propositional logic. This means variables
that make the argument true.

Visual Perception:
Visual perception is the ability to perceive our surroundings through the light that
enters our eyes. The visual perception of colors, patterns, and structures has been
of particular interest in relation to graphical user interfaces (GUIs) because these
are perceived exclusively through vision.
Visual spatial relationships are a visual perceptual skill involved in understanding
positions of objects in relation to others. Knowing which building is in front of
another, understanding how far to stand next to others in line, describing
positioning using words (left, right, over, under, behind) are examples.

There are various types of machine perception, including computer vision, speech
recognition, natural language processing, and sensor fusion. Computer vision
involves the use of computers to interpret and understand visual data from digital
images or videos.
Visual perception is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment
through photopic vision (daytime vision), color vision, scotopic vision (night
vision), and mesopic vision (twilight vision), using light in the visible spectrum
reflected by objects in the environment.

Heuristic algorithm:

Heuristics is a method of problem-solving where the goal is to come up with a

workable solution in a feasible amount of time. Heuristic techniques strive for a
rapid solution that stays within an appropriate accuracy range rather than a
perfect solution.

Examples:
Common sense is the use of practical judgment to understand something. The use
of common sense is also a heuristic method used for problem-solving. Example:
When dealing with a faulty PC the system administrator sees smoke coming out of
the PC. In this case, it is common sense that a hardware component is faulty.

Popular Heuristic Algorithms:

Genetic Algorithm
The term Genetic Algorithm was first used by John Holland. They are designed to
mimic the Darwinian theory of evolution, which states that populations of species
evolve to produce more complex organisms and fitter for survival on Earth.
Genetic algorithms operate on string structures, like biological structures, which
are evolving in time according to the rule of survival of the fittest by using a
randomized yet structured information exchange. Thus, in every generation, a
new set of strings is created, using parts of the fittest members of the old set.The
algorithm terminates when the satisfactory fitness level has been reached for the
population or the maximum generations have been reached.

The typical steps are:

1. Choose an initial population of candidate solutions
2. Calculate the fitness, how well the solution is, of each individual
3. Perform crossover from the population. The operation is to randomly choose
some pair of individuals like parents and exchange so parts from the parents to
generate new individuals
4. Mutation is to randomly change some individuals to create other new
individuals
5. Evaluate the fitness of the offspring
6. Select the survive individuals
7. Proceed from 3 if the termination criteria have not been reached.
Tabu Search Algorithm

Tabu search (TS) is a heuristic algorithm created by Fred Glover using a gradient-
descent search with memory techniques to avoid cycling for determining an
optimal solution. It does so by forbidding or penalizing moves that take the
solution, in the next iteration, to points in the solution space previously visited.
The algorithm spends some memory to keep a Tabu list of forbidden moves,
which are the moves of the previous iterations or moves that might be considered
unwanted.
A general algorithm is as follows:
1. Select an initial solution s0 ∈ S. Initialize the Tabu List L0 = ∅ and select a list
tabu size. Establish k = 0.
2. Determine the neighborhood feasibility N(sk) that excludes inferior members
of the tabu list Lk.
3. Select the next movement sk + 1 from N(Sk) or Lk if there is a better solution
and update Lk + 1
4. Stop if a condition of termination is reached, else, k = k + 1 and return to 1

Heuristic algorithm versus solution guaranteed algorithms.

Heuristic:

A heuristic is a problem-solving approach that relies on practical experience,

intuition, and rules of thumb. It is often used when an optimal solution is difficult
or time-consuming to find. Heuristics are designed to provide quick, satisfactory
solutions that may not be guaranteed to be optimal or globally optimal. They are
based on educated guesses and approximate methods rather than systematic and
exhaustive procedures.

Algorithm:

An algorithm, on the other hand, is a step-by-step procedure or a well-defined set

of rules used to solve a specific problem. Algorithms are precise, deterministic,
and systematic, designed to guarantee an optimal or globally optimal solution if
executed correctly. They are based on logical reasoning and mathematical
calculations, aiming to find the best solution by exploring all possible options.

Purpose and Applications:

Heuristic:

Heuristics are particularly useful when dealing with complex problems that
involve large amounts of data or when the optimal solution is unknown or
computationally expensive. They are commonly employed in situations where
time is a constraint, and an approximate or satisfactory solution is acceptable.
Heuristics are prevalent in various domains, such as:

1. Artificial Intelligence: Heuristics play a crucial role in search algorithms

used in AI, such as depth-first search and breadth-first search. These
heuristics guide the search process by estimating the distance or cost to the
goal state.

2. Optimization: Heuristics are frequently employed in optimization

problems, where finding an optimal solution is computationally infeasible.
Metaheuristic algorithms like genetic algorithms and simulated annealing
use heuristics to explore the solution space efficiently.

3. Routing and Scheduling: Heuristics are applied in problems like vehicle

routing, task scheduling, and resource allocation, where finding the best
solution is challenging due to time and resource constraints

Algorithm

Algorithms are essential in problem domains where precision, correctness, and

optimality are of utmost importance. They are commonly used in the following
areas:

1. Sorting and Searching: Sorting algorithms like quick sort and merge sort, as
well as searching algorithms like binary search, are classic examples of
algorithms. These algorithms guarantee optimal results and are widely used
in data manipulation and retrieval tasks.
2. Graph Theory: Algorithms such as Dijkstra’s algorithm for finding the
shortest path, Kruskal’s algorithm for minimum spanning trees, and Floyd-
Warshall algorithm for all-pairs shortest paths are widely used in graph
theory applications.
3. Machine Learning: Many machine learning algorithms, such as linear
regression, decision trees, and support vector machines, are based on well-
defined mathematical procedures and principles