Elements of Telecommunications PDF

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Module 6
Elements of telecommunications
CHAPTER 1
POWER RATIOS AND LEVELS IN LOGARITHMIC UNITS
CONTENTS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 THE DECIBEL
1.3 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT RATIOS
1.4 REFERENCE LEVELS: THE DBM, DBR AND DBW
1.5 MEASUREMENTS OF DECIBELS
1.6 EXERCISES
TELONE CENTER FOR LEARNING

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In telecommunication engineering an engineer is concerned with the transmission of
intelligence from one point to the other, the intelligence being transmitted in the form of
electrical signals. A telecommunication system which carries such signals may consist of a
number of links in tandem (one after the other) and, certainly, each link will consist of a
number of different items, such as transmission lines and amplifiers, also connected in
tandem. Each item will introduce a certain loss or gain of power into the system and the
overall ratio (output power/ input power) is equal to the product of the power ratios of the
individual items. Consider, a simple example, the arrangement of fig.1.1.
FIG 1.1
Pin Pout
6 5
If it is assumed that the input and output terminals of each item of equipment are matched,
then the input power to item 2 is equal to
the input power to item 3 is equal to
and so on. Hence the output
Or
= 0.0042
In this example simple figures have been selected and the arithmetic is easy. However, it
should be appreciated that in practice the power ratios of the various items comprising a
link would almost certainly involve less convenient numbers, and logarithmic tables or an
electronic calculator would be needed.
Very often in practical calculations the power ratios involved are enormous and the direct
use of power ratios would involve inconveniently large or small numbers. This suggests the
possibility of directly quoting the power losses or gains of the items of equipment in a
logarithmic form, so that the overall loss or gain, also quoted in logarithmic form, can be
obtained by algebraic addition of the individual losses or gains. This in fact is the system
used in practice, and the logathmic unit is known as the decibel.
1.2 THE DECIBEL
The decibel can be defined in the following way: If the ratio of two powers P1 and P2 is to
be expressed in decibels, the number of decibels, X, is given by
(1)
N.B. The logarithm is in base 10
As an illustration consider again the system shown in fig 1.1.
Power ratio of item 1 = 10 x -1.602 = -16.02 dB

Power ratio of item 3 = 10 x 2.000 = 20.00dB
Power ratio of item 6 = 10 x -1.699 = -16.99dB
Power ratio of item 1 = 10 x 2.000 = 20.00dB
The overall power ratio is equal to the algebraic sum of these ratios, i.e. -23.80 dB.
Therefore
)= -23.80dB
The negative sign means that Pout is less than Pin, i.e. there is a loss of 23.80 dB.

EXAMPLE 1
Convert the following power ratios into decibels.
a. =2
b.
c.
d.
e.
SOLUTION
a. 10 log
b.
c.
d.
e. 5
Two things should be noted from example 1. Firstly, a doubling, or halving, of power is
equivalent to an increase, or decrease, of 3dB. Thus if a particular power ratio is equivalent
to 60 dB, then the ratio is equivalent to 63 dB and the ratio corresponds to 57 dB.
Secondly, for power ratios of less than unity the method of calculation shown is straight
forward and easy if the ratio is quoted as a fraction.
In practice it 1s often more convenient to make the larger, of the two powers to be considered,
the numerator in equation (1) so to obtain always a positive value of the power ratio in dB.
Then, if the output power is larger than the input power we quote the result as a gain and if the
input power is larger than the output power we quote the result as a loss.
EXAMPLE 2
Calculate the overall loss, or gain in decibels of the arrangements shown in fig 2.1. if the input
power is 10mW, calculate the output power.

FIG 2.1
Pin Pout
P1 P2
SOLUTION
Loss of item 1= 10 log
= 10 log 2= 3dB
Gain of item 2 =10 log
= 10 log5= 7dB
Loss of item 3= 10 log
= 10 log 5= 7dB
Overall loss = 7+3-7=3dB
Therefore
10 log
And so the output power Pout is equal to Pin or Pout =5mW

1.3 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT RATIOS
The power P dissipated in a resistance R may be written as or , where I is the

current flowing in the resistance and V is the voltage developed across the resistance. Hence
equation 1 may be rewritten as either:
If and only if R1 = R2 the resistances cancel and the equations become
Equations (2) and (3) may only be used when the resistances in which the currents I 1 and 12
flow, or across which the voltages V1 and V2 are developed, are identical. When unequal
resistances are involved, the power dissipated in each should be calculated and equation (1)
used.
A change in current or voltage at a point can always be quoted in dB, using either equation (2)
or equation (3), since the same resistance is involved.
EXAMPLE 3
An item of telecommunication equipment has an input resistance of 600 Ω and its output
terminals are correctly terminated in a 600Ω resistor. When a voltage of 1.5 V is applied across
the input terminals, a current of 15 mA flows in the load resistor, Calculate the loss, or gain, of
the equipment.
SOLUTION
Three methods of attack are possible:
a. Calculate the input and output powers and use equation (1)
b. Calculate the input current and use equation (2)
c. Calculate the output voltage and use equation (3)
Methods b. and c. can be employed because the input and output powers are dissipated in
equal resistances of 600 Ω.

Employing method c,
Output voltage 5 6 9
Therefore
Gain of equipment 9 5
778 56
EXAMPLE 4
An amplifier has a gain of 60 dB. If the input resistance of the amplifier is 75 Ω and its output
terminals feed a matched load of 140 Ω, calculate the current flowing in the load when a
voltage of 100 µ V r.m.s. is applied to the input terminals.
SOLUTION
The resistances in which the input and output powers are dissipated are unequal and hence
equation (1) must be used.
Input power to the amplifier:
75 75
Therefore
6 [ ]
( )
75
6 75
75
75
Therefore
√ 976
75

1.4 REFERENCE LEVELS, THE dBm, dBr AND dBW
The decibel is not an absolute unit but is only a measure of a power ratio. It is meaningless to
say, for example, that an amplifier has an output of 60 dB unless a reference level is quoted. For
example, a 60 dB increase on 1 µwatt gives a power level of 1 watt and a 60 dB increase on 1
watt gives a power level of 1 Megawatt: here the same 60 dB difference expresses power
differences of less than I watt in one case and nearly one million watts in the other.
It is therefore customary in telecommunication engineering to express power levels as so many

decibels above, or below, a clearly understood reference power level. This practice makes the
decibel a more significant unit and allows it to be used for absolute measurements. The
reference level most commonly used is 1 milliwatt and a larger power, P 1 watts, is said to have
a level of
and a smaller power, P2 watts, is said to have a level of
EXAMPLE 5
Express in dBm the following power levels
a. 1 W
b. 1mW and
c. 1µW.
SOLUTION
a. ( )
b. ( )
c. ( )

In microwave radio-relay systems a reference level of 1 watt is employed and power levels
expressed in decibels relative to this level are quoted in dBW. A power level of 1 mW is equal to
A further unit particularly useful in connection with multichannel telephony systems, is the dBr.
This unit expresses in decibels the power level at a point, relative to the power level at some
reference point. Normally the reference point is taken as the two-wire origin of a circuit.
In part c) the same answer can be obtained by noting that that the point B is a -3 dBr point and
remembering that -3 dB correspond to a power ratio of one-half. Thus the output power is
equal the input power half the input power.
1.5 MEASUREMENTS OF DECIBELS
A voltmeter can be calibrated to indicate decibel values directly. The voltmeter is used to
measure the voltage developed across a resistance of known value, generally 600 Ω. The
measured voltage V corresponds to a particular power and this can be expressed in decibels
relative to 1mW. Thus
Suppose a particular voltmeter has a voltage scale of 0-10 V and this scale is to be calibrated in
dBm. Then
775
A voltage of 1 volt corresponds to
⁄6

⁄
2 volts gives ( ) 8 , and so on.
If the voltmeter is connected across a resistance of some other value than 600 Ω, the dBm
value indicated by the meter will be incorrect. If, for example, the resistance was 1000 Ω and
the voltage 2V, then the true dBm value would be:
⁄
( ) 6
However, the value indicated by the voltmeter is +8.24 dB, i.e. 2.22 dB high. This error is equal
to 10 log(600/1000) dB. It can be concluded from this numerical example that the correction
factor to be applied when the voltmeter is connected across a resistance r of other than 600 Ω
is:
6 7
When the voltmeter is used to measure a voltage outside of the calibrated scale, another
correction factor is required for correct dBm readings. Suppose the calibrated meter also has a
0 - 100 V scale with the scale markings for 10 V, 20 V, etc. coinciding with the markings 1 V, 2 V,
etc. of the calibrated scale. If the pointer of the meter indicates 10 V it will lie on the +2.22 dBm
mark. The true dBm reading is:
⁄6
The indicated value is 20 dB low which is equal to 20 log(100/10) dB. Thus the correction factor
required is :
( ) 8

EXAMPLE 7
A voltmeter has a 0-3V scale which has been calibrated in dBm (0dBm equal to 1 mW in 600 Ω).
With the meter switched to it. 0 – 60 V scale and connected across a 2000 ohm resistance the
indicated dBm value is -3 dBm. Calculate the true dBm value.
SOLUTION
The true dBm reading is
6 6
( ) ( )
5 6 7 79

1.6 EXERCISE
1. Define the decibel and give three reasons why its use is convenient in transmission
problems.
2. Express the following power ratios in dB: 4, 8, 16, 100, 200 and 1000.
3. The input signal to an amplifier varies between 23.5 mW and 1.25 W. Express each
power in dB relative to 1 mW and state the fluctuation in the level of the signal in dB.
4. Give the meanings of the following terms:
i. 20 dB with respect to 1W
ii. -10 dBW
iii. +3 dBm
iv. +12 dB with respect to 1 mV.
5. The input power to an amplifier is 50 W. Calculate the output power if the gain of the
amplifier is
i. 10 dB,
ii. 20 dB,
iii. 23 dB,
iv. 26 dB and
v. 40 dB.
6. An attenuator has a loss of 9 dB. A power of 250 mW is applied across its input
terminals. Calculate the output power.
7. The output power of an amplifier is
i. 50 mW,.
ii. 200 mW.
iii. 1 W and
iv. 5 W. Express these power levels n dBm.
8. The input power to an amplifier is
i. -10 dBm,
ii. -4 dBm,
iii. 0 dBm and
iv. +10 dBm.
If the gain of the amplifier is 20 dB calculate the output power:
a. In dBm and
b. In watts.
9. The input power to 5 km length of telephone cable is 100 mW. If the output power is 8
mW what is the loss of the cable per km?

10. A voltmeter has a 0-10 V scale calibrated to read dBm relative to 600 Ω. When the
meter is connected across a 100 Ω resistor and switched to the 0 - 1 V scale, the
indicated dBm value is +4.5 dBm. Calculate the true dBm value.

CHAPTER 2
ATTENUATING NETWORKS
CONTENTS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 SYMMETRICAL ATTENUATOR
2.2.1 General
2.2.2 T-Type
2.2.3 Pi-Type
2.2.4 Balanced T-And Pi-Types
2.2.5 Bridged T-Type
2.2.6 Component Values For Attenuators In 600 Ohm Circuits
2.3 VARIABLEATTENUATORS
2.4 EXCERCISES

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In transmission equipment, it is often desired to attenuate the signal voltages or currents at

certain stages. Attenuators are networks designed to meet this requirement, and since. to
avoid attenuation distortion all frequencies must be attenuated to the same degree, the
network must consist of purely resistive components. These networks by choice of suitable
resistances may have any required value of attenuation. They may be designed to have any
input and output impedance. If the circuit is symmetrical, and the two impedances are equal
and it is called the characteristic impedance. If the circuit is asymmetrical the input and output
impedances are different they are then called the image impedance. Asymmetrical networks
may be used in place of a transformer for matching between circuits of different resistive
impedance.
In most line communications equipment characteristic impedance of 600 ohms is used

throughout, and the attenuators used are of the symmetrical type. In this chapter we will focus
our attention to these types of attenuator.
2.2. SYMMETRICAL ATTENUATORS
2.2.1 GENERAL
These are three Conditions that the attenuating network must fulfill. It must give:
1. The correct input impedance
2. The correct output impedance
3. The specified attenuation
The attenuation (D) is usually quoted in decibels:
( )
Where Pin = power input and Pout = power output.
In the following considerations the symbol N will be used for the factor √ i.e.

2.2.2 T-TYPE
This is one of the most common types of attenuator, and consists of a divided series arm and
one central shunt arm. The circuit is symmetrical. i.e. the series theorem is divided into two
equal parts (see fig. 2.1). The values of the series and shunt arms for a given value of
impedance and attenuation will now be determined.
Consider the input current Iin in the circuit of fig. 2.1. At the shunt arm it divides in proportion
to the conductances. It follows that:
( )
And
But the impedance looking into the attenuator is required to be R
Hence
It follows that:
( ) 5

But
From this it follows that
Substituting (5) gives
( )
( ) 6
Using formula (5) and (6), a T-Type attenuator can be designed to give the specified attenuation
and to be properly matched to the circuit.
EXAMPLE 1
Design a T-type attenuator to give 25 dB attenuation and to have a characteristic impedance of

600 ohms.
SOLUTION
( )
5
( ) 78
( )
78
6 ( ) 5 6
78
( )
78
6 ( ) 67 6
78

The network is shown in fig 2.2 below
2.2.3 Pi-TYPE
This attenuator is another common type, consisting of one series arm and two shunt arms (see
fig.2.3).The circuit is symmetrical i.e. the two shunt impedances are equal. By calculation similar
to that used for the T section the values of the series and shunt arms for a given impedance and
attenuation can be determined.
It may be shown that:
( ) 7
( ) 8
Using formula (7) and (8), a Pi-Type attenuator can be designed to give the specified
attenuation and characteristic impedance.

There is no difference in the performance of the T - and Pi-type attenuators and each one will
suit any requirement, but one will probably be found to have more suitable or standard
components than the other. It may be noted that a deviation of 5 % from the calculated values
of the resistances will mismatch the impedances by no more than the same amount, and vary
the attenuation as little as 0.5 dB.
EXAMPLE 2
Design a Pi-type attenuator to give 10dB attenuation and to have a characteristic impedance of
75 ohms.
SOLUTION
( )
( )
( )
75 ( )
( )
75 ( ) 8
The resulting network is shown in fig 2.4.

2.2.4 BALANCED T-AND Pi-TYPES
When it is required to balance the two legs of the circuit, as is frequently the case in
transmission equipment, then the preceding attenuators must be modified by dividing the
series arm into two equal halves and inserting one-half in each leg (see fig. 2.5).
Fig 2.5
When designing these balanced attenuators the components of the unbalanced type should be
calculated using the formulae already quoted, and the series arm divided between the two legs.
The characteristics of this derived attenuator (impedance and attenuation) will be identical to
those of the unbalanced attenuator.
2.2.5 BRIDGED-T-TYPE
Fig 2.6 shows a symmetrical bridged-T type section used between equal impedances. The
network may be designed to have a constant impedance R, but any desired attenuation, by
making:
Thus, to vary the attenuation, without changing the design impedance, only two resistances
have to be varied, namely RB and RC. It should be noted that, in the case of a symmetrical T or Pi
section attenuator, three resistances have to be varied to change the attenuation without
altering the impedance.
The design formulae for the bridged T section are:

EXAMPLE 3
Design a bridged-T attenuator having an attenuation of 40 dB when working between two 600Ω
impedances.
SOLUTION
To give
( )
( )
Then it follows:
6 59
6
6
The resultant network is shown in fig 2.7.

2.2.6 COMPONENT VALVES FOR ATTENUATORS IN 600 OHM CIRCUITS
As 600 Ω is the characteristic impedance of most line communication circuits, the majority of
attenuators will come under this heading. Table 2.1 gives the component values for T, Pi and
bridged-T networks. If the characteristic impedance is not 600 Ω, but R, the values for the
components must all be multiplied by .
Table 2.1 attenuators designed for 600Ω characteristic impedances
Loss in dB a b c d e f
1 36.5 5301 69.2 10436 23.2 4918
2 68.79 2583 139.4 5293 155 2317
3 102.5 1708 211.1 3512 247 1456
4 125.8 1258 286.1 2651 351 1025
5 168.0 987.1 365.0 2142 467 771
6 199.4 803.4 448.1 1806 597 603
7 229.4 670.0 537.3 1565 745 485
8 258.3 567.5 634.1 1394 907 397
9 285.7 487.1 738.9 1260 1091 330
10 311.7 421.9 553.1 1155 1297 278
11 336.3 367.2 980.3 1071 1530 235
12 350.1 321.7 1119 1003 1789 201
13 380.5 282.7 1273 946.1 2080 173
14 400.4 248.3 1444 899.1 2407 149
15 418.8 220.1 1633 858.5 2773 130
20 430.9 121.2 2970 733.3 5400 66.7
25 536.1 67.61 5324 671.4 10070 35.8
30 563.2 37.99 9486 639.0 18370 19.5
35 579.3 21.35 16804 621.6 33140 10.9
40 509.1 12.00 30000 612.1 59400 6.06
45 593.3 6.748 53350 606.8 106100 3.40
50 596.2 3.795 94860 603.8 189100 1.90

2.3 VARIABLE ATENUATORS
Variable attenuators are so designed as to have a constant input and output impedance, but a
variable attenuation. They may be divided into several classes depending on the method of
achieving the result.
The elementary type has the construction of a T or Pi section and the resistors-are variable. All
are ganged together so that at different positions the attenuator impedance is unaltered
although the attenuation is varied (see Fig. 2.8 a, b and c). The bridged-T-type has already been
discussed. This has the disadvantage compared with those mentioned above that only two
resistors have to be varied, as compared with three when T or Pi sections are used.
A further type, simple in construction and design, consists of a number of attenuators, of equal
impedance but different attenuation. Fig. 2,9 shows a type which consists of three fixed
attenuator sections, namely 5, 10 and 20 dB, With appropriate switching, together they form a
variable attenuator covering the range of 0 to 30 dB in steps of5 dB.

2.4 EXERCISES
1. Design an unbalanced T type: attenuator to give 6dB attenuation and to have a

characteristic impedance of300 Ω.
2. Calculate the ratio of input to output voltage of the circuit in exercise 1.
3. Design a balanced Pi-type attenuator to give 12dB attenuation and having a
characteristic impedance of 1000 Ω.
4. Design a bridged-T type attenuator to give 20dB attenuation and to have a characteristic
impedance of 75 Ω.
5. Calculate the ratio of input to output current of the circuit in example 4.

CHAPTER 3
FILTERS
CONTENTS
3.1. INTRODUCTION
3.2. INDUCTOR CAPACITOR FILTERS
3.2.1. THE PROTOTYPE OR CONSTANT K FILTER
3.2.2. M-DERIVED FILTERS
3.2.3. MODERN FILTERS DESIGNS
3.3. CRYSTAL FILTERS
3.3.1. PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTALS
3.4. FILTERS IN PARALLEL
3.5. ACTIVE FILTERS
3.6. EXERCISES

3.1. INTRODUCTION
In both radio and line systems the need often arises for a group of frequencies contained within
a wider frequency band to be transmitted while all other frequencies are suppressed. “A filter”
is a circuit which has the ability to discriminate between signals at different frequencies
because it has an attenuation that varies with frequency in a particular manner. If a signal
containing components at a number of different frequencies is applied to the input of, a filter,
only some of those components will appear at its output terminals, the remainder having been
greatly attenuated and so effectively suppressed.
Four basic types of filter are available for use in telecommunication systems: the low-pass, the
high-pass the band-pass and the band-stop. Fig. 1 shows the circuit symbols for each of these
filters. Filters can be designed using one of the following different techniques: inductor-
capacitor filters, crystal filters and active filters.
Fig.1. Types of filter networks
3.2. INDUCTOR-CAPACITOR FILTERS
The transmission of an unwanted frequency through a network can be prevented either by

connecting a high impedance (at that frequency) in series, and/or by connecting a low
impedance in shunt, with the signal path. The high series impedance will oppose the flow of
currents, at the unwanted frequencies, through the network, and the shunt impedance will
bypass unwanted currents to earth. The necessary high and low values of impedance can be
obtained by the use of inductors and capacitors of appropriate value. This is because an
inductor has a reactance which is directly proportional to frequency and the reactance of a

capacitor is inversely proportional to frequency. If a particular band of frequencies to be
transmitted by a filter, series and shunt impedances are required which reach a maximum or a
minimum value at the center of the frequency band. Such impedances can be obtained by the
use of series and parallel resonant circuits.
3.2.1. THE PROTOTYPE OR CONSTANT- K FILTER
A LOW-PASS filter should be able to pass, with zero attenuation, all frequencies from zero up to
a certain frequency which is known as the CUT-OFF FREQUENCY (Fc). At frequencies greater
than the cut-off frequency the attenuation of the filter will increase with increase in frequency
up to very high value. The basic prototype (or constant-k) T and pi low-pass filter circuits are
shown in Fig.2a, and b respectively. For both circuits the total series impedance is ῳL and the
total shunt impedance is . The term "constant-k" is used to denote that the product of the
series and shunt impedances is a constant at all frequencies.
Fig.2. constant-k low pass filter
Suppose a voltage source of Variable frequency is applied across the input terminals of the
filter. At low frequencies the reactance of the series inductor L is low and the reactance of the
shunt capacitor C is high; at these frequencies therefore the inductance offers little opposition
to the flow of current while the capacitance has zero shunting effect. Low frequency signals are
propagated through the filter without loss. As the frequency of the input signal is increased, the
inductive reactance will rise until, at the cut-off frequency fc, the attenuation of the filter
suddenly increases. Thereafter, the attenuation of the filter rises rapidly with increase in
frequency. The ideal attenuation/frequency characteristic of a constant-k Low-pass filter is
shown by Fig.2c. In practice an inductor inevitably possesses some resistance and because of
this the filter does introduce some attenuation into the pass band also, the attenuation does

not rise so sharply at the cut-off frequency. The practical attenuation/frequency characteristic
of a low-pass filter is shown by the dotted line of Fig. 2c.
The action of a HIGH-PASS filter is to transmit all frequencies which are higher than its out- off
frequency and to prevent the passage of all lower frequencies. Figs. 2.1a and b give the circuits
of. T .and pi constant-k high-pass filters. At low frequencies the series capacitance C has a high
reactance and the shunt inductive reactance is low, so low-frequency signals are attenuated as
they travel through the filter. At high frequencies, on, the other hand, the series reactance is
low and the shunt reactance is high and the filter offers zero attenuation. The
attenuation/frequency characteristic of, the ideal high-Pass filter is shown in Fig 2.1c, while the
dotted curve shows how the presence of resistance modifies the ideal characteristic.
Fig 2.1 the constant-k high pass filter
Fig 2.2a shows the circuit of a T constant-k BAND-PASS filter and Fig. 2.2b shows its ideal and
practical attenuation/frequency characteristics. Ideally, the filter passes with zero attenuation,
a particular band of frequencies and offers considerable attenuation to all frequencies outside
of this pass band. The required characteristic is obtained by using two series-tuned circuits as
the series impedance and a single parallel-tuned circuit as the shunt impedance. The three
circuits are arranged to be resonant at the same frequency. For signal at or near this common
resonant frequency, the series reactance is low and the shunt reactance is high so that the filter
offers, ideally, zero attenuation. At frequencies either side of the required pass band the tuned
circuit impedance have varied to such an extent that considerable attenuation is offered.

Fig 2.2 the constant-k band pass filter
The fourth kind of filter, which is very much less often used, is the BAND-STOP filter. This type
of filter, shown in Fig.2.3a, provides a large attenuation to signals whose frequencies are within
a particular frequency band. The ideal and the practical Attention/frequency characteristics of a
band-stop filter are shown in Fig. 2.3b.
Fig 2.3 the constant-k band stop filter
3.2.2. m-DERIVED FILTERS
The Constant-k filter suffers from two major disadvantages, these are
a. the attenuation/ frequency characteristics do not rise at the Cut-off frequency as

sharply as is often required, and
b. its input and output impedance vary with frequency. In m-derived filter, components
are added to the basic constant-k circuit to ensure that a very high attenuation is

obtained at a particular frequency. In this chapter only the low- pass m-derived filter will
be discussed.
Consider the T constant-k low-pass filter shown in Fig. 2a. The attenuation can be made to
reach very high value at a desired frequency f(lnf) by multiplying the values of its components by
a constant m and connecting an inductor Lm of Suitable value in series with the
shunt capacitor (Fig. 2.4a). Neglecting circuit resistance, the filter will now have infinite
attenuation at the frequency at which the shunt series-tuned circuit is resonant and hence has
zero impedance. The attenuation/frequency characteristic of the m-derived low-pass filter is
shown by Fig- 2.4b; it can be seen that the attenuation rises above zero at the cut-off frequency
fc and increases to a very high value at some frequency f (inf).Unfortunately, at frequencies
above the attenuation of the filter falls and will eventually reach a low value.
Fig 2.4 the m-derived T low pass filter
An m-derived pi filter can be constructed in a similar manner; the series inductance L and the
shunt capacitance C are both multiplied by the constant-m and a capacitor Cm is connected in
parallel with the modified series inductor (Fig. 2.5). The frequency at which the maximum
attenuation takes place depends upon the value of m that is chosen. Fig. 2.6 shows the
relationship between m and the frequency of maximum attenuation.
Fig 2.5 m derived π low pass filter

Fig 2.6 Showing the relationship between m and the frequency of maximum attenuation
EXAMPLE 1
A constant-k low-pass filter has cut-off frequency of 12 kHz. Determine the value of m for the
corresponding m-derived filter in order to position maximum attenuation at:-
i. 13. 8 kHz
ii. 19.8 kHz.
SOLUTION
i. 5 therefore, from graph, m=0.5

ii. 65 therefore, from graph, m=0.8
Fig. 2.7 shows the circuit of a half-section T low-pass filter.
fig 2.7 m-derived half section with m=0.6
If m is chosen to be 0.6 the impedance measured at the terminals 1-1 does not vary with
frequency, while the impedance "seen" looking into terminals 2-2 varies with frequency in the

same way as the impedance of a whole section, constant-k or m-derived. Such a half-section
can be used to terminate both ends of a filter to ensure that the filter present constant values
of impedance at both its input and its output terminals.
The attenuation of an m-derived filter section decreases with increase in frequency above the
frequency of maximum attenuation. This disadvantage can be overcome by connecting
constant-k filter section in cascade to ensure substantial attenuation at all frequencies above
cut-off. The block diagram of a composite filter is shown in Fig.2.8 and its
attenuation/frequency characteristic is given by Fig. 2.8b.
Fig 2.8 composite filter
3.2.3. MODERN FILTER DESIGNS
In recent years many LC filters have been designed using different techniques to those used For
the design of constant-k and m-derived filters. These methods allow a filter to be designed with
a very accurate desired attenuation/frequency characteristic.
The Butterworth attenuation/frequency characteristic of a low-pass filter is shown in fig.2.9a; it

is maximally flat in the passband and has an attenuation of 3dB at the cut- off frequency fc. The
Bessel filter (Fig .2.9b) introduces a constant time delay to all frequencies in the passband and
has 3dB, loss at the cut-off frequency. It is evident that the attenuation of the Bessel filter does
not rise as rapid1y as that of the Butterworth filter. A more rapid increase in attenuation
outside of the passband can be obtained by the Tchebyscheff filter (Fig. 2.9c) at the expense
however of ripple in the passband. The relative merits of the three approaches to filter design
are the same when applied to the other kinds of filters, e.g. high-pass.

Fig 2.9 Attenuation-frequency characteristic of:
a) Butterworth
b) Bessel and
c) Tchebyscheff low-pass filter
3.3. CRYSTAL FILTERS
For some applications the maximum selectivity a band pass L-C filter can attain is inadequate,
and in such cases a crystal filter can be employed. A crystal filter is one in which the required
series and shunt impedances are provided by piezoelectric crystals.
3.3.1. PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTALS
A piezoelectric crystal is a material, such as quartz, having the property that, if Subjected to a
mechanical stress, a potential difference is developed across it, and if the stress is reversed a
p.d. of opposite polarity is developed. Conversely, the application of a potential difference to a
piezoelectric crystal causes the crystal to be stressed in a direction depending on the polarity of
the applied voltage.
In its natural state, quartz crystal is of hexagonal cross section with pointed ends. if a small, thin
plate is cut from a crystal the plate will have a particular natural frequency, and if an alternating
voltage at its natural frequency is applied across it, the plate will vibrate vigorously . The natural
frequency of a crystal plate depends upon its dimensions, the mode of Vibration and its original
position or "cut" in the crystal. The important characteristic of a particular cut are its natural
frequency and its temperature coefficient; one cut the GT cut, has a negligible temperature
coefficient over a temperature range from OoC to 100o C; another cut, the AT cut, has a
temperature coefficient that varies from about +10 p.p.m. / oC at 0oC to 0 p.p.m. /oC at 40oC
and about +20 p.p.m. / oC at 90oC. Crystal plates are available with fundamental natural

frequencies from 4 kHz up to about 10 MHz or so. For higher frequencies the required plate
thickness is very small and the plate is fragile; however, a crystal can be operated at a harmonic
of its fundamental frequency and such “overstone” operation raises the possible upper
frequency to about 100MHz. The electrical equivalent circuit of a crystal is shown in Fig.3.
Fig 3 the electrical equivalent circuit of piezoelectric crystal
The inductance L represents the inertia of the mass of the crystal Plate when it is Vibrating; the
capacitance C1 represents the Reciprocal of the stiffness of the crystal plate; and the Resistance
R represents the frictional losses of the vibrating plate. The capacitance C 2 is the actual
capacitance of the crystal (a piezoelectric crystal is an electrical insulator and is mounted
between two conducting plates).
A series-parallel circuit, such as the one shown in fig. 3 has two resonant frequencies: the
resonant frequency of the series arm R-L-C1 and the parallel resonance produced by C2 and the
effective inductance of the series arm at a frequency above its (series) resonant frequency.
If a pair of similar crystals is connected in the series arms of a lattice network and another pair
connected in the shunt arms, as shown in Fig.3.1a the network will possess a band-pass
characteristic, provide that the series resonant frequency of one pair is equal to the parallel-
resonant frequency of the other pair. If the bandwidth is not wide enough it can be increased
by the connection of an inductor of suitable value in series with the crystal (see Fig.3.1b).
Crystal filters of the lattice type are widely employed in multi-channel telephony systems. Other
simpler versions of crystal filters are commercially available for use as band-pass filters in radio
receivers.

fig 3.1 crystal filters
3.4. FILTERS IN PARALLEL
Frequency-division multiplex is the transmission of two or more channels, over a single circuit
by the positioning of the channels at different part of the frequency spectrum of that circuit. At
the receiving end of an f.d.m. system the received signals must be directed, to their correct
channels and this is achieved by means of a number of band-pass filters connected in parallel.
Since a small frequency gap, about 900Hz exists between adjacent pass-bands the filters can be
paralleled directly and connected to their common load, as shown in Fig. 4a. each filter is then
terminated by the load resistance in parallel with the output impedances of all the other filters.
The two filters at the extreme ends of the system bandwidth only have another filter connected
on one side of them. If these two filters are to be correctly terminated it is necessary to connect
a compensating network in parallel with the load. This network provides the necessary
impedance values at frequencies below the lowest frequency and above the highest frequency
passed by the filters, in order for the two extreme filters to be correctly terminated
Fig4 filters in parallel

In modern equipment a different method of paralleling band-pass filters is employed. The
arrangement is illustrated by Fig. 4b. Each filter is terminated by an individual series resistor
and the common, low value input resistance of an amplifier. The value of the series resistor is
chosen so that each filter works into its correct load resistance.
3.5. ACTIVE FILTERS
Inductors are relatively large and bulky components particularly at the lower frequencies, and
also possess core and winding losses that are difficult to predict accurately and which may vary
with time, temperature and/or frequency. The need for an Inductor In a filter network can be
avoided if resistor-capacitor network is used all the feedback network of an amplifier. A number
of different types, of active filters are possible but the kind cost commonly used, since
integrated circuit "operational amplifiers" have become readily available is shown in Fig. 5. The
circuit shown in Fig. 5a acts as a low-pass filter which can be given a Butterworth, a Bessel or a
Tchebyscheff characteristic depending upon the values chosen for the various components.
Changing over the position of the resistors and capacitors, as in Fig. 5b, produces a high-pass
filter with the required type of Attenuation/frequency characteristic. Lastly, a band-pass
characteristic is obtained by connecting the resistance-capacitance network in the manner
shown by Fig. 5c.
Active filters:
a. low-pass
b. high-pass
c. band-pass

3.6. EXERCISES
1. State the function of a filter. Draw attenuation/frequency characteristics for;

i. a low-pass filter
ii. A high-pass filter
iii. A band-pass filter
iv. A band-stop filter
Give also the symbol for each type of filter.
2. What is an active filter? Why are active filters sometimes used in preference to L-C
filters?
3. Draw and explain two ways in which a number of band-pass filters may be connected in
parallel.
4. What is meant by the term piezoelectric crystal? Draw a diagram to show how four such
crystals can be connected to form a band-pass filter. Sketch the attenuation/ frequency
characteristic of such a filter.
5. Explain the electrical equivalent circuit of a quartz crystal and show how such a crystal
can be used to advantage as an element in a band-pass filter. What are the advantages
and disadvantages of crystal filters compared with coil-capacitor filter?
6. Draw diagram to show how:
i. A T constant-k low-pass filter, and
ii. A T constant-k high-pass filter can be constructed.
Explain the operation of each filter.
7. Draw the practical attenuation/frequency characteristic of a constant-k, low-pass

filter and use it to explain why the use of an m-derived filter is often necessary. Draw
the circuit diagram of an m-derived T low-pass filter and explain how it operates.
8. Draw the attenuation/ frequency characteristics of the following types of high-pass
filters:
i. Constant-k
ii. M-derived
iii. Bessel
iv. Butterworth
v. Tchebyscheff
b. why are crystal filters sometimes used?

9. Show, with the aid of a block diagram, how filter sections could be connected to
produce a low-pass filter having a cut-off frequency of 20 kHz with maximum
attenuation at 23 kHz and constant input and output impedance.
10. Draw the practical attenuation/frequency characteristic of a constant-k high-pass
filter. What are the disadvantages of this characteristic and how they can be
overcome? Draw the circuit diagram of an m-derived T high-pass filter.

CHAPTER 4
TRANSMISSION LINES
CONTENTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 THE PRIMARY CO-EFFICIENTS OF A LINE
4.2.1 RESISTANCE
4.2.2 INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE
4.2.3 LEAKANCE
4.3 THE SECONDARY CO-EFFICIENTS OF A LINE
4.3.1 CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE
4.3.2 ATTENUATION CO-EFFFICIENT
4.3.3 PHASE CHANGE CO-EFFICIENT
4.3.4 PHASE VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION.
4.3.5 GROUP VELOCITY
4.4 MATCHED TRANSMISSION LINES
4.5 MISMATCHED TRANSMISSION LINES
4.6 EXERCISES

4.1. INTRODUCTION
A transmission line is a system of conductors connecting one point to another and along which
electronic or electromagnetic energy can be sent. Its basic purpose is to transmit electrical
energy from one point to another and is therefore none radiating. Type length of a line may be
several kilometers in the case of a line communication system (telephone lines, and power
lines), some tens of hundreds of meters In the case of a feeder used to connect a radio
transmitter or receiver to its antenna, or perhaps only a fraction of a meter when the line is
used as an integral part of a UHF equipment. It can be pointed out that when the term
transmission line is used in electronic, it implies a line used for the, transmission of RF energy
e.g. from radio transmitter to an antenna as Pointed out Earlier on.
An essential feature of such a transmission line is that it should guide energy from the sending
end to the receiving end without loss or energy. One form of construction commonly used
consists of a pair of conductors separated from each other by a dielectric. Two main types of
lines exist: the two-wire line, shown in fig4.1a and the coaxial line Shown in Fig4.1b. The two
wire line may be either open-wire or a cable pair. The Coaxial pair is nearly always operated
with the outer conductor earthed since the outer then acts as an efficient "screen" at all
operating frequencies and is said to be "unbalanced". Both types are available with air as the
dielectric, or with some insulating material such as polythene.

At frequencies approximately 100MHz, transmission lines are usually in the form of waveguides
which may be regarded as coaxial lines without the center conductor the energy being
launched into the guide or abstracted from it by probes or loops projecting into the guide.
4.2. THE PRIMARY CO-EFFICIENTS OF A LINE
Each pair of conductors has both series resistance and inductance, and shunt capacitance and
leakance exists between the conductors. These four quantities are known as the PRIMARY CO-
EFFICIENTS of a line. Their magnitudes depend on the physical dimensions of the conductors
and the nature of the dielectric used. The values of the resistance and the leakance also depend
on the frequency of the signal propagating along the line.
4.2.1. RESISTANCE
The resistance R of a unit length of line, or LOOP resistance is the sum of the differences of the
two comprising a pair. The unit length of a line is the meter.
At zero frequency the resistance of a line is the d.c. resistance Rdc given by;
Where ρ1 and ρ2 are the resistivities (Rho) of the two conductors’ a 1 and a2 are their cross-
sectional areas.
At a frequency of few kilohertz or so a phenomenon known as "skin effect" comes into play and
causes current to flow only in a thin Layer or " skin" at the outer surface of the conductor. The
higher the frequency, the thinner this skin becomes, and the smaller the cross-section of the
conductor in which the current flows. Since the resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional area of the “effective” conductor, the a.c. resistance increases with increase in
frequency. When skin effect is fully developed, the a.c. resistance is proportional to the square
root of the frequency, i.e.

√
where k1 is a constant
Fig. 4.2 shows how Rac varies with frequency . Initially little variation from the d.c. value is
observed, but at higher frequencies the relationship given in equation (2) above is true.
Fig 4.2 Resistance/frequency characteristics of a transmission line
4.2.2. INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE
The loop inductance L and the Shunt capacitance C of a line, in Henry's per loop meter and
farads per meter respectively, are both more or less constant with change in frequency. The
Value of inductance depends primarily conductor material and also on the spacing between the
wires. The inductance of copper is less than that of iron and the inductance of an underground
cable pair is less than that of an open wire line. C is the capacitances between the wires each
wire forming one plate of the capacitor and the air between them forming the dielectric. Thick
wires have large surface area; therefore they produce a large capacitance. Similarly, if these
wires are close together (as in cables) the capacitance once again is high.
4.2.3. LEAKANCE
The leakance G of a line in Siemens per meter represents the leakage of Current between the
conductors via the dielectric separating them, and is the reciprocal of insulation resistance. The
leakage current has two components: one passes through the insulation between the
conductor and the other supplies the power losses in the dielectric itself as the line capacitance

is charged and discharged. Leakance increase with increase in frequency and at the higher
frequencies it is directly proportional to frequency, i.e.
Where k2 is another constant. Fig.4.3. shows how the leakance of a pair of conductors varies
with change in frequency.
Fig. 4.3 Leakance/frequency characteristic of a transmission line
4.3 THE SECONDARY CO-EFFICIENTS OF A LINE
The secondary coefficients of a transmission line are its characteristic impedance, attenuation
coefficient, phase change coefficient and velocity of propagation.
4.3.1 CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE
The characteristic impedance Zo of a transmission line is the input impedance of an infinite

length of that line. Fig4.4 shows an infinite length of line; its input impedance is the ratio of the
voltage Vs impressed across the sending end terminals to the current Is flowing into the line, i.e.
Fig 4.4 definition of the characteristic impedance of a line

Similarly, at any point x along the line Vx/Ix is always equal to Zo.
Suppose the line is now cut a finite distance from its sending-end terminals as shown in fid 4.5a.
The remainder of the line is still of infinite length and so the impedance measured at terminal
2-2 is equal to the characteristic impedance. Thus before the line was cut, terminal 1-1 were
effectively terminated in impedance Zo. The conditions at the input terminals will not be
changed if terminals 1-1 are closed in physical impedance equal to Zo, as in fig 4.5b. This leads
to a more practical definition: the characteristic impedance of a transmission line is the input
impedance of a line that is itself terminated in the characteristic impedance.
Fig.4.5 Alternative definition of the characteristic impedance of a line
A line that is terminated in its characteristic impedance is said to be “correctly terminated”.
The characteristic impedance of a line depends upon the values of the primary coefficients of
that line according to the equation;
√ 5
At higher frequencies where ѡL>>R and ѡC >>G equation 5 reduces to more convenient form:
√ 6
This equation always applies to coaxial lines since they are only operated at frequencies high
enough to make R and C negligible with respect to ѡL and ѡC respectively.

EXAMPLE 1
A generator of e.m.f. 1V and internal impedance 79Ω is applied to a line having L=0.5mH/km
and C=0.08f/km. if the approximate expression, √ , for characteristic impedance may

be assumed, calculate
a. The sending end current and

b. The sending end voltage.
SOLUTION
5
√ 79
8
Hence referring to fig.4.6 above
6
79 79 58
79
79 5
58
Analysis beyond the scope of this chapter shows that the characteristic impedance of a
transmission line is a function of the dimensions of the line and the permittivity of the
dielectric.
For an air-spaced coaxial line the characteristic impedance is given by :-
8 ( ) 7
where is inner radius of the conductor, and is the radius of the inner conductor.
The characteristic impedance of a coaxial line is confined somewhere in the range 30-100Ω,
because of construction difficulties arising from the need for either an excessively thin inner

conductor or a very small spacing between inner and outer. Most practical cables have a
characteristic impedance of 50-75Ω.
For an air-spaced two wire line;
76 ( )
Where is the spacing between the centers of the two conductors and is the radius of each
conductor. Zo is generally some hundreds of ohms.
If there is a continuous insulation between the conductors the characteristic impedance is

reduced from Zo to
√
Where ɛr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric.
EXAMPLE 2
A flexible coaxial feeder has an outer conductor of diameter 8.48mm and an inner conductor of
diameter 1.42mm. if the cable has a continuous polythene dielectric of relative permittivity 2.3.
Calculate its characteristic impedance.
SOLUTION
From Equation 7
8 ( )
8 8
8 ( ) 7
Since there is continuous insulation:
7
√
7 6
4.3.2. ATTENUATION CO-EFFICIENT
As a current or voltage is propagated along a line its amplitude is progressively reduced or

"attenuated" because of losses in the line. These losses are two types: firstly, conductor losses

caused by I2R power dissipation in the series resistance, and secondly dielectric losses if the
current or voltage at the sending end terminals of the line is Is, or Vs, then the current or
voltage at one meter distance along the line is = , or where is the base
of the natural logarithms (2.7183) and α (alpha) is the “attenuation coefficient” of the line. In
the next meter distance the attenuation is the same, and thus the current I 2 at the end of this
distance is;
If the line is 1 meter long, the received current and voltage are given respectively by;
Thus both current and voltage waves decay exponentially as they are propagated along the line
fig.4.7.
Fig 4.7 decay of current and voltage along a transmission line
The general expression for the attenuation coefficient of a line is complex and beyond the
scope of this course. However at frequencies where ῳL>> R ad ῳC >> G the expression
simplifies to;
The characteristic impedance Zo of a line is given by √ where ῳL >> R and ῳC >> G is

therefore constant with change in frequency and consequently the attenuation coefficient "α"
varies with frequency in accordance with frequency dependencies of R and G i.e.

√
Generally, the attenuation coefficient is expressed in decibels instead of nepers, the

relationship being;
8 686
EXAMPLE 3
A coaxial cable has a loss or 3.5 dB/km at 1 MHz. Calculate its loss at 4MHz if
(a) the dielectric loss is negligible and

(b) The dielectric loss is 10% of the total 1MHz.
SOLUTION
(a) √ 7
(b) 5√ [ 5 ]
6 77
The attenuation coefficient is not a constant quantity but increases with increase in frequency.
The two contributory parts of the attenuation coefficient vary with frequency in different ways,
the 1 conductor losses are directly proportional to the square root of frequency but the
dielectric losses are directly proportional to frequency. Normally, the conductor losses are
several times larger than the dielectric losses and often, particularly with coaxial lines, the
dialectical loss is small enough to be neglected. Then the line attenuation is proportional to the
square root or frequency, while the signal wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency.
This means that the attenuation per wavelength "decreases" with increase in frequency. Often,
particularly at the v.h.f. and higher bands, the loss of a line is small enough to be neglected,
then the line is usually described as being "low-loss" or "loss-free".
4.3.3. PHASE-CHANGE COEFFICIENT
A current (or voltage) wave travels along a line with a finite velocity and so the current (or
voltage) at the end of a meter length or line lags the current (or voltage) entering the length.
The phase difference between the line current (or voltage) at two points a meter apart is
known as the PHASE-CHANGE COEFFICIENT β (beta.) of the line is measured in radians per
meter. The phase-change coefficient is a function of the frequency of the signal and both the
inductance and capacitance of the line:

√
In each meter distance of a line the same phase shift is introduced, consequently for a line
1meter in length the received current will lag the sending end current by 1radians. If for
example β=2o per meter then a 10 meter length would introduce a phase shift of 20 o
EXAMPLE 4
A correctly terminated transmission line has Zo= 500 Ω, α = 1 dB/km and β =30 o /km and is 3km
long. A 500 Ω source, of e.m.f. 2V is applied to the sending-end terminals of the line. Calculate
(a) The magnitude of the received current, and
(b) Its phase relative to the sending-end current.
SOLUTION
Since the line is correctly terminate its input impedance is equal to its characteristic impedance
of 500 Ω. Therefore;
5 5
The load and input impedances of the line are both 500 Ω and so use may be made of the
expression.
Attenuation in decibels= 20 log10 (current ratio).
( )
And;
The phase shift introduced by the line is 9 ; therefore

4.3.4 PHASE VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION
The phase velocity Vp of a line is the velocity with which a sinusoidal wave travels with a
velocity of one wavelength per cycle. There are f cycles per second and so a wave travels with a
velocity of λf meters per second i.e.
Where λ (lamda) is the wavelength and f is the frequency of the sinusoidal wave.
In one wavelength a phase change of 2π radians occurs, and hence the phase change per meter
is radians and this is also equal to the phase-change coefficient. Thus;
And;
At radio frequencies;
6
√ √
And has the same value at all frequencies. This means that all the component frequencies of a
complex signal will propagate along a line at the same velocity and arrive at the end of the line
together. Thus, the signal envelope will not suffer group delay/ frequency distortion.
The phase velocity of propagation of a line is always somewhat smaller than the velocity of light
( ). Usually the velocity is somewhere between 0.6c and 0.9c.
4.3.5. GROUP VELOCITY
Any repetitive, non-sinusoidal waveform contains components at a number of different

frequencies, each of which will be propagated along a transmission line with a phase velocity
given by equation (16). For all these components to travel with the same velocity and arrive at
the far end of the line at the same moment, it is necessary for the phase change coefficient β of

the line to be a linear function of frequency, i.e. for ῳ/β to be a constant at all frequencies. It is
only at radio frequencies that practical lines satisfy this requirement. At lower frequencies β
varies with frequency in a non-linear manner. Fig. 4.8 shows the β-frequency characteristic of a
typical audio-frequency cable.
Fig4.8 Phase-change coefficient/frequency characteristic of a transmission line
Suppose a signal consisting of a 1000Hz fundamental plus 50%third harmonic is applied to a

10km length of a pair in this cable. The fundamental frequency component will be propagated
with a velocity;
8 76
75
And the component at the third harmonic will propagate will propagate with a velocity of
6
55
This means that the harmonic component will arrive at the far-end of the line t seconds before
the fundamental arrives.
6
6 8 76
This time is 0.264 times the periodic time of the fundamental frequency component and so the
third harmonic component has a phase lead of 0.264 x 360 o or approximately 95o. Fig.4.9a and
b shows respectively the resultant waveforms at the beginning and at the end of the line, it is
evident that waveform distortion has taken place.

(a)
(b)
Fig4.9 Showing the envelope of a fundamental and its third harmonic

a. at the beginning
b. at the end of a line in which the ratio is not constant
It is customary to consider the "group velocity" of a complex wave rather than the phase
velocities of its individual frequency components. Group velocity is the velocity with which the
“envelope” of the resultant waveform is propagated. Fig. 4.10 for example is applied to the
transmission of an amplitude modulated wave over a line. The envelope travels at the group
velocity, while the carrier, which is one of the component frequencies of the modulated wave,
propagates with its particular phase velocity.

Fig4.10 Group and phase velocities of an am wave
If a narrow band of frequencies is transmitted over a line and at these two frequencies the
phase change coefficients of the line are β2 and β1 respectively, then the group velocity Vg is
given by equation (17) i.e.
The “group delay” of a line is the product of the length of the line and reciprocal of its group
velocity.
EXAMPLE 5
A signal containing components at 1 KHz and at 2 KHz is propagated along a line. At the 1 KHz
the phase change coefficient β is 0.07 rad/km and al 2 KHz, β is 0.14 rad/km. Calculate the
group velocity of the signal. Determine also its group delays if the line is 10km in length.
SOLUTION
89 76
7
The group delay is
89 76

Two typical group delay/frequency characteristics are given in Fig. 4.11a. Fig.4.11b shows
clearly that the group delay on audio-frequency cable decreases with increase in frequency:
obviously it will also increase as the length of the line is increased. The group delay frequency
characteristic of a channel in a multi-channel-telephony system increases at both low and high
frequencies because of the presence of the channel filters. When the group delay of a circuit
varies with frequency, the different components of a complex signal will not at the end of the
line at the same time and "group delay distortion" will be present.
Fig 4.11 Group delay/frequency characteristics of:

a. An audio frequency cable
b. A channel in a multi-channel telephony group
4.4. MATCHED TRANSMISSION LINES
When a transmission line is employed as a feeder to connect a radio transmitter or a radio

receiver to its antenna, it is required to transfer the maximum possible: power from its source
to its load. This means that the line should be correctly TERMINATED, that is terminated in a
resistance that is equal to the CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE of the line. Such a line is said to be
MATCHED.
4.5. MISMATCHED TRANSMISSION LINES
The energy transmitted along a line by the propagating current and voltage waves can be
completely dissipated in the terminating load resistance only if that resistance is equal to the
characteristic impedance of the line. If the load resistance has some other value, some of the
incident energy will be reflected at the load and transmitted back down the line towards the
sending end. This incident voltage is reflected by the load. The voltage (or current) appearing
across the load resistance is the phasor sum of the incident and reflected voltage (or current) at
the load.

The two extreme values of possible load resistance are an open circuit (infinite impedance) and
a short circuit (zero impedance). There can be no current flowing in an open circuit and so there
can be no power dissipated. This means that "all" the incident current and voltage are reflected
by the open circuit, the current being reflected in anti-phase so that the total current at the
open circuit will be zero. Similarly, there can be no power dissipated. The current and voltage
arriving at the short circuit are both completely reflected, with the voltage experiencing 180 o
shift so that the total voltage across the short circuit will be zero. The reflected current and
voltage are propagated towards the sending end of the line, and at any point along the line, the
total current or voltage is the phasor sum of the incident and reflected waves. To determine the
current and voltage distributions in a resonant line consider a transmission line that is one
wavelength long and has its output terminals open-circuit (Fig. 4 .12).
.•
21
Fig 4.12 The Open-circuited transmission line
When the source is first connected to the sending-end terminals of the line, the current equal
to the e.m.f. of the source divided by the characteristic impedance of the line flows into the
line. As this current flow along the line it is attenuated and phase shifted. Assume the loss of
the line to be negligible and consider the current at points that are multiples of λ/4 from the
sending end. Then referring to Fig. 4.13 in which the line current is represented by phasor, the
current at each point will "lag" the current at the preceding point by 90°, At the end of the line
the "incident" current will arrive at the open-circuit. The current flowing in an open-circuit is, of
course, zero and therefore all the incident current is "reflected with 180 o phase shift ". The
reflected current travels back along the line towards the sending en, experiencing the same
phase change as the incident current. The phasor representing the reflected current are shown
in Fig. 4.14a. The total line current at each point is the phasor sum of the incident and reflected
currents. At the open-circuit the incident and reflected currents are in anti-phase and so their
phasor sum is zero. A quarter of a wavelength from the open-circuit the two currents are in
phase and their phasor sum is equal to twice the incident current. A half wavelength from the
open-circuit the currents are again zero, and so on. If the "r.m.s." values of the total current at
each point are plotted the waveform in Fig. 4.14b is obtained. The points of maximum current

or "antinodes" always occur at the same points in the line and so do the points in the current or
"nodes". The wave is therefore known as a "STANDING WAVE".
Fig4.13 illustration of transmission of the incident current along a loss-free line of one
wavelength long
Fig4.14 a. The incident and reflected currents at λ/4 intervals along a loss- free
Open circuited line
b. The r.m.s value of the total voltage at each point
If now, the voltages existing on the line are considered, the phasor shown in Fig. 4. 15a
Obtained. The incident voltage reaching the open- circuited end of the line is completely
"reflected with zero phase shifts". At the open circuit, therefore the total voltage is twice the
incident and at a distance a quarter wavelength, the total voltage is zero times the incident
voltage and so on. Fig.4.15b shows the R.M.S. value of the total line voltage plotted against
distance from the open circuit.
Fig. 4.15 a. The incident and reflected voltages at λ/4 intervals along a free-loss
Open circuited line

b. the r.m.s value of the total voltage at each point.
Two things should be noted from Fig. 4. 14b and 4.15b: Firstly, the voltage standing-wave
pattern is displaced by a quarter wavelengths from the current standing wave pattern. Secondly
the current and voltage conditions at the open-circuit are repeated at half-wavelength intervals
along the line.
Fig. 4.16 shows a length of line that has its output terminals short-circuited. Incident current
and voltage waves will flow into the input terminals of the line and will be propagated towards
the receiving end. Here both the current and the voltage will be totally reflected, the current
with zero phase shift and the voltage with a phase change of 180 o This is the inverse of the
situation that exists when the terminals are open circuited. Therefore, Fig 4.14a can also be
used to show the phasor representing the incident and reflected voltages on n short-circuited
line.
Fig4.14b shows how the r.m.s total voltage on a short circuited line varies with distance from
the short circuit.
Similarly, Fig.4.15b shows the variation with distance of the r.m.s. total current on a short-
circuited line.

4.6. EXERCISES
1. Coaxial pair has a loss of 20dB at a frequency of 1 MHz Calculate its loss at 9 MHz
assuming that dielectric loss may be neglected.
2. A coaxial cable has a loss of 3.9dB/km at 1.2 MHz If dielectric loss is negligible what is
the loss of 6km of cable at 4.34 MHz?
3. A broadband transmission System occupies the band 1 MHz to 10 MHz the cable has a
loss of 4.21dB/km at 1 MHz and it is required that the attenuation between adjacent
repeaters should not exceed 40dB. Calculate the maximum repeater spacing.
4. A coaxial cable whose dielectric loss is negligible has an attenuation of 2.9dB/km at
0.5Hz. Calculate the frequency at which the loss of a 6km length will be 54dB.
5. The loss of 6km of coaxial cable is 4.5dB at 4.34 MHz. Calculate the loss of 3km of the
cable if the frequency of operation were extended to 12 MHz. Neglect dielectric losses.
6. A generator of e.m.f 50V and internal impedance 600 Ω is applied to a line having a
characteristic impedance of 600 Ω and an attenuation coefficient of 1 dB/km. Calculate
the current flowing in its correctly terminated load resistance if the line is 20km long.
7. A correctly terminated transmission line has Zo = 600 Ω, α = 0.8dB/km and β=25o /km
and is fed by a generator of 600Ω impedance and 10v e.m.f. The power dissipated in the
load is 5mW. Calculate the length of the line.
8. A signal consisting of a 5 KHz wave and its third harmonic is transmitted over a
transmission line. The phase change coefficient of the line is 10 o/km at 5 KHz, and
24o/km at 15 KHz. Calculate the group velocity of the signal.
9. A radio frequency loss-free line has an inductance of 1.2 h/m and a capacitance of
13.32pF/m. calculate:
i. The characteristic impedance
ii. The phase velocity of propagation of the line
What current flows if a 10v source of impedance equal to the characteristic impedance
were applied to the input terminals of the line?
10. A loss-free radio frequency line has a characteristic impedance of 60 Ω and a phase
velocity of propagation of 2.8 x 108 m/s. Determine its inductance and capacitance per
meter.

CHAPTER 5
RADIO FRQUENCY (RF) AMPLIFIERS
CONTENTS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.1.1 AF AND RF AMPLIFIERS
5.1.2 RF AMPLIFIERS AND BANDWIDTH
5.2 PRINCIPLES AND OPERATION OF AN RF AMPLIFIER
5.2.1 SELECTIVITY
5.2.2 OPERATING FREQUENCY AND BANDWIDTH
5.2.3 GAIN
5.2.4 LC CIRCUIT CONSIDERATION
5.3 TUNED RF AMPLIFIERS
5.3.1 SINGLE -TUNED AMPLIFIERS
5.3.2 DOUBLE -TUNED AMPLIFIERS
5.3.3 CASCADED STAGES
5.4 WIDE-BAND TUNED AMPLIFIERS
5.4.1 BANDWIDTH SHRINKAGE
5.4.2 STAGGER TUNNING
5.5 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT RF AMPLIFIERS
5.6.1 BASIC CIRCIUTS
5.6.2 CLASS C RESTRICTIONS
5.7 PARASITIC OSCILLATIONS
5.7.1 OSCILLATIONS AT A LOWER FREQUENCY
5. 7.2 OSCILLATIONS A HIGHER FREQUENCY
5.8 EXERCISES

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter two basic types of high or radio frequency amplifiers will be discussed:
a) RF low-level or small signal amplifiers.
b) R.F power amplifiers.
The low-level amplifiers are found in radio and television receivers or small-signal applications
in transmitters. RF power amplifiers are used in radio and TV transmitters or special
applications where high power RF ac signal is required.
5.1.1 AF AND RF AMPLIFIERS
The radio frequency spectrum is considered to be from 30 kHz to 300 GHz, although
communication is usually limited to frequencies below 100 GHz. The fundamental difference
between audio frequency (AF) and radio frequency (RF) amplifiers is the bands of frequencies
they are expected to amplify. AF amplifiers amplify a major portion of the AF spectrum (20 to
20.000 Hz) equally well. RF amplifiers amplify only a relatively narrow portion of the RF
spectrum (narrow band), attenuating all other frequencies.
5.1.2 RF AMPLIFIER BANDWIDTH
RF amplifiers with different bandwidths are needed for the various services that exist. RF carrier
waves amplitude modulated (AM) by voice frequencies require a 6 kHz bandwidth. Standard
broadcast band A.M for music requires at least 9 kHz bandwidth. Frequency modulated (FM)
voice emissions use a 7.5 kHz bandwidth, and FM broadcast stations have a bandwidth of 180
kHz. Television transmission (TV) uses a 6 MHz bandwidth; Radar may use a bandwidth up to 10
MHz even the bandwidth of a radar emission represents only a small portion of the whole RF
spectrum.
5.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF AN RF AMPLIFIER
All RF amplifiers are tuned amplifiers. A tuned amplifier is one which is required to handle a
relatively narrow band of frequencies centered on a particular radio-frequency (i.e. the
resonant frequency of the tuned circuit). Such an amplifier has two main functions:
a) It must provide the selectivity necessary to ensure that frequencies outside the
wanted or selected band are not amplified to the same extent as the selected band of
frequencies.
b) It must provide a specified gain over a given or selected frequency band.

5.2.1 SELECTIVITY
The required selectivity is generally obtained by a parallel resonant circuit acting as the
collector or drain load for the transistor or FET. The required LC product, for resonance to occur
at the desired center frequency, is fairly small and is easy to obtain; the stray and transistor
capacitances that adversely affect the high-frequency performance of an un-tuned amplifier
now contribute to the necessary tuned circuits’ capacitance.
5.2.2 OPERATION FREQUENCY AND BANDWIDTH
In general, amplifier with tuned LC circuits accepts the resonant frequency and a few
frequencies above and below. At the 50 kHz, LC circuits tend to have high Q and narrow
bandwidth 0.5 to 3 kHz. At 500 kHz the bandwidth may be 5 to 30 kHz. At 5 MHz the bandwidth
may be 20 to 150 kHz. Note that the bandwidth is proportional to the frequency of operation.
Thus, for applications requiring amplification of a wide band of frequencies, signals can be
converted to higher frequency RF bands to be amplified. If only a narrow band of frequencies
are to be amplified, signals may be converted to low RF bands to be amplified. However, by
utilizing the high-Q capabilities of piezo electric crystals, very narrow band widths can be
obtained for any radio frequency up to about 15 MHz with crystal filters.
5.2.3 GAIN
TRANSISTORS
Transistors are subject to internal feedback (If energy at radio· frequencies and a transistor
tuned amplifier must be designed to avoid instability. Generally, the common-emitter
configuration is chose in preference to the common-base because it provides the greatest gain
and its input and output impedance have more convenient values.
The common-base connection is sometimes chosen when one or more of its particular
characteristics are required. These are as follows:
a) It gives more or Jess constant gain over a wide bandwidth,
b) The spread in the current gains of different transistors of the same type is smaller
since
c) A transistor in common base can provide a higher gain at frequencies near the f t of
the transistor than the same transistor connected in common emitter. Often, for

example common base tuned circuits are employed in the input (RF) stage of VHF radio
receivers.
FET's
Field effect transistors can also be used to provide radio-frequency amplification and may be
operated in either the common-source or the common-gate configurations.
IC's
A number of integrated circuit radio-frequency amplifiers are available although in many cases
the package also includes a number of other circuit functions. For example, one readily
available IC consists of an RF amplifier, a mixer, an IF amplifier and a detector.
5.2.4 LC CIRCUIT CONSIDERATION
It is necessary to consider some characteristics of a tuned LC circuit to get a good grasp of the
selectivity problem. Fig.5.1a shows a tuned circuit and typical output/input signal-versus
frequency characteristic is shown in Fig.5.1b. Notice that the output is maximum at the tank
circuit's resonant frequency fo, which is predicted with sufficient accuracy by:
Fig 5.5 a. LC-tuned circuit

b. Output/input VS. Frequency characteristics
At Frequencies above and below the resonant frequency f o, the circuit's output signal falls off
since its impedance is maximum at fo. Its high-frequency cut-off (fhc) and low- frequency cut-off
(fIc) are defined as the points where the output voltage is down to 0.707 of the maximum
output at fo, This corresponds to the point where the power output is one-half of the maximum

at fo since power is proportional to voltage squared, i.e. power at a 3 dB point is equal to
[ 7 7 5], Expressed in decibel form, at 3 dB point
7 7
Therefore
7 7
In decibels (dB),
7 7
Thus the high and low-frequency cut-offs are often referred to as the -3dB points. The same
result is obtained when using the power ratio instead of the voltage ratio. Note that the power
at the -3 dB is half of the maximum power. At -3 dB point,
5
In decibels (dB),
5
The minus sign in dB ratios indicate a loss or attenuation, while a positive decibel ratio shows
signal gain or amplification. Whenever the ratio Pout/Pin or Vout/Vin is less than 1, take the log
of the reciprocal and put a negative sign in front of the result to indicate loss or attenuation.
The bandwidth BW of a tuned circuit is the range of frequencies included between the high and
low cut-off frequency:
Another important parameter for tuned circuits is the quality factor Q. The Q provides a
measure of the tuned circuit's selectivity. The higher the Q. the narrower will be the bandwidth.
The relationship between Q, BW and resonant frequency fo is:

The Q of a tuned circuit is primarily determined by how purely inductive and capacitive its
elements are. Since pure high quality capacitors are easily fabricated, it is usually the inductor's
winding resistance that is the dominant factor in Q determination.
If a suitable transistor is chose, HF signals fed to the base of the transistor will be amplified and
will appear with greater amplitude in the collector circuit. It is usual requirement of HF circuits
that only a certain well defined band of frequencies is amplified. A selection of the required
band of frequencies is arranged by means of a tuned circuit in series with the collector. As with
LF amplifiers, the output impedance of the next stage is low. For efficient coupling the inter-
stage circuit must be arranged for maximum power transfer, that is, the output impedance of
the next stage. This can conveniently be accomplished by means of a step·dowl1 inductive
coupling form the tuned circuit inductance.
5.3.1 SINGLE-TUNED AMPLIFIERS
The circuit diagram of a transistor tuned amplifier is shown in Fig. 5.2.
FIG.5.2 collector-tuned transistor amplifier
The collector tuned circuit must provide the required impedance/frequency characteristic and
also the necessary impedance transformation. This type of circuit is generally required to be
tunable to any frequency within given frequency band. The tuned circuit can have either its
inductance or its capacitance branch tapped to give the required impedance transformation; in
Fig.5.2, a capacitive tap has been used.

Fig. 5.3 shows the circuit of a common-source FET radio frequency amplifier, the drain tuned
circuit provides the necessary selectivity and may sometimes be shunted by a resistor to give
the required stability.
Fig 5.3 Drain-tuned FET amplifier
An alternative method of coupling two stages is the use of a radio-frequency transformer

(Fig.5.4).
Fig 5.4 Single-tuned transformer-coupled amplifiers
The primary winding of the transformer is connected in the collector or drain circuit of the
amplifying device used and has a low D.C. resistance to minimize the D.C. Voltage dropped
across it. In the transistor circuit of Fig.5.4a the secondary winding is tuned and the base
terminal of the following transistor T1 is connected to a tap on the secondary winding. T2
cannot be directly connected across the secondary winding because its low input resistance

(approximately 1000 ohms) would so heavily dampen the tuned circuit that little, if any
selectivity would remain. An alternative arrangement would be to tune the primary winding as
shown in the FET circuit of fig. 5.4b.
The gain/frequency characteristic of a tuned amplifier is determined by the selectivity

characteristic of its tuned circuit. The selectivity of a resonant circuit, and hence of the tuned
amplifier whose collector or drain load it is, is its ability to discriminate between Signals at
different frequencies. A typical gain/frequency characteristic for a tune amplifier is shown in
Fig. 5.5.
Fig5.5 Gain/Frequency characteristics of a tuned circuit
The maximum voltage gain of 150 occurs at the 5 MHz resonant frequency of the tuned circuit,
since at this frequency the impedance of the circuit has its maximum value. The selectivity of a
tuned amplifier is usually expressed in terms of its 3dB bandwidth. This is the bandwidth over
which the gain is not less than 1/1.41 times the resonant gain; for the characteristics of Fig. 5.5
the 3 dB bandwidth is 100 KHz.
5.3.2 DOUBLE-TUNED AMPLIFIERS
The gain/ frequency characteristics of the tuned amplifiers mentioned so far are rounded and
fall away on either side of the operating frequency. This means that a single-tuned amplifier
cannot discriminate against unwanted frequencies near resonance without at the same time
discriminating against some of the wanted frequencies. This disadvantage can be overcome in
tuned amplifiers designed to work at a constant frequency by the use of a double-tuned
amplifier (Fig.5.6).

Fig.5.6 Double-tuned transistor amplifier
A double tuned amplifier employs transformer coupling in which both primary and secondary
circuits are tuned to resonate at the desired operating frequency. The gain/frequency response
of the amplifier is that or the RF transformer and this, in turn depends upon the mutual
inductance between the two windings (see Fig. 5.7).
Fig. 5.7 Gain / Frequency characteristic of a double-tuned amplifier
If critical coupling is employed a more or less flat topped characteristic is obtained and the
circuit will discriminate sharply against unwanted frequencies lying outside the flat top. The use
of double-tuned amplifiers is generally restricted to fixed-frequency applications such as
intermediate-frequency (IF) amplifiers in radio receivers, because of difficulties associated with
the need for the simultaneous of two coupled tuned circuits.
The input resistance of a common-emitter connected transistor is of the order of 1500 Ω and
this figure is sufficiently low to ruin the selectivity characteristic of the coupled circuits if
shunted directly across the secondary winding. It is necessary, therefore, for the transistor to
be connected to a lap on the secondary winding, as shown in Fig.5.6.

5.3.3. CASCADED STAGES
Very often the gain required from all amplifiers is greater than the gain that can be obtained
from a single stage. Then two or more stages must be cascaded to obtain the desired gain. The
overall gain Av of a multi-stage amplifier is the product of the individual stage gains for
example, if the three stages of a particular amplifier had voltage gains of 22, 27 and 20
respectively the overall voltage gain Av would be 22x27x20 = 11880. Unfortunately, cascading
stages to increase the available voltage gain also has the disadvantage of reducing the 3 dB
bandwidth of the amplifier.
Consider, for example, an amplifier having 3 dB frequencies of f1 and f2 respectively. If the gain
of each stage is 20, for two stages the overall gain at resonance is 20 2 = 400 and the gain at f1
and f2 is (20/1.41)2 = 200. The gain at f1 and f2 is only one half of the resonant gain and this
means that, for the two cascaded sages, f1 and f2 are the 6 dB frequencies Obviously the 3dB
bandwidth is no less than f2 –f1 i.e. the bandwidth has shrunk. When three steps are
considered the bandwidth shrinkage is even more pronounced.
5.4 WIDE-BAND TUNED AMPLIFIER
Amplifiers in the 10 to 100 MHz range are often used for television receivers and radar
receivers, and in both cases wide bandwidths are required of the order of 5MHz. To obtain this
wide bandwidth the Q of the tuned Circuit must be very low- of the order of 5 to 10. If a single
tuned circuit is used, the turns ratio to the secondary coupling coil can be made near unity so
that heavy damping is introduced across the tuned circuit by the low input impedance of the
next stage. If a double tuned band-pass circuit is used it is necessary to connect a suitable
resistance across the collector tuned circuit and also is arranged that the secondary circuit is
correctly damped by the input of the next stage.
5.4.1 BANDWIDTH SHRINKAGE
When a wide bandwidth RF amplifier is to be constructed, the bandwidth shrinkage effect

which occurs when a number of stages are synchronously tuned is a serious disadvantage. For a
multistage amplifier to have a given overall bandwidth the individual stage bandwidth must be
considerably wider. This means that the Q-factor of the tuned circuit of each stage must be
fairly low and because of this the gain of each stage is reduced. The practical result is that the
increase in overall gain obtained when an extra stage is added will be less than anticipated

5.4.2 STAGGER TUNING
Better results can be obtained if the stages are not all tuned to the same resonant frequency.
This process is called stagger tuning and is illustrated by Fig. 5.8.
Fig.5. 8 Principle of stagger tuning
Two stages are tuned to frequencies spaced equally either side of the wanted center frequency
fo and provided their bandwidth are suitable chosen, the overall response is reasonable flat
over the operating bandwidth. When three stages are employed, one stage is tuned to the
desired operating frequency with the other two stages tuned one above and one below that
frequency. Stagger-tuned stages are commonly used whenever a wideband, fixed frequency
amplifier is to be designed. Some examples are intermediate frequency (IF) amplifiers in
television receivers and in UHF/SHF radio-relay systems.
5.5 INTERGRATED CIRCUIT RF AMPLIFIERS
The gain/frequency characteristics of the tuned RF amplifiers so far mentioned have been
specified by the parallel-resonant circuits connected as the collector or drain loads. Inductors
cannot be fabricated within a silicon chip and so an integrated tuned amplifier must have its
frequency determining components provided externally. Often, instead of tuned circuits, the
selectivity is determined by means of a ceramic or a crystal filter.
A variety of different IC RF amplifiers are available from several different manufacturers.

Parameters of typical integrated circuit are as follows:
i) Voltage gain Av = 20dB, bandwidth = 140 MHz, maximum input signal voltage =
100mV.
ii) Voltage gain Av = 26dB, bandwidth = 100 MHz, maximum input signal voltage = 50mV.

iii) Voltage gain Av =80dB, maximum input signal voltage =15 µV. input impedance =15Ω
in parallel with 100 pF capacitor.
Many integrated RF amplifiers are associated with a number of other circuit functions within
the same package. For example, one IC contains an RF amplifier, an oscillator and a mixer, while
a second IC adds an IF amplifier a detector to the functions of the first.
5.6 TUNED RF POWER AMPLIFIERS
Tuned radio-frequency power amplifiers find their main application in radio and television
transmitting where the transmitted power may be anything from a few watts to hundreds of
kilowatts. When dealing with high power levels the maximum possible efficiency is essential
and for this reason tuned power amplifiers are operated under either class C or B conditions.
Class B operation of a valve or transistor means that the device is biased to its cut-off point so
that it conducts current only during alternative half- cycles of the input signal waveform. With
class C operation the amplifying device is biased beyond cut-off so that current flows in a series
of less-than-half sine wave pulses.
Fig. 5.9 Class C power amplifiers

In fig. 5.9a the required class C bias is obtained from the leaky-base circuit formed by R1 and C2.
Inductor L2 is a radio frequency choke whose function is to act as a block to the flow of signal-
frequency currents and prevent the signal, voltage being by-passed to earth via capacitor C2.
The input circuit C1 –L1 of the amplifier is tuned to the signal frequency and delivers the input
voltage to the base terminal of transistor T1. The positive peaks of the input signal drive the
base positive and when it is more positive that 0.6 V for a silicon transistor, a collector current
flows. The collector current flows for a period of time which is less than one half of the periodic
time of the signal waveform (see Fig. 5.10). The collector current waveform is the result of a
fundamental frequency (equal to the frequency of the input signal) plus a number of
harmonics. The collector tuned circuit C3 - L3 is tuned to the fundamental frequency. If it has a
Q-factor greater than about 12 its selectivity will be sufficiently high to ensure that only the
fundamental component is able to develop a voltage of any magnitude across tile collector
tuned circuit. Hence, the alternating voltage developed across the collector tuned circuit is of
sinusoidal wave form (Fig.5.10). The voltage is coupled to the load via the mutual inductance
between inductors L3 and L4. The inductor L3 is tapped to ensure that the transistor works into
its optimum load impedance.
Fig. 5.10 Waveforms in a class C amplifier
The class C circuit of fig.5.9b shows the coupling from the collector circuit to the load being
made via a series capacitor C4. The bias arrangement employed consists only of a radio
frequency choke L1 connected between the base of the transistor and earth. This arrangement
is only used in conjunction with very large input signal voltages; the input signal voltage is
rectified by the diode formed by the base emitter P-N junction of T1 and the dc component thus
produced acts as the bias voltage.
Often the bias voltage can be obtained by the connection of R1 and C2 in the emitter circuit, as
illustrated in Fig. 5.9c. When the transistor conducts, a dc voltage is developed across R 1 that
makes the emitter of T1 positive with respect to earth and thereby increases the reverse bias
that is applied to the transistor. This circuit also illustrates the way in which most VHF and UHF
class C amplifiers normally work between either 50 Ω or 75 Ω source and load impedance.
5.6.2 CLASS C RESTRICTION
Radio-frequency power amplifiers are generally operated in class C because of the high
efficiency obtained, in practice up to about 80%. The class C circuit can only be employed in
conjunction with signals of constant amplitude. If an amplitude-modulated signal is applied
considerable distortion arises because the voltage of the input amplitude modulated wave is
not sufficiently large to drive the transistor into conduction during the troughs of the
modulation cycle, i.e. whenever the modulated voltage is less than the un-modulated carrier
voltage. To avoid this distortion it is necessary to reduce the base bias voltage to zero so that
the transistor operates under class B conditions. Now the transistor will conduct one in each RF
cycle throughout the cycle of the modulation envelope. The circuit of a class B RF tuned
amplifier the same as the class C amplifier but it suffers from the disadvantage of small
efficiency, up to about 65%.
5.7 PARASITIC OSCILLATIONS
Sometimes a tuned power amplifier may start to oscillate at some frequencies other than its
normal operating frequency and oscillations of this kind are called parasitic oscillations.
Parasitic oscillations are undesirable in power amplifiers. Even though they do not occur at the
operating frequency, they dissipate power and result in the reduction of wanted power output.
The oscillations may also lead to the transistor being driven into operation on the non-linear
part of its characteristics thereby resulting in a distorted output. Parasitic oscillations may occur
at frequencies either smaller or greater than the frequency of amplification.
5.7.1 OSCILLATIONS AT A LOWER FREQUENCY
Oscillation at a lower frequency generally arise because radio-frequency chokes and by pass
capacitors in both the base and the collector circuits form tuned circuits which happen to be
resonant at the same frequency. Then, an oscillator circuit may be formed. Consider, for
example, the tuned amplifier shown in fig. 5.11a.

Fig 5.11 Parasitic oscillations
The input and output tuned circuits C1 L1 and C3 L4 are each tuned to be resonant at the desired
frequency of operation. L2 and L3 are RF chokes. C2 is a dc blocking capacitor and C4 decouples
the collector supply. At much lower frequencies the reactance of L 1 and L4 will be negligibly
small, but now the reactance of capacitors C2 and C4 will not be negligible. The effective circuit
of the amplifier is then as shown in Fig. 5.11b remembering that as far as ac is concerned the
power supplies +Ecc and -Eb are at earth potential Providing the resonant frequencies of the
tuned circuits C2.L2 and C4.L3 are equal the circuit will oscillate at that common frequency
because some energy is fed from collector to base via the transistor's internal capacitance. The
obvious method of preventing parasitic oscil1atiors is to make sure that the resonant
frequencies of the parasitic tuned circuits are not equal by a suitable choice of values for the RF
chokes and coupling/decoupling capacitors that are fitted.

5.7.2 OSCILLATION AT A HIGHER FREQUENCY
Parasitic oscillations may also occur at a frequency higher than the normal operating frequency
of the amplifier. At higher frequencies unwanted resonant circuits may be formed by stray
transistor capacitances and the inductances of connecting loads. Consider again the circuit
given in Fig. 5.11a. Stray capacitances exist in parallel with both the input and output paths
while the connecting leads to the base and collector terminals possess self-inductance. At
frequencies well above the operating frequency of the amplifier the tuning capacitors C1 and C3
and the decoupling/coupling capacitors C2 and C4 will have a negligible reactance;
consequently, the effective circuit of the amplifier becomes that given in Fig.5.11c, where L b
and Lc are the self-inductances of the base and collector lead respectively, and C sb and Csc are
stray capacitances of the base and collector circuits respectively. This is essentially the same
circuit respectively. This is essentially the same circuit as fig. 7.1b and it will also oscillate if the
products Csb.Lb and Csc.Lc are equal. To prevent parasitic oscillations Lb and/or Lc can be altered
in value by shortening the length of the leads or perhaps Csb and/or Csc can be changed in value
by modifying the layout of the circuit.

5.8 EXERCISES
1. What is meant by the term sensitivity and selectivity of a tuned amplifier?

2. Draw the circuit of a single-tuned transistor amplifier that uses an RF transformer with a
tuned primary winding.
3. Draw the circuit diagram of a two-stage transistor amplifier suitable for use in the
intermediate-frequency stage of a radio receiver. Describe the operations of the circuit
and state the function of each component shown.
4. The voltage-gain/frequency characteristic of a single-tuned amplifying stage is given in
the table below. Using your own scales on graph paper, plot this characteristic and
estimate the following:
a. 3dB bandwidth,
b. Q factor of the circuit.
Plot the Gain/Frequency response of two such stages connected in tandem and indicate
the overall half-power bandwidth.
Frequency 1.00 0.999 0.998 0.997 0.996 0.995 0.994

(MHz) 1.00 1.001 1.002 1.003 1.004 1.005 1.006
GAIN 22.0 20.35 17.27 14.30 11.88 9.90 8.34
5. a. Draw the circuit diagram of a 2-stage, transformer coupled high-frequency tuned

amplifier using transistors in common-emitter configuration.
b. Describe the input and output matching and the bias arrangements.
c. Explain why the primary winding of each transformer is normally tapped and the
secondary circuit is untuned?
d. State with reason a typical value of emitter resistance
6. List the function of each of the components shown in the single tuned transformer
coupled amplifier of fig. 6.3.3a.
7. Show, using typical gain/frequency characteristics, how a three stage amplifier can be
stagger tuned. Why is stagger tuning necessary?
8. a. Explain the principle of operation of an RF power amplifier.
b. What is the advantage of using class C operation with an RF power amplifier?

CHAPTER 6
OSCILLATORS
CONTENTS
6.1 WAVEFORM GENERATORS

6.2 THE OSCILLATORY CIRCUIT
6.3 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF OSCILLA TROS
6.4 LC OSCILLATORS
6.4.1 HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
6.4.2 COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
6.5 RC OSCILLATORS
6.5.1 WIEN CIRCUIT
6.6 CRYSTAL OSCILLA TORS
6.6.1 PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTALS
6.6.2 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS
6. 7 EXERCISES

6.1 WAVEFORM GENERATORS
A waveform generator is an electronic circuit designed to produce an alternating e.m.f. of

known frequency and waveform. A variety of different waveforms can be generated by these
circuits, some are mostly used, and others are of more limited application. The most common1y
used in practice are sinusoidal, the rectangular and the saw tooth waveforms. Sinusoidal wave
forms are produced by waveform generators known as oscillators, while both rectangular and
saw tooth waveforms can be generated by astable multivibrators or by blocking oscillators.
The output waveform of a sinusoidal oscillator is shown in Fig. 6.1 below.
Oscillators are designed to produce a waveform whose amplitude and frequency are sensibly
constant with time; some circuits are made to produce an output signal of fixed amplitude
and/or frequency, while other circuits have their output amplitude and/or frequency
continuously variable.
Fig: 6.2 shows a rectangular waveform.
The waveform has been drawn as varying between zero volts and a positive voltage, but the
inverse, i.e. between zero volts and a negative value, is equally common. The MARK/SPACE
RATIO of the waveform is and the DUTY CYCLE is The-duty cycle may be a
fixed quantity or, with some waveform generators, it may be adjustable. The periodic time of
the waveform is ( ) and the PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY (P.RF.) Is the number of
pulses occurring per second and is equal to the reciprocal of the periodic time. If T 1 is adjusted
to be equal to T2 then a square waveform is obtained.
The saw-tooth waveform is shown in Fig. 6.3 below.

It consists of a voltage that rises linearly with time, known as a ramp, which when it reaches its
maximum value falls rapidly to zero. Immediately the, voltage has fallen to zero it begins
another ramp and so on. Sawtooth-waveforms are employed whenever a voltage or a current
that Increases at a constant rate is required.
6.2 THE OSCILLATORY CIRCUIT
If a capacitor of C farads is charged from a DC source as in Fig.6.4.
A potential difference (p.d) of V volts will be developed across its terminals and an amount of
electric energy, joules, will be stored in its dielectric. Consider such a charged capacitor to
be connected across an inductor as shown in Fig.6.5a.
A complete circuit exists and so the capacitor will discharge through the inductor and a current
I will flow. This current begins to flow the instant the capacitor is connected across the
inductor, and it rises rapidly to a maximum value when the capacitor has fuIIy discharged and
there is zero voltage across its plates. The flow of current in conductor, associated with the
current flow in the inductor, therefore, is a magnetic field that reaches its maximum value at
the same time as does the amperes. All the energy originally stored in the capacitor has now
disappeared (since V = 0) and has been partly converted into magnetic energy and partly lost as
power dissipation in the resistance r of the circuit.
Since the p.d. across the capacitor terminals is now zero, the current starts to fall and the
magnetic field about the inductor starts to collapse. As the field collapses an e.m.f. is induced in
each turn of the inductor that, according to Lenz's law, is in such a direction as to oppose the
force creating it; that is, the total induced e.m.f. tends to keep the current flowing.
Because the capacitor is completely discharged, further current flow in this direction recharges
it but with the polarity opposite to what was before Fig. 6.5b.

When the magnetic field has completely collapsed, the current has fallen to zero and the
capacitor is fully re-charged to a voltage somewhat less than before, say (V -δV), where δV is a
small voltage decrement. Almost all of the magnetic energy has converted back to the form of
electric energy stored in the dielectric of the capacitor, some energy having again been lost as
dissipation in the circuit resistance. The capacitor now starts to discharge through the
inductor again but this time the current flow is in a direction opposite to what it was before. A
magnetic field is again set up around the inductor that increases with increase in the discharge
current. When the capacitor is fully discharged the current starts to fall and the collapsing
magnetic field induces an e.m.f. in the inductor windings that tends to maintain the current in
its new direction. The capacitor is recharged with its original polarity by this current and when it
is fully charged (to a voltage less than before) one cycle of the oscillatory current has been
completed (see Fig.6.6).
A continual interchange of energy between the capacitor and the inductor takes place at a
constant frequency, but with the amplitude of the oscillatory current decreasing steadily until,
eventually, the oscillation dies away. An oscillation of this type, shown in Fig. 6.7 is known as a
damped oscillation. The rate at which the oscillation dies away depends upon the circuit
resistance; the greater the resistance the sooner the oscillations disappears.
If energy can be supplied to the oscillatory circuit to replace the energy lost by dissipation,
an undamped oscillation can be obtained. An undamped oscillation is shown in Fig. 6.8, and it is
clear that the current amplitude is constant and the oscillation does not die away but can be
maintained indefinitely. The energy supplied to the oscillatory circuit must be sufficiently large
to make good the losses and must be in phase with the oscillation.

If the losses in the tuned circuit are low the frequency f o of oscillation is given approximately by
the expression
Where L is in Henry and C is in Farads.
The energy that must be supplied to the oscillatory circuit to maintain oscillation can be
provided by the use of an amplifier. In the next section we will investigate the properties of an
electronic oscillator circuit.
6.3 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF OSCILLATORS
An oscillator is an electronic circuit designed to produce an alternating e.m.f. of known

frequency and waveform. In this sub-Chapter only oscillator circuits which produce an output
voltage of sinusoidal waveform will be discussed.
An oscillator is an amplifier that provides its own input signal, which is derived from the output
signal. Fig. 6.9 shows a block diagram of an oscillator network.
A fraction β (Beta) of the output voltage is fed back to the input. If the voltage gain of the
amplifier is Av, the output voltage is and the input voltage , so that
In this equation, the input voltage cannot be zero as an output voltage exists and therefore
( ) must be zero, and the so-called loop-gain must equal unity, hence:

In general, both the gain Av and the feedback ratio B are complex and hence
This equation states the necessary requirements that must be satisfied before a circuit will
oscillate:
1. The loop gain must be unity, and

2. The loop phase shift( ) must be zero. (positive feedback).
When an oscillator is first switched on, a current surge in the frequency-determining network
produces a voltage, at the required frequency of oscillation, across the network. A fraction of
this voltage is fed back to the input terminals of the amplifier and is amplified to reappear
across network. A fraction of this larger voltage is then fed back to the input to be further
amplifier, and so on. In this way the amplitude is reduced in some way to make the loop gain
unity. The transistor of FET may be biased to operate under the loop gain is reduced by the
transistor driving into saturation and cut-off.
The frequency-determining section of an oscillator may consist of an LC tuned circuit, a
resistance-capacitance (RC) network, or a piezo-electric crystal.
The important characteristics of an oscillator are its frequency of operation, Its, frequency
stability, its amplitude stability and the percentage distortion of its output waveform.
6.4 LC OSCILLATORS
When class A bias is used the bias and DC stabilization circuitry is the same as that for a
transistor amplifier. As the amplitude of the signal increases, the operating point of the
transistor is varied over a large part of its output characteristic until the device is driven into
saturation on one half cycle and into cut-off on the other. The gain of the transistor is then
reduced to unity as required.
The principle is illustrated by the waveform shown in Fig. 6.10. In Fig.6.10a, the oscillatory
voltage applied to the base of tile transistor is small and so the peak base current only varies
the collector current by a small amount either side of its quiescent value. With increase in the
signal amplitude (Fig. 6.10b) the amplitude of the AC collector current increases more or less in
proportion. With still further increase in the base oscillatory current, the collector current may

be varied from approximately zero on one half cycle to a maximum of Ecc/RL on the other half-
cycle if the input signal amplitude rises still further, one (Fig. 6.10c) or both (Fig 6.10d) the
positive half-cycle of the collector current may be clipped because the transistor bas driven into
saturation and the negative half-cycle is clipped because the transistor is driven to cut-off. The
collector current waveform is non-sinusoidal but this does not lead to a distorted output
voltage waveform because the collector load consists of a parallel-tuned circuit of adequate
selectivity.
TUNED COLLECTOR OSCILLATOR
Fig.6.11 shows the circuit of a tuned collector oscillator. The frequency-determining tuned
circuit is connected in series with the collector terminal of the transistor. R 1, R2 and R3 are bias
and DC stabilization components while C1 and C2 are decoupling components. Variable
capacitor C3 tunes the circuit to oscillate at the desired frequency and C4 is a DC blocking but
signal coupling capacitor. The action of the circuit is as follows. When the collector supply
voltage is first switched on, the resulting surge DC current causes a minute oscillatory current to
flow in the collector tuned circuit. This current flows in inductor L1 and induces an e.m.f. at the
same frequency into inductor L2. This voltage is then applied to the base of the transistor. The
transistor introduces 180 degrees phase shift between base and collector and the mutual
inductance coupling between L1 and L2 must be such that the loop-phase shift is zero. The
amplified voltage causes a larger oscillatory current flow in L1 and induces a larger e.m.f into L2
and so on. Provided the loop gain is greater than unity the oscillation amplitude builds up until
the point is reached where the transistor is driven into the point Where the transistor is driven
into saturation and cut-off. The loop gain is then reduced to unity and the amplitude remains
constant.

The collector tuned circuit need not be connected in series with the power supply but instead,
the parallel-feed arrangement of Fig. 6.12.a can be employed.
The circuit works in exactly the same way as the series-feed alternative but has the advantage
that the one plate of the variable capacitor is at earth rather than collector supply potential.
The output signal is shown as being taken from third winding L 3, coupled to L1 and L2, but it
could be capacitance coupled to the load as in Fig. 6.11. Fig 6.12b shows a tuned-collector
oscillator in which the oscillatory signal is fed into the emitter circuit of the transistor rather
than into the base circuit.

TUNED BASE OSCILLATOR
The circuit of a tuned-base transistor oscillator is shown in Fig. 6.13.
It can be seen to differ from the parallel-fed tuned collector circuit only in that the inductor L 2 is
tuned instead of L1. A disadvantage of the circuit is that the low input resistance of the
transistor considerably reduces the Q-factor of the circuit. This can result in a poor output
waveform because insufficient discrimination against harmonics may be provided.
GENERALIZED OSCILLATOR DIAGRAM
Two further types of oscillator which are frequently found in electronic and radio equipment
are known as the Hartley and Colpitts oscillators. These oscillators can be represented by the
generalized diagram shown in Fig. 6.14.
X1 is the reactance connected between base and collector, and X 2 is the reactance between
base and emitter, and X3 is the reactance between collector and emitter. For oscillation to
occur reactance X2 and X3 must of the same sign and the reactance X1 must be of the opposite
sign.
6.4.1 HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
If X2 and X3 (Fig. 6.14) are both inductive and X1 is capacitive, a Hartley oscillator is formed. figs.
4.6a and b respectively show the circuits of the series fed and parallel fed Hartley oscillator
both circuits R1, R2 and R3 provide bias and DC stabilization and C1 is a dc block having negligible
reactance at the oscillation frequency. Comparing fig 6.14a and 6.14b it can be seen that
, and . The frequency of oscillation is given approximately by:

√
6.4.2 COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
If X2 and X3 (Fig. 6.15) are both capacitive and X1 is inductive, a Colpitts oscillator is formed.
Colpitts oscillator employing series-feed and parallel-feed are shown in Fig. 6.15a and b. The
required inductive path between the collector and the base terminals of the transistor is
collector, inductor L1, power supply, decoupling capacitor C1, of oscillation. Similarly, the
capacitive path between collector and emitter is via capacitor C3. The frequency of oscillation is
approximately given by
√ ( )

6.5 RC OSCILLATORS
Audio-frequency oscillators most often use a resistance-capacitance network to obtain the loop
phase-shift of 360 degrees necessary for oscillations to take place. One type of RC oscillator
uses a single stage amplifier and is shown in two forms in Fig 6.1. The transistor introduces
phase shift of 180 degrees and this means that the RC network must provide a further 180
degrees for the circuit to function as an oscillator. In the circuits shown the phase shifting
network consists of capacitors C2, C3 and C4, resistors R4 and R5 and the input resistance of the
transistor is operated somewhere near the middle of its mutual characteristics, a low distortion
sinusoidal waveform will appear at the output terminals of the circuit. To permit variable and
ganged, (that is, mounted on a common spindle) so that they can be varied simultaneously by a
single control. Variable frequency circuits generally use circuit (b) since it allows the moving
plates of the capacitors to be earthed.

The frequency of oscillation for fig.6.16a is
√
And for fig.5.1b,
√
6.5.1. WIEN CIRCUIT
Another popular version of an RC oscillator is shown in Fig. 6.17 and is known as the Wien
Circuit. A two stage RC coupled amplifier is used that has an overall phase shift of 360 degrees
at the oscillation frequency. A fraction of the output voltage of this amplifier is fed back to its
input terminal, the fraction being determined by the RC network R 9 - C3, R10 - C4. The values of
R9, R10, C3 are chosen so that only at the desired frequency of oscillation does the network
introduce zero phase shift. This means that at the one particular frequency the phase lead
introduced by the series R9 - C3 circuit is equal to the phase lag given by the parallel R10 - C4
circuit. The loop phase shift of the circuit is then 360 degrees and the circuit will oscillate
provided the loop gain is greater than unity. This means that the voltage gain of the amplifier
must be greater than the attenuation inserted by the phase-shifting network. The minimum
gain required is 3 and is set by the applied negative feedback.
For Wein circuit the frequency of oscillation is given by:
Clearly the oscillation frequency is inversely proportional to the values of resistance and
capacitance used in the phase-shifting circuit For this reason RC oscillators are not used at
frequencies much higher than about 50 kHz since stray capacitances would begin to exert a
relatively large influence on the frequency of oscillation.

6.6 CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS
The best frequency stability that can he achieved with an LC oscillator is limited by economic
considerations to about +/-10 parts in 106Hz/=C. and if better stability is required a crystal
oscillator must be used. A crystal oscillator is an oscillator circuit in which the, frequency-
determining network is provided by a piezoelectric crystal.
6.6.L PIEZO ELECTRIC CRYSTALS
A piezo electric crystal is a material such as quartz, having the property that, if subjected to a
mechanical stress, a potential difference is developed across it, and if the stress is reversed a
p.d. of opposite polarity is developed. Conversely, the application of a potential difference to a
piezoelectric crystal causes the crystal to be stressed in a direction depending on the polarity of
the applied voltage.
In its natural state quartz crystal is of hexagonal cross-section with pointed ends. If a small thin
plate is cut from a crystal the plate will have a particular natural frequency, and if an alternating
voltage at its natural frequency, and if an alternating voltage at its natural frequency is applied
across it, the plate win vibrate vigorously. The natural frequency of a crystal plate depends
upon its dimensions, the mode of vibration and its original position or cut in the crystal.
For higher frequencies, the required plate thickness is very small and the plate is fragile,
however, a crystal can be operated at a harmonic of its fundamental frequency and such
overtone operation raises the possible upper frequency to about 100 MHz.
The electrical equivalent circuit and symbol of a crystal is shown in Fig. 6.18.
The inductance L represents the inertia of the mass of the crystal plate when it is Vibrating; the
capacitance C2 represents the reciprocal of the stiffness of the crystal plate, and the resistance
R represents the frictional losses of the vibrating plate. The capacitance C2 is the actual
capacitance of the crystal (a piezoelectric crystal is an electrical insulator and is mounted
between two conducting plates.) Since the frictional losses of a crystal plate are small the Q-
factor of a crystal is high, and figures of 20000 or more are easily obtained.
A series-parallel circuit, such as Fig 6.18, has two resonant frequencies the resonant frequency
of the series arm R-L0C1, inductance of the series arm above its (series) resonant frequency.
When a crystal is fitted into a circuit, very often a small variable capacitor is connected in series

to permit fine tuning of its resonant frequency. The crystal may be operated in its series or
parallel-resonant modes, or may work at a frequency such that is presents an inductive
impedance.
6.6.2 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS
When the power supply is first connected to a Crystal oscillator, a voltage pulse is applied to the
crystal and causes it to Vibrate at its resonant frequency. An alternating voltage at the resonant
frequency is then developed between the terminals of the crystal if this voltage is applied to the
base of a transistor, or the gate of FET, it will be amplified to appear across the collector or
drain load. If some of this amplified voltage is then, in some way fed back to the crystal with the
correct phase, it will cause the crystal to vibrate more vigorously. A larger alternating voltage
will appear across the crystal and will be amplified and then fed back to the crystal and so on.
The circuit will therefore oscillate at the frequency at which the crystal is vibrating. A number of

different crystal oscillator circuits have been developed and some examples are given in Fig.
6.19.
In the bipolar transistor circuit of Fig. 6.19a energy is fed from the collector of T 1 to its base via
the crystal X1. The crystal should have the minimum impedance at the required oscillator
frequency and so it is operated in its series resonant mode. Capacitor C 1 provides fine
adjustment of the frequency of oscillation. R1, R2, R3 and C4 are conventional bias and dc
stabilization components and the voltage developed across the tuned circuit L 1-C2 is coupled to
the load (or more likely to the buffer amplifier) by capacitor C3.
The circuit shown in Fig. 6.19b is known as the Pierce Circuit and is essentially a version of the
Colpitts oscillator. The required capacitive impedance joining the collector to the emitter and
the base to the emitter are provided, respectively, by C5 and by C2. The inductive reactance that
must connect the base to the collector is provided by the impedance of the crystal in parallel
with the capacitor C3. Inductor L1 is an RF choke.
The FET oscillator shown in Fig. 6.19c is an example of the Miller Circuit. For the circuit to
oscillate at a particular frequency both the crystal and the drain tuned load must have inductive
impedance at that frequency. The necessary feedback from drain to gate is via the internal
electrode capacitance of the FET. If the internal capacitance is of insufficient magnitude it can
be augmented by the connection of an external capacitor of suitable value.
Another version of the Pierce circuit is given in Fig. 6.19d; capacitors C1 and C4 provide the
capacitive paths between source and gate and, source and drain respectively and the crystal
provides the inductive path between drain and gate.
OVERTONE OPERATION
When a drain or collector tuned load is employed it is possible to operate a crystal at an

overtone frequency (i.e. a multiple of the fundamental frequency). Other circuits cannot do this
since a crystal will naturally try to work at its most active frequency where its vibrations are
most vigorous, and this is the fundamental. On the other hand, oscillators which do not include
a tuned circuit can be provided with the facility to switch different crystals into circuit when
rapid frequency changes are desired.
FREQUENCY RANGE
The frequency range of commercially available crystals is from about 10MHz with the crystal
operating at its fundamental frequency. The higher frequency limit is imposed by the necessary
plate thickness becoming extremely small and fragile.

STABILITY
An ordinary crystal oscillator may have a frequency stability of perhaps 1 part in 10 6. For greater
stability the crystal can be mounted in a temperature controlled environment (oven) and may
then provide a stability of 1 part in 107. If very great care is taken even greater frequency
stability can be achieved.

6.7 EXERCISES
1. a) What is meant by a waveform generator? Draw some" waveforms which are in

common use and give examples of their application
b) A rectangular waveform varying between 0V and +10 V has the following parameters:
pulse repetition frequency p.r.f =100 kHz, duration of positive pulse 4µs. What are: -
(i) The mark/space ration
(ii) The duty factor of this waveform?
2. Draw the block diagram of an oscillator and explain the function of each block. Explain
why
(i) the loop phase-shift must be zero, and
(ii) The loop-gain must be unity.
Draw the output waveform you would expect if, due to a faulty transistor, the loop gain
should fall below unity.
3. (i) Draw the circuit diagram of a transistor oscillator designed to work at a fixed
frequency.
(ii) Indicate component values and fully describe the operations of your circuit.
(iii) State the approximate frequency of operation.
(iv) How is the amplitude of your oscillations prevented from continually increasing?
4. An oscillator is required to tune over the frequency range 500 -2000 kHz and uses a coil
of self-inductance 150µH. Calculate minimum and maximum values of the variable
tuning capacitor required.
5. Draw the circuit diagram of

(i) a tuned-base oscillator and
(ii) a tuned-collector and
Explain their operation. State a disadvantage of the tuned-base circuit and suggest how
it may overcome.
6. Draw the circuit diagram of a Hartley oscillator.

a) Explain its principle of operation.
b) Show how the circuit could be modified to form a Colpitts oscillator.
c) Upon what factors does the frequency stability of an LC oscillator mainly
depend?
7. Draw a Colpitts oscillator and

(i) Describe the operation,
(ii) What precautions can be taken to ensure frequency stability? And
(iii) Why is a high Q desirable in the tuned circuit?

8. Draw the circuit diagram of an RC oscillator using a single-stage transistor amplifier.
Describe the operation of the circuit and mention the purpose of each component
shown. What determines the frequency of oscillation?
9. Sketch the circuit diagram of a Wien-bridge oscillator circuit and describe the operation.
10. Draw the circuit diagram of a crystal-controlled transistor oscillator and explain its
operation. List the factors which determine the frequency stability of such an oscillator.

CHAPTER 7
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
CONTENTS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 AM CARRIER WAVE
7.2.1 MODULATION FACTOR
7.2.2 THE AM SPECTRUM AND BANDWIDTH
7.3 POWER CONTAINED IN AM WAVE
7.4 CONVENTIONAL AM SYSTEMS
7.4.1 MODULATION CIRCUITS
7.4.2 ENVELOPE DETECTOR
7.5 AM SYSTEMS WITH SUPPRESSED CARRIER
7.5.1 DOUBLE SIDE BAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER
7.5.2 SINGLE SIDE BAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER
7.5.3 MODULATOR CIRCUITS
7.5.3.1 DSB-SC
7.5.3.2 SSB-SC
7.5.4 SYNCRONOUS DETECTOR
7.6 EXERCISES

1. INTRODUCTION
Amplitude modulation of a sinusoidal carrier wave is widely used in line and radio
communication systems as a means of Shifting or translating a signal from one frequency band
to another. Frequency translation of signals is commonly used for two reasons.
i. Firstly, the internationally recommended bandwidth for commercial quality speech

is 300-3400 Hz and this figure is very much smaller than the available bandwidth of a
telephone cable. This means that a cable pair is capable of simultaneously
transmitting a number of speech channels provided the channels are each
positioned in a different part of the frequency spectrum of the cable. This process is
known as frequency division multiplex (FDM) and is capable of providing up to
10700 channels over a single coaxial cable pair.
ii. Secondly, frequency translation of an audio frequency signal is also used in all kinds
of radio systems. Radio signals are transmitted and received by means of antennas,
but since no kind of antenna can operate at such low frequencies it is necessary to
shift each Signal to some higher frequency. This process is known as modulation of
an RF carrier.
2. AM CARRIER WAVE
A carrier is said to be amplitude modulated (AM), if its amplitude is varied in accordance with
the amplitude of the modulating signal. During modulation, the carrier amplitude increases
when the modulating voltage increases and it decreases when the modulating voltage
decreases. This process is illustrated in fig. 2.1. The outline of the amplitude modulated wave is
called the modulation envelope. Note that the modulation envelope has the same waveform as
the modulating signal.

MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION
We consider a radio frequency carrier with frequency fc represented by
Where
vc = amplitude of carrier
ѡc =angular velocity of carrier.
And a modulating signal with frequency fm represented by
Where
Vm = amplitude of the modulating signal
Ѡm =angular velocity of the modulating signal
NB. ῳ=2πf
For simplicity our modulating signal consists here of a single audio frequency. Usually, the
modulating signal consists of a range of audio frequencies as for speech or music. An AM carrier
wave can now be represented mathematically by
[ ]
From this expression it can be seen that the amplitude of the modulated carrier (= part
between the square brackets) varies in the rhythm of the modulating signal. The maximum
amplitude of the modulated wave occurs when , and is . The minimum
amplitude occurs when , and is . Fig.2.2 shows the waveform of vc.
With no modulating signal present ( ) expression (3) is equal to (1), the unmodulated
carrier.
2.1 MODULATION FACTOR
The modulation factor m of an AM wave 1e defined as:
When expressed as a percentage, m is known as the percentage modulation, or the depth of

modulation. For sinusoidal modulation the maximum amplitude of the modulation envelope is,
from equation (3). and the minimum amplitude is – , hence;

The maximum value of the modulation factor is limited to 1 since this gives a minimum valve to
the envelope of zero. If a greater value of modulation factor is used, the envelope will no longer
be sinusoidal (Fig. 2.3) and the waveform will contain a number of extra, unwanted frequency
components (distortion). For practical AM transmitting systems a modulation factor of 0.3 to
0.5 is used.
EXAMPLE 1
Draw the waveform of a carrier which has been sinusoidal amplitude modulated to a depth of
25%. If the amplitude of the unmodulated carrier wave is 100 V determine the modulating
signal voltage.
SOLUTION
The maximum voltage of the modulated wave is and . Hence the
maximum voltage is
5
5
The minimum voltage of the wave is:
5
75
The required amplitude-modulated waveform is shown in fig.2.4.
The modulating voltage is equal to:
5 5

2.2. THE AM SPECTRUM AND BANDWIDTH
Multiplying out equation (3) it follows that
Using trigonometry identity
[ ] 7
Expression can be written as
This expression shows that an AM carrier wave contains three frequency components when
modulated with a single frequency. The frequency of the first term is the carrier frequency
that of the second term the lower side frequency and the last term, the Upper
side frequency the side frequencies are above and below the carrier frequency by
an amount equal to , the modulating frequency. The amplitude of the carrier is equal to
while the amplitudes of the side frequencies are equal to .
For a complex modulating signal like speech, numerous frequency components are produced
above and below the carrier frequency fc. They are called the lower and upper sidebands.
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM REPRESENTATION
There are two ways in which the frequency components of an amplitude modulated wave may
be represented by a diagram.
Fig.2.5 a. frequency spectrum of an AM wave modulated by two frequencies f1 and f2

b. Method of representing the sidebands of an AM wave.

1. Each component can be shown by an arrow that is drawn perpendicularly to the
frequency axis as shown by fig. 2. 5a, when it has been assumed that the carrier wave,
at frequency fc, has been modulated by a signal containing two components at
frequencies f1 and f2. The lengths of the arrows are drawn in proposition to the
amplitudes of the components they each represent. This method of representing an AM
wave is satisfactory when only a few components are involved but it rapidly becomes
impractical when speech signals are involved.
2. The method of representation usually employed particularly in connection with multi-

channel telephony systems, is shown in fig. 2.5b. The lower and upper sidebands are
each represented by a truncated triangle, in which the vertical ordinates are made
proportional to the modulating frequency and no account is taken of amplitude. The
upper sideband is said to be erect because its highest side frequency, fc+f2 corresponds
to the highest frequency f2 in the modulating signal. Conversely, the lower sideband is
said to be inverted because its highest frequency component, fc-f1 is produced by the
lowest modulating frequency f1.
BANDWIDTH
It will be clear from fig. 2.5 that the bandwidth occupied by a double sideband AM wave equals:
9
Where fh =highest modulating frequency.
EXAMPLE 2
A 4 MHz carrier wave is amplitude modulated by the band of audio-frequencies 300-3400Hz

(normal telephone channel). Determine:
a. the frequencies contained in the modulated wave
b. the bandwidth occupied by the signal.
SOLUTION
a) According to eq.(8) the components of the modulated wave are :

1. The carrier frequency: fc =4 MHz
2. The lower sideband frequencies:
to 996 6 999 7
3 . The upper sideband frequencies:
b. The necessary bandwidth equals:
68

3. POWER CONTAINED IN AN AM WAVE
The power developed by an AM wave is the sum of the powers developed by the carrier
frequency, upper side-fequency and lower side-frequency components. For a r.m.s. carrier
voltage VC, the carrier power equals:
And the power developed by each of the side-frequencies in:
( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
So that the total power is:
( )( )
( )
The carrier power and the power in the sidebands are in the ratio of 1 : . Even in the case
m=1 (100 % modulation, maximum possible) the power in the carrier, that carries no
information, is twice as much as the power in the sidebands, which carry the information. It
follows that the efficiency concerning the use of energy of a conventional double sideband
AM system is not very good. Moreover, both sidebands contain
The same information so the use of the space in the frequency bands is also poor.
SOUND BROADCASTING
In spite of the drawbacks, conventional AM systems are commonly used for sound broadcasting
purposes. The reason for this lies in the fact that a double-sideband full-carrier signal can be
demodulated by a relatively simple circuit which responds to the variations of the envelope of
the wave (Envelope detector). In broadcasting normally we have the case of one transmitter
and very many receivers, so to reduce costs it is an advantage then the construction of the
receivers can be kept simple.

EXAMPLE 3
A 1 kW carrier is amplitude modulated by a sinusoidal signal to a depth of 50%. Calculate the

power at the lower side frequency and determine what percentage it is of the total power.
SOLUTION:
From equation (12)

5
( ) ( ) 5
The carrier power is 1000 W so the total side-frequency power is 125 W. The amplitudes of the
two side-frequencies are equal and so the side-frequencies will dissipate equal powers.
Therefore:
Lower side-frequency power = 125/2 = 62.5 W
The total power is 1125 W, hence the lower side-frequency power expressed as a percentage of
the total power is:
6 5
5 56
5
The disadvantage of double side-band working, made apparent by example 3, is that the
greater part of the transmitted power is associated with the carrier component and this carries
no information.
4. CONVENTIONAL AM SYSTEMS
MODULATION
The function of an AM modulator is to modulate a carrier wave, which results in sum and
difference frequencies, together with the carrier. This may be achieved with a non-linear
electronic device such as a semiconductor diode or a transistor.
DEMODULATION
The process of extracting or recovering the information from a modulated signal is known as
demodulation or detection. The two main types of linear detectors are the envelope detector
and the synchronous detector. The envelope detector because of its simplicity is by far the
most common type used for AM Signals. This applies equally well to speech, music or video
signals. Synchronous detectors may also be used for AM signals, but this type of detector is far
more critical in its operation than the envelope detector, since it depends upon exact carrier
synchronization for its correct operation.

4. 1. MODULATOR CIRCUITS
BASIC CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENT:
An AM Signal can be written, as we saw in expression (3), as the product of a modulating signal
and a carrier wave. With a non-linear device such as a semiconductor diode or a transistor, we
are able to form the product of two signals. Fig 4.1 shows the basic arrangement of the circuit.
We assume that the non-linear device has a relationship between applied voltage and resulting
current of the following form:
Where
i = output current
v = input voltage
and a, b and c are constants.
For a carrier signal and a modulating signal in series at the input, we have:
Substitution of (14) in (13) gives:
[ ] [ ]
15.
Or
c
The second and the fifth term in this expression represent the AM signal (see also (6)). Besides
this wanted terms there are various unwanted ones. By means of a tuned load in place of RL,
the carrier and the sidebands can be selected to give the required AM output.

PRACTICAL CIRCUIT
Fig. 4.2 shows a practical arrangement of the non-linear modulator.
The transistor is biased to operate over the non-linear part of its mutual characteristics. The
collector circuit is tuned to the carrier frequency and has a selectivity characteristic such that
the required amplitude modulated waveform appears across it. The various unwanted
components are at frequencies well removed from resonance and do not develop a voltage
across the collector load.
4. 2. ENVELOPE DETECTOR
The shape of the envelope of a conventional AM signal is similar to the modulating signal. A
circuit which can follow the envelope waveform is the linear diode detector.
The basic circuit shown in fig 4.3 consists of a diode in series with a parallel resistor-capacitor
network.
If an unmodulated carrier wave of constant amplitude is applied to the detector, the positive
half-cycle of the wave will cause the diode to conduct. The diode current will charge the
capacitor to almost the peak voltage of the input signal. At the end of this half-cycle, the diode
ceases to conduct and the capacitor starts to discharge through the load resistor R at a rate
determined by the time constant, RC seconds, of the discharge circuit (see fig. 4.4). A nearly
constant D.C. voltage is developed across the load resistor R; the fluctuations that exist are
small and take place at the frequency of the input carrier signal.

If now the input signal is amplitude modulated, the voltage across the diode load will vary in
sympathy with the wave envelope, provided the time constant is small enough. The capacitor
must be able to discharge rapidly enough for the voltage across It to follow those parts of the
modulation cycle when the modulation envelope is decreasing in amplitude (see fig. 4.5.).
If the time constant of the discharge path is too long, relative to the periodic time of the
modulating signal, the capacitor voltage will not be able to follow the troughs of the
modulation envelope and waveform distortion takes place. The time constant determines the
rapidity with which the detected voltage can change, and must be long compared with the
periodic time of the modulating signal. The voltage developed across the diode load resistor has
three components:
a. component at the wanted modulating signal frequency.
b. a DC component that is proportional to the peak value of the
unmodulated wave, and
c. a component at the carrier frequency.
DETECTOR FILTER CIRCUIT
To eliminate the unwanted components b) and c), the detector output is fed into a resistance-
capacitance filter network before application to the AF amplifier. Fig. 4.6 shows a possible filter
circuit.

Capacitor C2 acts as a D.C. blocker to remove the D.C. component. Capacitor C 3 has a low
reactance at the carrier frequency and, in conjunction with R2, filters out this frequency. The
voltage appearing across R3 is the required modulating Signal.
For good performance of the envelope detector, the value of the modulation factor m has to be
low. Usually m = 0.3 to 0.4 for radio broadcast systems transmitting music to ensure a minimum
amount of envelope distortion on demodulation.
5. AM SYSTEMS WITH SUPPRESSED CARRIER
Alternative AM modulation systems with better efficiency concerning energy consumption and
use of frequency space are:
 Double Side Band Suppressed carrier
 Single Side Band Suppressed carrier
5.1. DOUBLE SIDE BAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER SYSTEM (DSB- SC)
The majority of the power contained in an amplitude-modulated wave is developed by the

carrier component. Since this component carries no information, it may be suppressed during
the modulation process. All the transmitted power is then associated with the upper and lower
sidebands.
The waveform of a DSB- SC signal voltage is shown in fig. 5.1.

This figure has been drawn on the assumption that a 10 kHz carrier wave is amplitude
modulated by a 1 kHz sinusoidal wave to produce lower and upper side-frequencies of 9 kHz
and 11 kHz respectively. With the carrier component suppressed, the DSB- SC waveform is the
resultant of the 9 kHz and 11 kHz waveforms. The envelope of the resultant waveform is not
sinusoidal and this is an indication that a DSB-SC signal cannot be demodulated with the simple
envelope detector which is available of double side-band full carrier demodulation.
DEMODULATION
For demodulation to be achieved, it is necessary for the carrier component to be re-inserted at

the receiver with both the correct frequency and phase. The first of these requirements can be
satisfied if the receiver circuitry includes an Oscillator of sufficiently high stability, such as a
crystal oscillator. The second requirement is more difficult to satisfy.
5.2. SINGLE SIDE BAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER SYSTEM (SSB-SC)
The information represented by the modulating signal is contained in both the upper and the
lower sidebands, since each modulating frequency fm produces corresponding upper and lower
side-frequencies. It is therefore unnecessary to transmit both sidebands; either sideband can be
suppressed at the transmitter without any loss of information.
When the modulating signal is of sinusoidal waveform, the transmitted side frequency will be a
sine wave of constant amplitude. Should this signal be applied to an envelope detector, a direct
voltage output would be obtained and not the original modulating signal. This means that once
again, demodulation using an envelope detector is not possible.

DEMODULATION
For demodulation to be achieved, the carrier component must be re-inserted at the correct
frequency. Now, however, the phase of the re-inserted carrier does not matter and the design
of, the receiver is considerably eased.
5.3. MODULATOR CIRCUITS
Circuits used to generate AM signals with suppressed carrier are called balanced modulators.
Single balanced modulators produce a spectrum mainly consisting of the two sidebands plus
the modulating frequency, .while double balanced modulators only produce the two sidebands.
5.3.1. DSB-SC
Different types of balanced modulators exist. The transistor balanced modulator is composed
from 2 non-linear modulators. An alternative form of a balanced modulator uses an
arrangement of semiconductor diodes, which are used as electronic switches.
TRANSISTOR BALANCED MODULATOR
The circuit of a transistor balanced modulator is given in fig. 5.2.
Transistors T1 and T2 are biased to operate on the non-linear part of their characteristics. Since
the input transformer TR1 is center-tapped, the modulating signal voltages applied to
transistors T1 and T2 are in anti-phase with one another. The carrier voltage is introduced into
the circuit between the centre tap on the input transformer and earth, and so applies in-phase
voltages to the two transistors. The collector currents of each transistor contain components at
a number of different frequencies, and flow in opposite directions in the primary winding of the
output transformer TR2. The phase relationships of the various components of the collector
currents are such that the current flowing in the secondary winding of TR2 contains
components at the modulating frequency and at the upper and lower side-frequencies but not

at the carrier frequency. In practice the two halves of the circuit do not have identical
characteristics and some carrier leak is always present in the output of the circuit.
Many balanced modulators, particularly those employed in multi-channel line systems, do not
utilize the non-linear characteristics of a diode or transistor but instead use the device as an
electronic switch. When a diode or transistor is forward biased its resistance is low, and when it
is reverse biased its resistance is high. Provided the carrier voltage is considerably higher than
the modulating voltage, the carrier will control the switching of the device.
SINGLE BALANCED DIODE MODULATOR
Fig. 5.3 shows the circuit of a single balanced diode modulator.
During the half period of the carrier where A is positive with respect to B, the diodes are
forward biased. When forward biased the impedance of the diodes is low and the modulating
signal is connected with the output (fig. 5.3.b). During the other half period of the carrier where
A is negative in respect to B, the diodes are reverse biased. When reverse biased the
impedance of the diodes is very high and the modulating signal is isolated from the output (fig.
5.3.c).
The carrier has a square wave switching action on the modulating signal, which is illustrated in
fig. 5.4.

The output signal is equal to the product of the square wave function and the modulating
signal. The square wave switching function can be written as a series of sine functions (Fourier
theory):
[ ] 7
Where C1 and C2 are constants.
If the modulating signal is represented by:
then the output is given by:
{ [ ]} 8
Or
Which, using identity (7), can be written as:
The output signal contains among others the modulating signal and the two side frequencies,
but the carrier is absent. Fig. 5.5 shows the spectrum of a single balanced modulator.
In practice, of course, non-ideal diodes are employed and this has the effect that carrier leak
occurs, Therefore, a potentiometer is included to enable adjustment for minimum leak to be
carried out.

DOUBLE BALANCED DIODE MODULATOR
Sometimes it is necessary to suppress the modulating signal as well as the carrier wave during
the modulation process, and then a double balanced modulator is used. The circuit, also known
as ring modulator, is shown in fig.5.6.a.
During the half period of the carrier where terminal A is positive with respect to B, the diodes
D1 and D2 are forward biased while diodes D3 and D4 are reversed biased. The circuit is
equivalent to the one shown in fig. 5.6.b. The modulating signal is hereby directly connected to
the output.
During the other half period of the carrier where terminal A is negative with respect to B. the
diodes D1 and D2 are reversed biased while diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased. The circuit is
now equivalent to the one shown in fig. 5.6.c.
The modulating signal is now inversely connected to the output.
The carrier has a double-sided square wave switching action on the modulating signal, which is
illustrated in fig.5.7. The output signal is equal to the product of the double-sided square wave
function and the modulating signal.
The square wave Vs is represented by

[ ]
Where C3 is a constant.
If the modulating signal is represented by:
Then the output vo is given by:
[ ]
Or
[ ]
The output contains mainly the pair of side frequencies, but no carrier or modulating signal is
present. Fig.5.8 shows the spectrum of a double balanced modulator.
When a complex modulating signal is applied to any of balanced modulator circuits upper and
lower side-bands are produced.
5.3.2. SSB-SC
In an SSB-SC system only one of the side-bands is to be transmitted and the other is to be
suppressed. Two methods of side-band suppression are available, known respectively as the
filter method and the phasing method.

FILTER METHOD
One way of producing a SSB-SC signal is to obtain a DSB-SC signal by means of a balanced
modulator and to suppress the unwanted Sideband by a sideband filter. The filter output then
contains only one sideband. The block diagram is shown in fig. 5.9.
In practice, difficulties arise in designing a filter with sharp cut-off on either side. Using a narrow
bandwidth to give a better cut-off would cause loss of some sideband components or
alternatively, if the bandwidth is increased, some of the other sideband components may leak
through.
PHASING METHOD
A second method of producing a SSB-SC signal is by adding two DSB-SC signals of which their
carriers and modulation are 90o out of phase. This is called the phase shift method.
The block diagram is shown in fig. 5.10. It consists of two balanced modulators, one of which
has its carrier and modulation shifted by 90o relative to the other and the combined outputs
yield the SSB-SC signal.
If v1 and v2 are the output voltages of the modulators, we have:

[ ]
[ { 9 9 }
{ 9 9 }]
[ ]
It follows:
[ ]
Which is the lower sideband only. The advantage of this method is that no sharp filters are
needed.
5.4. SYNCHRONOUS DETECTOR
For the demodulation of AM signals with suppressed carriers synchronous detectors are used.
The action of this detector is somewhat similar to that of a balanced modulator whereby two
signals are multiplied by a non-linear device to give sum and difference frequencies in the
output. Hence, in the synchronous detector the in-coming signal, which is generally a DSB-SC or
SSB-SC signal, is multiplied with a local carrier signal in a non-linear circuit. The output is then
passed through an appropriate low-pass filter to yield the modulating signal.
Fig. 5.11 shows a schematic circuit for an incoming signal V1 and a local oscillator signal v2 =
sin(wct).
DEMODULATION OF DSB-SC
For the case of an incoming DSB-SC signal we have (see expression (22)),
It follows that;
[ ] 7

Or
8
The output signal vo consists of two components. The first term represents the modulating
signal while the second term is of a high frequency nature. By means of a low-pass filter the
modulating signal is obtained.
DEMODULATION OF SSB-SC
For the case of an incoming SSB-SC signal we have (see expression 25):
For the lower side-frequency only, It follows that:-
Or
[ ]
Again the output signal consists of the modulating signal plus a high frequency component. By
means of a low-pass filter the modulating signal is obtained.
However, for synchronous detection to be effective synchronization of the locally injected

carrier must be exact. The effect of phase or frequency shift is that distortion or phase delay of
the modulating signal can occur.

6. EXERCISES
1. a) Distinguish between the terms side-frequency and sideband, and explain what is
meant by the envelope of an amplitude-modulated waveform.
b) Draw the waveform of a carrier wave which has been amplitude-modulated to a
depth of 20% by a sinusoidal signal.
2. A 600V carrier wave is amplitude modulated to a depth of 60%, Calculate:
a) The modulating signal voltage.
b) The voltage of the lower side-frequency.
3. A modulating signal occupying the frequency band 68 – 72 kHz amplitude modulates a
100 kHz carrier. What bandwidth is occupied by the modulated wave?
4. If the power in each side-frequency of a 25 kW carrier wave is 2 kW when the carrier is

sinusoidally modulated, what is the depth of modulation?
5. a) What is the function of the modulator stage in a radio transmitter?

b) What is the function of the detector stage in a radio receiver?
6. Draw the circuit diagram of a diode detector suitable for the demodulation of DSB AM
signals.
a) Explain the operation of the circuit, by describing the function of each component.
b) Explain why the value of the modulation factor m has to be low for good performance
of the envelope detector.
7. a) What are the advantages of single sideband operation of a radio system over double
sideband?
b) Why is the SSB system not used for sound broadcasting?
8. A 100 V, 5 MHz carrier wave is amplitude modulated to a depth of 60% by a 3 kHz sine
wave and the carrier and upper side frequency components are suppressed. Draw the
waveform of the transmitted signal .
9. A 1 MHz carrier is amplitude modulated by a 10 kHz sine wave. What frequencies are
contained in the modulated waveforms if the system is
i) DSB, (ii) DSB-SC and (iii )SSB-SC?
10. a) Draw the circuit diagram of a ring modulator and state briefly its working.
b) Draw the output waveform.
11. Explain with the aid of appropriate block diagrams, how

an SSB-SC signal can be produced
a) by the filter method and
b) by the phasing method .
Compare the relative merits of the two methods.

Chapter 8
FRQUENCY MODULATION
CONTENTS
8.0 INTRODUCTION
8.1 FM CARRIER WAVE

8.1.1 FREQUENCY DEVIATION
8.1.2 MODULATION INDEX
8.2 THE FM SPECTRUM AND BANDWIDTH
8.3 FM GENERATION
8.3.1 VARICAP MODULATOR
8.4 FREQUENCY DEMODULATORS

8.4.1 FOSTER - SEELEY DISCRIMINATOR
8.4.2 THE RATIO DETECTOR
8.4.3 THE LIMITER CIRCUIT
8.4.4 THE PHASE LOCKED LOOP DETECTOR
8.5 PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-EMPHASIS

8.5.1 CIRCUIT EXAMPLES
8.6 ADV ANTGES OF F.M OVER A.M
8.7 EXERCISES

8.0 INTRODUCTION
In radio transmission we make use of high frequency electromagnetic waves for transportation
of information (e.g. speech signals, music signals). These waves are called carrier waves.
The information to be transmitted is added to the carrier with the help of a process called
modulation. In this process a certain parameter of the carrier (e.g. amplitude, frequency, phase)
is varied by the signal to be transmitted, the so called modulating signal.
A carrier is said to be frequency modulated (FM), if its frequency is varied in accordance with
the amplitude of the modulating signal voltage. During modulation, the carrier frequency
increases when the modulating voltage increases and it decreases.
Since the amplitude of a frequency-modulated wave does not vary, the total power contained
in the wave is constant and equal to the unmodulated carrier power.
8.1 FM CARRIER WAVE
When a sinusoidal carrier wave is frequency modulated, its instantaneous frequency is caused
to vary by the modulating signal to either side of its nominal unmodulated frequency. The
magnitude of the variation is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal voltage.
The concept of FM can perhaps best be understood by considering a modulating signal of

rectangular waveform, such as the waveform in Fig. 8.1.
Fig 8.1 Principle of the FM modulation process
Suppose the unmodulated carrier wave frequency is 3MHz. The periodic time of the carrier
voltage is 1/3 micro seconds and so three complete cycles of the unmodulated carrier wave will
occur in 1 micros. When, at t = 1 micro-s the voltage of the modulating signal increases to +1V,
the instantaneous carrier frequency increases to 4MHz if the modulator sensitivity equals 1
MHz/V. In the time interval t = 1 to t = 2 micro-s there are now four complete cycles of the

carrier voltage. At t = 2 micro sec. the modulating signal returns to 0V and the instantaneous
carrier frequency falls to its original 3MHz. During the time- interval t = 3 to t = 4 micro-s, the
modulating signal voltage is -I V and the carrier frequency is reduced to 2MHz, this means that
two cycles of the carrier voltage occur in this period of time. When, at t = 4 micro-s, the
modulating process does not increase the power content of the carrier wave.
When the modulating signal is sinusoidal waveform, the frequency of the modulated carrier
wave will vary sinusoidal waveform; this is illustrated in Fig. 8.2.
Fig.8.2 Frequency modulated waves
The above is to show how a sinusoidal signal frequency modulates a carrier. As has already
been mentioned, the carrier frequency is made to vary in accordance with the instantaneous
value of the modulating signal. The amount by which the carrier deviates from its nominal value
is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal, and the number of times per second
the carrier deviates is equal to the modulating frequency. Fig.8.2b is the frequency modulated
wave and Fig.8.2b the corresponding modulating signal. Over the time interval 0 t1 the
modulating signal voltage is zero and so the carrier is unmodulated. From t1 to t2 the
modulating signal voltage is increased in the positive direction and the carrier frequency
increases to a maximum value at t2. After time t2 the modulating voltage fails towards zero, and
the carrier frequency reduces in value until at time t3 it has reached its unmodulated value.

During the following negative half cycle of the modulating signal voltage; the carrier frequency
has its minimum value when the modulating signal voltage reaches its peak negative value at t4.
If the frequency of the modulating signal is increased (Fig. 8.2c); the number of times per
second that the carrier frequency is varied about its mean; unmodulated value is increased in
proportion as is shown in Fig. 8.2d. It should be noted that the minimum and maximum values
of the modulated carrier frequency are that same in both .Figs. 8.2b and 8.2d because the
respective modulating signals have equal amplitudes.
The amplitude of the carrier is not changed when frequency modulation takes place and
therefore there is no change in the amount of power carried by the wave.
8.1.1. FREQUENCY DEVIATION
The magnitude of frequency variation to either side of the nominal carrier frequency is known
as the frequency deviation of an FM carrier wave is proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal voltage. There is no inherent maximum value to the frequency deviation that
can be obtained in a FM system, this should be compared with amplitude modulation where
the maximum amplitude deviation possible corresponds to m=1.
RATED SYSTEM DEVIATION
The maximum value of frequency deviation which is permitted to occur in a particular FM

system is known as fd, the rated system deviation .For any given FM system, a maximum
allowable frequency deviation must be specified since the bandwidth occupied by an FM wave
increases with increase in the frequency deviation. Since the frequency deviation is directly
proportional to the modulating signal voltage, the choice of rated system deviation sets the
maximum allowable modulating signal voltage that can be applied to the frequency modulator.
EXAMPLE 1
A frequency modulated system has a rated system deviation of 30KHz. If the sensitivity of the
frequency modulator is 4KHz/V, what is the maximum allowable modulating signal voltage?
SOLUTION
30KHz = (4KHz/V x Vm where Vm is the maximum allowable modulating signal voltage.
Therefore,
75

FREQUENCY SWING
The term frequency swing is sometimes applied to a frequency-modulated wave. It refers to the
maximum carrier frequency minus the minimum carrier frequency and it is equal to twice the
frequency deviation i.e. 2fd.
MODULATING SIGNAL FACTOR (K)
Most of the time the amplitude of the modulating signal voltage will be less than its maximum
allowable value. Then the frequency deviation of the carrier will be smaller than the rated
system deviation. This can be accounted for by introducing a factor k where:
The frequency deviation of the carrier frequency is then given by the product k.f d where fd is
the rated system deviation. The factor k can have any value between 0 (modulating signal) and
1 (maximum modulating signal).
EXAMPLE 2
An FM system has a rated system deviation of 75 KHz and this is produced by a modulating
signal voltage of 10V. Determine
(a) The sensitivity of the modulator, and
(b) the frequency deviation produced by a 2V modulating signal.
SOLUTION
a) Sensitivity = fd/Vm = 75/ 10 = 7.5 KHz/V
b) K=vm/Vm= 2/10 = 0.2
Deviation =f.fd = 0.2 x 75 - 15 KHz
The frequency deviation of the carrier is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal,
therefore the modulation index will continually vary as the amplitude and/or frequency of the
modulating signal changes.
8.1.2 MODULATION INDEX
When a carrier voltage is frequency modulated, its phase is also caused to vary. The peak phase
deviation is equal to the ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating frequency and is
called the modulation index of the modulated wave i.e. fd/fm.

MODULATION INDEX M IS EQUAL TO ZERO
With no modulating signal present, the frequency deviation will be zero and so the modulation
index. It can be seen from (1) that in this case only the carrier wave with stable frequency fc is
left.
MODULATION INDEX ME NOT EQUAL TO ZERO

With a modulation signal present, the modulation index mf actually determines the peak phase
deviation of the carrier wave. The value of the cosine function in (1) (varies between +1 and -1,
so the phase change of the carrier wave varies between +mf and -mf radians. A change in phase
of the carrier wave equals at the same time a change in frequency of this wave.
EXAMPLE 3
A 100MHz carrier wave is frequency modulated by a 10V, 10 KHz sinusoidal voltage using a
linear modulator. The instantaneous carrier frequency varies between 99.95 and 100.05MHz.
Calculate:
a) The sensitivity of the modulator
b) The modulation index,
c) The peak phase deviation of the carrier
SOLUTION
a) The peak frequency deviation is 0.05MHz. Therefore Modulator sensitivity
= 0.05 x 106/10 = 5.0 KHz/V
b) From equation (2)
mf= (50×103) /(10×103) =5
c) The peak phase deviation of the carrier is equal to the modulation index = 5radians
EXAMPLE 4
What will be the new values of the peak frequency and phase deviation in the system of
Exercise 3 if the amplitude an the frequency of the modulating signal are changed to 20V and 5
KHz respectively?
SOLUTION
If the amplitude of the modulating signal voltage is doubled, the frequency deviation of the
carrier will also be doubled. Therefore,
k.fd= 2 x 0.05MHz = 0.1MHz = 100 KHz.
The peak phase deviation is given by k.fd/fm
Therefore
Peak phase deviation = 100KHz/5KHz = 20 radians

8.2 THE FM SPECTRUM AND BANDWIDTH
To get an idea about the frequency spectrum of a FM wave, expression (1) can be transformed
mathematically into;
[ { }
{ }
]
For a modulating signal vm - Vmsin(wmt) = (single tone)
From this expression it can be seen that besides the carrier frequency f c, a set of side
frequencies are generated on a repeated distance of fm .The amplitudes of the side frequencies
just as the carrier frequency depend on the modulation index mf and are determined by the
coefficients Jn (mf) , the so called Bessel functions of the first kind and order. It is enough to
know that these functions exist and that their values for different modulation indices are
known (see Fig. 8.3).
Fig. 8.3 Plot of Bessel functions Jn for various values of modulation index mf
From this plot it can been that with increasing modulation index mf more side frequencies are
generated. Also we see that the carrier energy decreases and even vanishes at modulation
index mf= 2.4.

Fig. 8.4 Spectra for different values of modulation index me
From Fig 8.4 two things can be observed

a. the number of frequencies in an FM wave
b. the effect of different values of modulation index mf.
FREQUENCIES CONTAINED IN AN FM WAVE
When a carrier of frequency fc is modulated by a sinusoidal wave of frequency fm; the resultant
waveform contains components at a number of different frequencies as follows:-
a. the carrier frequency fc
b. First-order side frequencies fc ± fm
c. Second-order; side frequencies fc ± 2fm
d. Third-order side frequencies fc ± 3fm etc.
The number of side frequencies present in a particular wave depends upon the modulation
index; the larger the modulation index value the greater the number of side frequencies
generated. The amplitudes of the various components including the carrier itself vary in a
complicated manner as the modulation index increases. Any component; again including the
carrier; may have zero amplitude at a particular value of modulation index.
NARROWBAND AND BROADBAND FM
For small values of mf (mf < l) there are only one or two pairs of significant side frequencies.
These cases correspond to so called narrow band FM. For values of mf>>1 the side frequencies
cover a wide spectrum. Fig. 8.4 shows the spectra for four values of the modulation index fm.
They show clearly that an increase in the modulation index of an FM wave will result in an
increase in the number of side frequencies generated.
When the number of side frequencies is greater than about 10, the number of significant side
frequencies does not depend very much on mf. In this case, which is called broadband FM, the
practical bandwidth may be taken as approximately:

[ ]
Where,
fd = frequency deviation of system
fm(max) = highest modulating frequency
This rule (called Carson's rule) gives approximate results which agree quite well with
bandwidths actually used.
For the case of fd = 75 KHz and fm(max) = 15 KHz, which is typical for a normal FM broadcast
system, we obtain a bandwidth of 180KHz. This is considerably larger than the bandwidth used
with a corresponding AM system (2 x fm(max) = 30 KHz and accounts for the inherent wideband
nature of FM. The use of a large bandwidth leads to a considerable improvement in signal-to-
noise ratio, which is one of the main advantage of FM compared to AM. Narrowband PM does
not possess this property due to its small frequency deviation.
8.3 FM GENERATION
An FM wave is produced by varying the frequency of the carrier wave in accordance with the
amplitude of the modulating signal. A carrier wave itself is generated by means of an oscillator.
To vary the frequency of this oscillator one of the elements of the tuning circuit (mostly a LC
circuit) has to be varied. A varicap diode (or varactor) can be well used for this purpose. If the
supplied reverse bias voltage across a varicap diode is changed, so the capacitance will change.
EXAMPLE 5
(a) A variable capacitance diode has a characteristics given by the following table:
Reverse voltage (V) -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6

Diode capacitance (pF) 12.5 7.5 6.0 5.0 4.3 3.8
Plot a graph of diode capacitance against diode voltage.

(b) A 90MHz oscillator employs a parallel-tuned circuit to control the frequency of oscillation.
The circuit consists of a coil of inductance 0.2 micro-H in parallel with a 10pF c3pacitor, across
which is collected the variable-capacitance diode described in (a) above. Using the given
characteristic, determine the voltage which must be applied to the diode for oscillations to
occur at 90MHz.
SOLUTION
a) The required graph is given in Fig.8.5

Fig. 8.5 Diode capacitance vs diode voltage of varicap diode (example 5)
b) The total capacitance needed to tune the inductance to resonance at 90MHz is:-
56
9 87 9
Therefore, the diode must provide a capacitance of 5.63pF. From the graph of Fig. 7.1 this
capacitance value is obtained when the applied voltage is -3.3V.
8.3.1. VARICAP MODULATOR
A typical varicap modulator is shown ill Fig. 8.6.
Fig. 8.6 Varicap modulator
The varicap diode is reverse biased by the DC voltage V. The capacitance of the diode is placed
together with C across the parallel circuit Cp - Lp which forms part of the oscillators tuned
circuit. Capacitor C serves to block the DC bias voltage from the parallel circuit. With the DC

voltage V. the center frequency of the unmodulated carrier wave can be determined and
controlled.
The modulating signal Vm is superimposed on the reverse bias voltage V and causes the
capacitance of the varicap to change according to the amplitude of v m. When the capacitance of
the varicap changes, the total parallel capacitance of the tuned circuit will change, with the
result that the resonant frequency of the parallel circuit also changes. In this way a frequency
modulated wave is obtained.
8.4 FREQUENCY DEMODULATORS
The function of frequency demodulator is to produce an output voltage whose magnitude is

directly proportional to the frequency deviation of the input signal, and whose frequency is
equal to the number of times per second the input signal frequency is varied about its mean
value. In simple terms in order to extract the modulation from an FM wave; changes in
frequency must be converted to corresponding amplitude changes. Frequency demodulation
can be achieved in several different ways: Most domestic receivers using discrete circuitry
employ either the ratio detector or the Foster-Seeley discriminator. The Foster-Seeley
discriminator generally gives a better linearity but must be preceded by a limiter while the ratio
detector combines both limiting and discriminator in the same circuit and is largely used in
domestic.
8.4.1 THE FOSTER-SEELEY DISCRIMINATOR
The circuit diagram of a Foster-Seeley discriminator is given in Fig 8.7.
Fig. 8.7 Foster - Seeley detector
The tuned circuit C1-L1 acts as the collector load for the final stage of the i.f. amplifier, which is
generally operated as a limiter. Both tuned circuits C1-L1 and L2-C3) are tuned to resonate at the
unmodulated carrier frequency and have bandwidths wide enough to cover the rated system

deviation of the f.m. signal. Capacitors C2, C4 and C5 all have negligible reactance at radio
frequencies and so L1 is effectively connected in parallel with L3. Thus the voltage V1developed
across L1 also appears across L3.
Suppose the voltage appearing across L1 is at the unmodulated carrier frequency. The current
flowing in L1 induces an e.m.f. into the secondary winding L2 and this causes an in phase-current
to flow in the series circuit L2-C3. A voltage is developed across C3 which lags this current, and
hence the induced voltage by 90°. Since inductor L2 is accurately center tapped, one-half of this
voltage appears across each half of L2. Let the voltage appearing across the upper half of the
winding be labeled as V2 with being the voltage across the lower half. The voltages VD1 and VD2
applied across the diodes D1and D2 are respectively, the phasor sums of the voltages V1 and V2
and V1 and V3 .The phase relationships are such that V2 leads V1 by 90˚ and V3 lags V1 by 90° as
shown by the phasor diagram of Fig.8.8a.
Fig. 8.8 Foster Seeley detector phasor relationships
Since VD1 = VD2, equal amplitude detected voltages appear across the diode load resistor R1 and
R2. Because of the diode connections, these two voltages act in opposite directions and cancel
out, so that the voltage appearing across the output terminals of the circuit is zero.
When the frequency of the signal voltage developed across L1 above the unmodulated carrier
frequency, the voltage across C3 will lead the e.m.f. induced into L2 by some angle greater than
90o. This results in V2 leading V1 by an angle less than 90° and V3 lagging V1 by more than 90°
(Fig.8.8b) . Now the voltage Vd1 applied across diode D1 is larger than the voltage VD2 applied
to D2 and so the voltage developed across load resistor R1 is greater than the voltage across R2.
A positive voltage, equal to the difference between the two load voltages is produced at the
output terminals. If the frequency deviation of the carrier is increased, the larger will become
the difference between the magnitudes of the diode voltages VD1 and VD2, and the output
voltage will increase in the positive direction.
When the modulated frequency is below its mean value, voltage V2 leads V1 by more than 90°,
while V3 lags V1 by less than 90° as shown in Fig 8.8c. As a result, V D2 is now of greater
magnitude than VD1 and the detected voltage across R2 is bigger than the voltage across R1. The
output voltage of the circuit is now negative with respect to earth. As before, an increase in the
frequency deviation of the carrier will increase the output voltage. The way in which the output

voltage of the circuit varies as the frequency of the input signal is changed is shown by the
typical discriminator characteristic of Fig.8.9.
Fig.8.8 Output voltage/frequency characteristics of Foster - Seeley detector
Operation of the detector should be restricted to the linear part of the characteristic. The turn-
over points are produced by the limited bandwidth of the tuned circuit C 1-L2 and C3-L2, reducing
the voltage of the circuit will also vary if the amplitude of the input signal should vary. This is, of
course, an undesirable effect and to prevent it happening the detector should be preceded by
one or more stages of amplitude limiting. De-emphasis of the output signal is provided by R3
and C6
8.4.2 THE RATIO DETECTOR
A commonly used f.m. detector, particularly for broadcast receivers, is the ratio detector, one
form of which is given by Fig 8.9. The main advantage of this circuit over the Foster-Seeley
detector is that it incorporates its own amplitude limiting action and often a separate limiter is
not needed.
Fig. 8.9 Ratio detector

Inductor L1 is inductively coupled to both L2 and L3 but L2 and L3 are not coupled together. The
tuned circuits C1-L1 and C3-L3 are each tuned to the unmodulated carrier frequency. When a

voltage at this frequency appears across L1 voltages are induced into both L2 and L3. Capacitors
C2, C4 and C5 have negligible reactance at radio frequencies and so the voltage applied across
diode D1 is the phasor sum of the voltages across L2 and the upper half of L3. Similarly the
voltage applied to D1 is the phasor sum of the voltages across L2 and the lower half of L3. If the
voltage across L2 is labeled as V1 and the other two voltages are labeled V2 and V3 respectively,
the phasor diagram given in Fig 8.8 will represent the voltages. The resultant voltages VD1 VD2
applied to the diodes will vary with frequency to produce voltages across the load capacitors C4
and C5. The voltages across the d.c. load capacitor C7 is the sum of the voltages across C4 and C5
and since R2= R3, one-half of this voltage appears across each resistor. The time constant C7 (R2
= R3) is sufficiently long to ensure that the voltage across C7 remains more or less constant at
very nearly the peak voltage appearing across C3.
The audio load capacitor C2 is connected between the junctions of C4/C5 and R2/R3 and this part
of the circuit is re-drawn in Fig 8.11
Fig 8.11 Detail of ratio detector circuit
The voltages across C5 and R5 have the polarities shown and, when the input signal is at the
unmodulated carrier frequency, are of equal magnitude. The two voltages act in opposite
directions, with the result that no current flows, and the voltage across the audio load capacitor
C2 is zero. When the input signal frequency increases, the voltage applied to diode D1 increases
and the voltage across D2 falls. As a result the voltage across C4 increases while the voltage
across C5 falls; but; since the sum of these voltages remains constant, the voltage across R3 does
not change. A current now flows in the circuit of Fig 8.9 and a positive voltage, equal to the
difference between VC5 and VR3 appears across C5 will fall still further and the voltage across C2
will increase. Conversely, if the input frequency is reduced, the voltage across R3 and a current
will flow in the opposite direction to before to produce a negative output voltage. When the
frequency of the input signal voltage is modulated, the modulating signal voltage will appear
across C2. Components R1 and C6 provide de-emphasis of the output voltage.
The output-voltage/input-frequency characteristic of a ratio detector has the same shape as the
Foster-Seeley curve shown in Fig 8.8. However, the output voltage available for a given
frequency deviation is only one-half that provided by the Foster-Seeley circuit, and the linearity
of the characteristic is not as good. The advantage of the ratio detector has been previously
mentioned; it provides some degree of self-limiting in the following manner. If the amplitude of
the input signal is steady, the (voltage across the d.c. load capacitor C7 is constant because of

the long-time constant C7 (R1 = R3). An increase in the input signal voltage will cause both
diodes to conduct extra current, and this results in an increased volts drop across the tuned
circuit, tending: to keep the voltage applied to the diodes more or less constant. A similar
action takes place if the input signal voltage should fall; the diodes pass a smaller current and
the volts drop across the tuned circuit is reduced, allowing the diode voltage to rise. The
variable voltage drop across the tuned circuit in conjunction with the long time constant of
diode load ensure that the output voltage responds very little, if at all to any changes in input
signal amplitude.
The ratio detector shown in Fig 8.9 is balanced since the d.c. voltage appearing across the d.c
load capacitor C7 is balanced with respect to earth potential. Sometimes it is convenient to have
an unbalanced voltage and then an unbalanced circuit is used. Fig 8.10shows the circuit of one
version of the unbalanced ratio detector; its operation is left as an exercise for the reader.
Fig 8.10 Unbalanced ratio detector circuit
8.4.3 LIMITER CIRCUIT
This is a circuit that precedes the Foster Seeley discriminator to give the circuit better linearity.
The output of a limiter has constant amplitude for all inputs above a critical value. Its function is
to remove any residual amplitude modulation and the amplitude variations due to noise. A
transistor limiter is shown in Fig. 8.12.

Fig 8.12 Transistor Limiting Circuit
The dropping resistor Rc limits the de collector supply voltage. This provides a low d.c collector
voltage which makes this stage very easily overdriven. This is the desired result. The
input/output characteristics for the limiter are shown in Fig 8.13.
Fig 8.13 Limiter Input/output characteristics and flywheel effect of tuned tank
circuit.
The above shows the desired limiting action and the effects of feeding the limited signal into an
LC parallel circuit tuned to the signal's center frequency. The natural flywheel effect of the
circuit removes all frequencies not near the center frequency and thus provides a sinusoidal
output signal as shown.
8.4.4 THE PHASE-LOCKED LOOP DETECTOR
Another method of fm. detection which has only become an economic opposition since the
advent of linear integrated circuits is the phase-locked loop the block schematic diagram of
which is shown in Fig 8.14.

Fig. 8.14 Phase locked loop frequency detector
If a signal at a constant frequency is applied to the input terminals of the circuit, the phase
detector produces an output voltage that is proportional to the instantaneous phase difference
between the signal and oscillator voltages. The error voltage is filtered and amplified before it is
applied to the input of the voltage controlled oscillator. The error voltage varies the oscillator
frequency in the direction which reduces the frequency difference between signal and
oscillator. This action continues until the oscillator frequency is equal to the signal frequency.
The oscillator is then said to be locked; in this condition a small phase difference will exist
between the signal and oscillator voltages in order to generate the error voltage needed to
maintain the lock.
If the input signal frequency should change, the error voltage will change also, with the
appropriate polarity, and force the oscillator frequency to follow. When the input signal is
frequency modulated, the error voltage will vary in the same way as the required modulating
signal and so the circuit acts as an f.m. demodulator. The circuit can be made using discrete
components or using integrated operational amplifiers but most convenient is the integrated
p.1.1. circuit.
The p.1.1. detector offers a number of advantages over its competitors, namely:
a) The detector is tuned to the unmodulated carrier frequency by a single external
capacitor;
(b) The upper-frequency limit is high;
(c) It introduces little noise or distortion;
(d) It does not require an inductance.
The circuitry is complicated and not competitive economically if discrete components are used.
The integrated circuit versions also used to be expensive but their present cost is such that they
are employed in some communication receivers.
8.5 PRE - EMPHASIS AND DE - EMPHASIS
Most of the electrical noise contained in the reception of an FM signal is at the higher
frequencies. The signal to noise ratio (S/N) falls at higher frequencies. To improve the signal to
noise ratio for these frequencies, a pre-emphasis circuit is used at the transmitting side to boost
the higher frequency components in the modulating signal. On reception; the original signal
balance is restored by de-emphasizing the higher frequency components to the same extent.

The de-emphasizing of the higher frequencies at the receiver side also attenuates a Jot of high
frequency noise. An improvement of 3dB in the S/N is the result.
Fig. 8.15 illustrates the process of the pre and de-emphasizing technique.
Fig 8.15 The effect of pre-emphasizing on the output SIN of an FM system
8.5.1 CIRCUIT EXAMPLES
Fig 8:16. is a pre-emphasis circuit which precedes the modulating stage. The load impedance in
the collector circuit is inductive and will rise with increasing frequency. The voltage
amplification of the circuit is proportional with the collector impedance; so the amplification
will also rise with increasing frequency. Fig. 8.16b gives an example of a de-emphasis circuit.
R and C act as a voltage divider for ac signals. The impedance of the capacitor C is inversely
proportional with frequency. That means that the output signal will fall with increasing
frequency. The voltage amplification of the transmitter circuit is about one. However the
impedance of tins circuit is high and it prevents the R-C voltage divider of being loaded.
8. 6 ADVANTAGE OF FREQUENCY MODULATION OVER AMPLITUDE MODULATION
a. The range of modulating signal amplitudes from lowest to highest provided is much
higher.

b. Selective fading is not a problem in f.m receivers since they do not respond to any
amplitude variations of the input signal.
c. An increased output SIN for wideband ~ because of the use of greater than unity
deviation ratio.
d. The FM transmitter is more efficient because:-
I. Class C amplifiers can be used throughout the r.f section of the transmitter.
II. The f.m wave bas a constant amplitude and this allows each r.f stage to be
operated in an optimum manner.
e. An f.m receiver has the ability to suppress the weaker of two signals which are
simultaneously present at its antenna terminals at or near the same frequency.
The main disadvantage of f.m is the much wider bandwidth required if the possible S/N
improvement is to be realized.

8.7 EXERCISES
1. What is meant by the following terms in connection 'with frequency modulation ;-

i) Modulation index
ii) Frequency deviation
iii) Rated system deviation
iv) Practical bandwidth
2. When a certain sinusoidal voltage is used to frequency, modulate a VHF carrier, the
required bandwidth is 200KHz. It is desired to retain the same modulation index while
reducing the necessary bandwidth to 100 KHz. What changes should be made to the
input to the modulator to achieve the required deviation?
3. Why must frequency modulation be used in conjunction with a very high frequency
carrier?
4. An FM transmitter has a frequency swing of 80KHz. Determine its frequency deviation
when the modulating signal voltage is halved.
5. When the modulation index of a certain FM transmitter is 7 in a practical bandwidth of
160KHz, what is its frequency deviation?
6. a) What is a varactor diode?
b) Draw the circuit diagram of a varactor diode modulator and explain its operation.

Chapter 9
RADIO TRANSMITTERS
CONTENTS
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 AMPLITUDE MODULATION TRANSMITTERS
9.2.1 LOW-LEVEL MODULATION
9.2.2 HIGH-LEVEL MODULATION
9.3 OUTPUT STAGES
9.4 METHODS OF COUPLING
9.5 V.H.F TRANSMITTERS
9.6 FREQUENCY SYNTHESIS
9.7 FREQUENCY MODULATION TRANSMITTERS
9.8 EXERCISES

9.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of any radio communication system is to transmit information from one point to
another. In any given situation, the communication may be unidirectional as in sound and
television broadcasting or may be bi - directional as in most radio telephony systems. Before
transmission is effected a suitable carrier is modulated by the signal in order to translate that
signal to the allocated part of the frequency spectrum. The modulated signal should then be
amplified to desired power levels before transmission is effected.
Amplitude and frequency modulation transmitters are used in the v.h.f and u.h.f bands but only
amplitude modulation is used in the lower frequency bands. D.S.B amplitude modulation is
used in sound broadcast transmitters but radio telephony systems use either single or
independent sideband operation. It is important that higher frequency communication
transmitters must have the ability to alter frequency rapidly in conformity with ionospheric
condition changes in order to maintain a reliable service. This is the reason why modem
transmitters are fitted with self-tuning facilities to bring about frequency changes.
9.2 AMPLITUDE MODULATION TRANSMITTERS
The carrier signal in an amplitude modulated transmitter is generated by a high stability crystal
Oscillator or a frequency synthesizer, it is then amplified and/or frequency multiplied before
being applied to the antenna feeder. The carrier signal has to be modulated by the information
signal at some stage before it is transmitted and this modulation can be carried out at a low
level or after it has been amplified to a high power level hence the transmitters are divided into
two classes’ namely low level and high level.
9.2.1 LOW -LEVEL MODULATION TRANSMITTER
In low Level modulation the carrier signal receives little, if any amplification before it is
modulated by the signal. The amplitude modulated signal is the amplified by one or more linear
class B r.f amplifiers to the desired output power level.
Generally, class c amplifiers cannot be used to amplify amplitude modulated waveforms

without distortion; however modem low level transmitters use class C amplifiers with envelope
negative feedback to reduce the distortion. The low level transmitter does not require a large
a.f modulating power thereby making the a.f amplifier design simple. Its efficiency as compared
to the high level is much lower because of the use of class B instead of class C amplifiers. The
block diagram of the low level transmitter is shown in Fig 9.1 below.

9.2.2 HIGH ·LEVEL MODULATION
In high level modulation, the modulation takes place after both the carrier and the modulating
signals have been amplified to high power levels. The carrier frequency is generated by the
crystal oscillator and then amplified to the level needed to fully drive the output stage by a
number of class C tuned r.f amplifiers. One or more of these amplifiers may be operated as
frequency multipliers. The modulating signal is amplified by the class A a.f amplifier and then
applied to the class B modulator. The output of the modulator is connected in the anode circuit
of the final class C stage and then modulates the amplified carrier wave. The frequency stability
of the transmitter is depends on the stability of the crystal oscillator. It is normal practice to use
a crystal oscillator at a higher frequency than the required carrier then use frequency division is
used to achieve frequency stability. The block diagram is shown in fig 9.2.
Fig 9.2 High-level amplitude modulation transmitter
The advantage of high level modulation in radio transmission is the use of high efficiency class C
tuned amplifiers can be used throughout the r.f section. The disadvantage is that the a.f
modulating signal must be amplified to a high power level large enough to modulate the
carrier. This demands the use of high power class B a.f amplifier and is mainly because of the
output transformer requirements is an expensive item of the equipment but this disadvantage
tends to disappear in low power transistorized mobile transmitters. High level modulation is
used for d.s.b amplitude modulated sound broadcast and v.h.f/u.h.f mobile transmitters. Most

of d.s.b amplitude modulation transmitters use the high level modulation method of
modulation because of the greater efficiency it offers.
9.3 OUTPUT STAGES
The requirements that must be satisfied by the output stages of an h.f transmitter are as
follows:
a. It must efficiently transfer the wanted output power to the antenna feeder.
b. It must have good enough selectivity to discriminate against the unwanted harmonic
components but not against the against side frequencies of the signals.
c. It should operate in a stable and linear manner tuning of the stage to the required
operating frequency and optimization of its coupling to the antenna feeder should be as
easy as possible and is normally automatically done through the automatic tuning
loading equipment.
9.4 METHODS OF COUPLING
Method of coupling an output stage to balanced and unbalanced feeder are shown below,
shows how a class B push pull output stage would be coupled to a 600 ohm twin feeder. The
600 ohms of the feeder is changed to the load impedance value required by the transistors by
the settings of the tapping points on inductor L4. The coupling between the output stage and
the feeder is optimized by adjustment of the mutual inductance coupling between L1 and L2 and
between L3 and L4. The coupling arrangement is tuned to required frequency by means of
capacitors C1 and C2. L5 and C3 are power supply decoupling components.
Fig.9.3 shows how a collector tuned circuit could be connected to an unbalanced coaxial feeder
and Fig 9.4 shows the coupling of an output tuned circuit to a balanced twin feeder. The
secondary winding of the output transformer is center tapped to ensure that both conductors
are at the same potential relative to earth.

9.5 V. H.F MOBILE TRANSMITTERS
The block diagram of a v.h.f amplitude modulated transmitter is shown in Fig.9.5
Fig. 9.5 Amplitude modulation v.h.f transmitter
In most v .h.f transmitters, the power output is only a few tens of watts giving room to
completely solid equipment designs. The voltage from the microphone is amplified then band
limited by the 3kHz cut off low pass filter. This signal is the amplified to the required power
level to enable it to collector modulate the driver and output stages of the transmitter. The
transmitter can also have the facility for switching different crystal oscillators into circuit to
allow operation at different frequencies. Since most mobile frequencies are placed very close to
each other in the frequency spectrum, it is important that a transmitter radiates little if any
power at other frequencies. To ensure that there is enough suppression of spurious frequencies
an antenna filter is connected between the output stage of the transmitter and the antenna.
9.6 FREQUENCY SYNTHESIS
Frequency synthesis is a method of deriving a large number of discrete frequencies singly or

simultaneously from an accurate high stability crystal oscillator source. This is an alternative to
switching different crystals into circuit in order to obtain different frequencies. Each of the
derived frequencies has the accuracy and stability of the source and a typical frequency stability
of a transmitter can be 1 part in 10, i.e. 1 Hz if the carrier frequency is 10 MHz.
A synthesizer may cover a frequency band of say between 4 MHz and 10 MHz with increments
of 100Hz. Just like in transmitters as has been mentioned before, many radio receivers also use
frequency synthesis. In most equipment the wanted frequency is selected by means of a
number of decade switches but in the latest circuits digital control is used.

9.7 FREQUENCY MODULATION TRANSMITTERS
Frequency modulation is used for sound broadcasting in the v.h.f. band and for v.h.f. and u.h.f.
mobile systems, and for wide band s.h.f. radio relay systems.
Fig 9.6 shows the block of an F.M sound broadcast transmitter
Fig. 9.6 F.M sound broadcast transmitter
The modulating signal is applied to the input terminals of a varactor diode modulated LC
oscillator to frequency modulate the carrier. The frequency modulated output wave form is
then amplitude limited to remove any amplitude modulation introduced by the modulator
before it is multiplied and amplified to the specified output power and frequency, Typical
figures are 91.3 MHz and 10 kW.
Fig.9.7 shows frequency modulation v.h.f. transmitter using the indirect method of modulation.
Fig. 9.7 Frequency modulation v.h.f transmitter (indirect method) •
The method is used in narrow band mobile systems because of its improved frequency
instability. The microphone output voltage is amplified, integrated, amplitude limited and
finally band limited before used to frequency modulate the carrier voltage from the crystal
oscillator. The frequency deviation of the modulated wave is always small, often 100 Hz and
must be increased by several stages of frequency multiplication before it reaches the final class
C output power amplifier stage.

9.8 EXERCISES
1. a. Briefly discuss the considerations which enter into the design of the output stage of
an h.f. transmitter.
b. Give two reasons why each antenna at an h.f. transmitter station is not permanently
associated with a transmitter
c. Explain briefly why a transmitter must be matched to an antenna feeder.
2. a. Figure 8.21 shows the block diagram of an FM transmitter; state the purpose of the
limiter in the microphone amplifier.
b. What is the purpose of the audio frequency corrector?
c. How is the stability of a frequency generator maintained for different channels.
d. Explain briefly the function of the modulator.

CHAPTER 10
RADIO RECEIVERS
CONTENTS
10.0 INTRODUCTION
10.1 RECEIVER PRINCIPLES
10.2 THE SUPER HETERODYNE RECEIVER
10.2.1 THE RADIO FREQUENCY RF STAGE
10.2.2 MIXER STAGE
10.2.3 LOCAL OSCILLATOR STAGE
10.2.4 INTERMEDIATE (IF) STAGE/AMPLIFIER
10.2.5 THE DETECTOR STAGE AND AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL (AGC)
10.2.6 AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL AGC
10.2.7 MAIN AGC
10.2.8 AUTOMATIC FREQUENCY CONTROL(A.F.C)
10.2.9 AUDIO FREQUENCY STAGE
10.3 TYPES OF NOISE IN RECEIVERS
10.3.1 IMAGE CHANNEL INTERFERENCE
10.3.2 IF BREAKTHROUGH
10.4 OTHER SOURCES OF INTERFERENCE
10.4.1 CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE
10.4.2 INTERMODULATION
10.4.3 LOCAL OSCILLATOR RADIATION
10.4.4 CROSS MODULATION
10.4.5 BLOCKING
10.5 TERMS USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH RECEIVERS
10.5.1 SELECTIVITY
10.5.2 ADJACENT CHANNEL RATIO
10.5.3 SENSITIVITY
10.5.4 NOISE FIGURE
10.5.4.1 GANGING AND TRACKING
10.6 THE DOUBLE SUPERHETERODYNE RADIO RECEIVER
10.7 EXERCISES

10.0 INTRODUCTION
The function of a radio receiver is to:
a. Select the wanted signal from all the signals picked up by the antenna, whilst rejecting
all others.
b. Extract the intelligence contained in the modulated signal
c. Produce an audio-frequency output of sufficient power to operate the loudspeaker or
other receiving device through the amplification of such a signal.
Such radio receiver may be designed to receive sound broadcast signals using d.s.b Amplitude
modulation or using frequency modulation for use with land. maritime, or for use in a multi-
channel point-Io-point radio link
10.1 RECEIVER PRINCIPLES
The circuit diagram of the simplest type of radio is shown in Fig 10.1
Fig 10.1 Simple radio receiver
A wanted frequency can be selected from a number or frequencies by utilizing the Selectivity
characteristics of a parallel resonant circuit In this receiver selection is Obtained by adjusting
capacitor C1 to give resonance at the wanted signal frequency. The diode D1 acts as a non-linear
detector and extracts the audio-frequency signal, plus a number of other components, which is
passed through the earphones for conversion into sound. A loudspeaker cannot be used
because there is insufficient power. It may often be considered desirable to prevent the r.f
components of the detector output passing through the earphones; this is easily achieved by
shunting the earphones; with a suitable capacitor
The a.f output power of the simple receiver can be increased if an audio-frequency Amplifier is
used as in Fig 10.2.

The wanted signal is selected by the parallel-resonant circuit L2C1 and C2 bypasses the r.f
components of the detected output. Capacitor C1 presents the d.c. components of the detector
output reaching the amplifier and upsetting the bias arrangements.
Further increase in the sound power delivered by the receiver could possibly be provided if a
second and perhaps a third stage of a.f. gain were employed, but there are two snags with such
a proposal.
a. The output signal-to-noise ratio may be rather poor.
b. Distortion of the output waveform could be reduced if a linear diode detector were
used instead of the non-linear detector. For a diode detector to work efficiently, with
little distortion, the r.f voltage applied to its terminals should have a peak value of about
1V.
A better method of increasing the a.f. power output is to employ one or more stages of
radio-frequency gain. The block schematic of a TUNED-RADIO-FREQUENCY (t. r.f.)
radio receiver is shown in Fig10.3.
Fig. 10.3 Tuned radio receiver (t.r.f)
The wanted signal frequency is selected by the tuned circuits in the r.f. amplifier, amplified and
applied to the detector stage. If sufficient r.f. gain is provided, a diode detector can be
employed; if not, some form of non-linear detection will still be required. The detected output
is amplified by the a.f. amplifier to the level necessary to operate the loudspaker.
Carrier frequencies in the medium and long wavebands are spaced at intervals of only 9kHz,
and a radio receiver must be capable of selecting one carrier frequency whilst rejecting the two

immediately adjacent to it. It is then important to note that t.r.fs suffer from poor adjacent
signal selectivity, especially when required to tune over a wide range of frequencies because
the Q of tuned circuits changes with frequency. This problem is compounded by the fact that t
.r.fs are simply a chain of amplifiers each tuned to the same frequency followed by a detector.
During the study of R.F amplifiers; we found out that the use of several stages in cascade results
in bandwidth shrinkage.
10.2 THE SUPERHETERODYNE RADIO RECEIVER
The problems associated with the t.r.f radio receiver are easier to overcome if most of the
necessary gain and selectivity could be provided at a fixed frequency. This is in fact the principle
of the SUPERHETERODYNE radio receiver.
Most frequency modulation broadcast receivers are also capable of the reception of amplitude-
modulation signals; when discrete componems are used the arrangement shown in fig 10.4 is
common.
Fig.10.4 FM/AM Superheterodyne radio receiver
The switches are shown in their FM positions. The wanted FM signal is converted to the
intermtdiate frequency by the FM TUNER and then delivered to the first common stage of the i
f amplifier. This stage has the dual function of first i.f. amplifier for fm. Signals and mixer stage
for a.m signals. The wanted f.m signal is selected by the first i.f. amplifier, and then passed on
to the next stage of i.f amplilier, amplified, and then passed on to the next stage of i.f
amplification. The amplified fm signal is then applied to the Detector where its information
contents is extracted and then passed to the a.f amplifier. When amplitude modulation signals
are to be received, all the switches shown are operated and the first i.f stage then acts as the

a.m mixer. The amplitude-modulated i.f signal is selected by the second i.f amplifier stage,
which now acts as the first i.f. amplifier, and is then applied to the a.m detector. The use or dual
function stage is common since it results in a considerable reduction in the number of
components needed.
Integrated circuits are increasingly employed in radio receivers, and fig 10.5 and 10.6 show two
examples of morden practice.
Fig. 10.5 superheterodyne radio receiver using integrated circuits
Fig.10.6 shows the block diagram of an a.m receiver, one IC performs the function of the mixer,
the i.f amplifier, the detector and the audio pre-amplifier; the other IC acts as the a.f power
amplifier. Provided externally to these integrated circuits are the components forming the r.f
stage and all the necessary inductors, capacitors and resistors for the other stages which cannot
be formed within the IC package.
Fig 10.6 FM/AM superheterodyne radio receiver using integrated circuits
The a.m. and f.m sections of the receiver are completely separated up to the outputs of the two
detector stages. The f.m signal is amplified and frequency changed by the (non-integrated) f.m
tuner (often in module form), and is then passed on to an i.c. which performs the function of
both the i.f amplifier and the f.m detector; the selectivity of the i.f amplifier is determined by an
external inductor/capacitor network. The a.m. signal is received by a normal r.f stage and is
then fed to an integrated circuit which acts as the mixer, the i.f amplifier and the a.m detector.
The audio- frequency output of the two detectors is connected via a switch to the common
audio -frequency amplifier. The selectivity of a.m, i.f. amplifier is determined by a ceramic filter.
In a superheterodyne radio receiver the wanted signal frequency is converted into a constant
frequency known as the intermediate frequency at which most of the gain and the seIectivity of
the receiver is provided. The basic block diagram of a superheterodyne radio receiver is shown
in Fig. 10.7
Fig. 10.7 Superheterodyne receiver Block Diagram
10.2.1 THE RADIO-FREQUENCY (RF) STAGE
The radio frequency stage of a superheterodyne radio receiver must perform the following
functions:
a. Efficiently couple the antenna to the receiver
b. Suppress signals at or near the image and the intermediate frequencies.
c. Provide gain at frequencies in excess of about 3 MHz.
d. Operate linearly to avoid the production of cross-mudulation.
e. Have sufficient selectivity to minimize the number of frequencies appearing at
the input to the mixer that could result in inter-modulation products lying within
the pass-band of the i.f amplifier.
At frequencies up to about 3MHz or so, the noise picked up by an antenna is larger than the
noise generated within the receiver. An r.f. amplifier will amplify the antenna noise as well for
the signal and produce little, if any, improvement in the output signal-to-noise ratio. At higher
frequencies the noise picked up by the antenna falls and the constant-level receiver noise
becomes predominant; the use of r.f gain will then improve the output signal-to-noise ratio. An
r.f amplifier also permits the use of two or more tuned circuits in cascade, with a consequent
improvement in the image response ratio.

10.2.2 MIXER STAGE
The wanted signal, at frequency fs is passed together with other unwanted frequencies by the
radio-frequency stage to the mixer (or frequency changer). The r.f. stage is not provided to
select the wanted signaI but chiefly to prevent certain particularly troublesome frequencies
reaching the mixer stage. The function of the mixer stage is to convert the wanted signal
frequency into the intermediate frequency of the receiver. This process is carried by mixing
the signal frequency with the output of the local oscillator and selecting the resultant difference
frequency. Amongst the newly generated frequencies are components at the sum and the
difference of the wanted signal and the local oscillator frequencies. i.e.
10.2.3 LOCAL OSCILLATOR STAGE
The local oscillator must be capable of tuning to any frequency in the band to which the
receiver is tuned pIus the intermediate frequency, i.e . The ability of a receiver to
remain tuned to a particular frequency without drifting depends upon the frequency stabillity
of its local oscillator. In an a.m broadcast receiver the demands made on the oscillator in terms
of frequency stability are not stringent since the receiver is tuned by ear. High frequency
communications receivers needed greater frequency stability mainly because the channel
bandwidth is narrow. Receivers operating at one or more fixed frequencies can use a crystal
oscillator, frequency changes involving crystal switching when a receiver is to be tunable over a
band of frequencies an L-C oscillator with Automatic frequency control or a frequency
synthesizer must be used, The frequency Stability of an i.s.b/s.s.b. receiver should be good
enough to ensure that the tuning of the receiver will not drift from its nominal value by more
than about 20Hz over a long period of time, This is necessary because any change in the local
oscillator frequency will cause a corresponding shift in the frequency of the output signal. If, for
example, the oscillator frequency should be 10Hz too high, then all the components of the
output signal will also be 10Hz too high. If data and/or v.f telegraph signals are to be received,
the maximum permissible frequency drift is only 1Hz. Generally, the long-term frequency
stability of an h.f. communications receiver is better than 1 part in 107
CHOICE OF LOCAL OSCILLATOR FREQUENCY
The intermediate frequency of a superheterodyne radio receiver is the difference between the
wanted signal frequency and the local oscillator frequency. Two possibilities exist: the local
oscillator frequency call be higher than the signal frequency, or vice versa, consider a receiver
with an intermediate frequency of 470 kHz that is tunable over the band from 525 kHz to 1605
kHz. If the frequency of the local oscillator is higher than the wanted signal frequency the
oscillator must be tunable from (525 + 470) = 995 kHz to (1605 + 470) = 2075 kHz a frequency
ratio of 2075/995, or 2.085:1. Such a frequency ratio would require the use of a variable
capacitor having a ratio maximum-capacitance/ minimum--capacitance of (2.085), or 4.35: 1.
Such a capacitance ratio is easily obtained.

The alternative is to make the signal frequency higher than the local oscillator frequency. The
oscillator frequency must then be variable from:
5 5 7 55 6 5 7 5
This is a frequency ratio of 1135/55, or 20.64:1 and requires a capacitance ratio of (20.64)2, or
425.9: 1. Such a large capacitance ratio could be obtained with a single variable capacitor and
so tuning would not be as easy or cheap to achieve.
It is therefore, usual to make the local oscillator frequency higher than the wanted signal
frequency, i.e.
The sum frequency component of the mixer output is not chosen for the intermediate
frequency because it would mean that the latter would have to be greater than the highest
frequency in the tuning range of the receiver. The various factors leading to the choice of
intermediate frequency will be discussed later,here it will suffice to say that use of the sum
frequency would prevent the use of the optimum intermediate frequency.
The intermediate frequency of a superheterodyne radio receiver is the difference between the
wanted signal frequency and the Iocal oscillator frequency. Two possibilities exist the local
oscillator frequency can be higher than the signal frequency, or vice versa.
Consider a receiver with an intermediate frequency of 470kHz that is tunable over the band
from 525 kHz to 1605 kHz. If the frequency of the local oscillator is higher than the wanted
signal frequency the oscillator must be tunable from (525+470)=995kHz to (1605 + 470) = 2075
kHz.
A frequency ratio of 2075/995, or 2.085:1 Such a frequency ratio would require the use of a
variable capacitor having a ratio maximum-capacilance/minimum capacitance of (2.085), or
4.35: 1. The capacitance ratio sterms from the fact that the capacitance necessary to tune the
circuit varies as the inverse square of the frequency i.e Cs max/Cs min = (fs max./fs min)2 .
Therefore such it capacitance ratio is easily obtained.
10.2.4 INTERMEDIATE (IF) STAGE/ IF FREQUENCY AMPLIFIER
The purpose of the if amplifier in a superheterodyne radio receiver is to provide most

of the gain and selectivity of the receiver.
The difference frequency (fo - fs) is known as the intermediate frequency and is selected by the
intermediate frequency (IF) amplifier. The intermediate frequency is a fixed frequency and this
means that when a receiver is tuned to receive a signal at a particular frequency, the local
oscillator frequency is adjusted so that the correct difference is obtained. The amplified output
of the i.f. amplifier is applied to the detector stage and it is here that the information in the

modulated signal is recovered. Most broadcast receivers utilize the impedance/frequency
characteristics of single or double-tuned circuits to obtain the required selectivity. Many of the
receivers use ceramic filters, especially when an IC is used as the amplifier Narrowband
communication receiver must possess very good selectivity and very often employ one or more
crystal filters to obtain the necessary gain/frequency response. The use of ceramic or crystal
filter provide the selectivity of a radio receiver offers a number of advantages over the use of L-
C networks
a. A very narrow bandwidth can be obtained.
b. The selectivity of the receiver does not depend upon the correct alignment of the i.f
amplifier.
c. The selectivity of the filter is not affected by the application of automatic gain
control to the receiver.
10.2.5 THE DETECTOR STAGE AND AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL
The function of the detector stage in a radio receiver is to recover the information modulation
modulated onto the carrier wave appearing at the output of the i.f amplifier. Most a.m.
broadcast receivers use the diode detector because of its simplicity and good performance but
IC versions often use the transistor detector. The transistor detector is not often used in
discrete form for broadcast receivers because of its limited dynamic range, but it is used in v.h.f
communication receivers where its ability to provide an amplified a.g.c voltage and its gain are
an advantage. Most f.m. broadcast receivers may use the ratio detector but high-quality
broadcast receiver may use the Foster-Seely circuit, when the later circuit is used the detector
must be preceded by a limiter stage. When the detector stage is part of an integrated circuit
the quadrature or, less often, the phase-locked loop detector is used. High frequency i.s.d/s.s.b
communication receivers generally use some form of balanced or product demodulator.
10.2.5.1 AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL
The field strength of the wanted signal at the antenna is not constant but fluctuates widely
because of changes in propagation conditions. Automatic gain control (a.g.c,) is applied to a
radio receiver to maintain the carrier level at the input to the detector at a more or less
constant value even though the level at the antenna may vary considerably. A.G.C. ensures that
the audio output of the receiver varies only as a fraction of the modulation of the carrier and
not with the carrier level itself. The use of a.g.c. also ensures that a large receiver gain can be
made available for the reception of weak signals without causing overloading of the r.f amplifier
stages with consequent distortion, by strong signals. Further, a reasonably constant output
level is obtained as the receiver is tuned from one station to another.
In an f m receiver automatic gain control is often fitted to ensure

a. That the signal arriving at the input terminals of the limiter is large enough for
the limiting to take place.

b. That overloading of the r.f. and i.f. amplifier stage does not occur. In some case
the automatic gain control of an f.m receiver may mean switching into the r.f.
stage of one or more stages of an attenuator. The basic idea of an a.g.c. system
is illustrated by Fig. 10.8
Fig 10.8 Automatic gain control to a superheterodyne Radio receiver
A direct voltage is developed, either in the detector stage or in the amplitude limiter, which is
proportional to the amplitude of the carrier signal appearing at the output of the i.f. amplifier.
The gain of a transistor amplifier is a function of the D.C. operating point of the transistor:
hence if the a.g.c. voltage is applied to each of the controlled stages to vary their bias voltages,
the gain of these stages will be under the control of the a.g.c. system. The polarity of the a.g.c.
voltage should be chosen so that an increase in the carrier level, which will produce an increase
in the a.g.c. voltage, will reduce the gain of each stage. This will in tum, reduce the overall gain
of the receiver and tend to restore the carrier Level at the detector to its original value.
Conversely, of course if the carrier level should Fall, the gain of the receiver will be increased to
tend to keep the level at the detector very nearly constant. Another a.g.c loop known as
auxiliary a.g.c, is often provided to give extra control of the gain of the receiver and to limit the
amplitude of strong input signals to prevent overloading of the r.f. amplifier and the
consequent distortion and cross· modulation. In many F.M. receivers only auxiliary a.g.c is fitted
10.2.5.2 MAIN A.G.C.
Automatic gain control systems are either of the simple or the delayed type. In a SIMPLE A.G.C.
SYSTEM the a.g.c. Voltage is developed immediately a carrier voltage appears at the output of
the i.f amplifier. This means that the gain of the receiver is reduced below its maximum value
when the wanted signal is weak and the full receiver gain is really wanted. This disadvantage of
the simple a.g.c. system can be overcome by arranging that the a.g.c. voltage will not be
developed until the carrier level at the detector has reached some pre-determined value
generally that at which the full audio- frequency power output can be developed. Such a
system is known as a delayed a.g.c system. Fig. 10.10 shows, graphically, the difference
between simple and delayed a.g.c. system: in addition the performance of the ideal a.g.c.
system is shown.

Fig.10.10 A.G.C characteristics
It is evident that the ideal system is one in which no a.g.c. voltage is produced until the input
voltage to the receiver exceeds some critical value and thereafter keeps the output level of the
receiver perfectly constant. For economic reasons the majority of broadcast receivers use
simple a.g.c.
10.2.5.3 AUTOMATIC FREQUENCY CONTROL (AFC)
The intermediate frequency bandwidth of a communication receiver operating in the u.h.f.

band is only a small percentage of the carrier frequency. A relatively small percentage error in
the frequency of the local oscillator may lead to the wanted signal being wholly or partly
rejected by the selectivity of the i.f. amplifier. Some of the necessary frequency stability can,
however, be obtained by a suitable choice of the type of oscillator to be used but the most
stable types of oscillator cannot be tuned to different frequencies. The required frequency
stability can be obtained by the use of AUTOMATIC FREQUENCY CONTROL (a.f.c). To avoid
distortion of the output signal caused by mistuning, many f.m. broadcast receivers also have
a.f.c. fitted. The basic principle of an a.f.c system is shown by fig 10.11
Fig.10.11 Application of automatic frequency control to a radio receiver

The output of the i.f amplifier is passed through an amplitude limiter and is then applied to the
input terminals of a discriminator. The input circuit of the discriminator is tuned to the nominal
intermediate frequency of the receiver and so the circuit produces an output voltage of zero
whenever the intermediate frequency is correct. If, however the intermediate frequency differs
from its nominal value a direct voltage will appear at the output of the discriminator. The
polarity of this voltage will depend upon whether the intermediate frequency is higher than, or
lower than, its nominal value. Thus if a negative voltage is produced by an increase in
frequency, then a fall in the intermediate frequency will result in a positive direct voltage at the
output of the discriminator. The direct voltage is taken to a voltage-variable capacitance, the
magnitude of which is a function of that voltage. The variable capacitance is a part of the
frequency determining network of the local oscillator and so a change in its value will alter the
frequency of oscillation. The voltage dependent capacitance can be provided in a number of
ways but the most common is the use of a varactor diode (Fig 10.12)
Fig 10.12 Varactor diode control of local oscillator
The varactor diode D is connected in parallel with the tuned circuit and so it provides a part of
the total tuning capacitance of the local oscillator.
The pull-in or capture range of an a.f.c system is the maximum frequency error that can be
reduced by the system. It is obviously necessary that an a.f.c system is designed so that the
capture range is larger than the maximum expected drift in the oscillator frequency. The hold-in
range is the band of over which the controlled oscillator frequency can suddenly change
without the control exerted by the a.f.c system being lost.
Modern communication receivers often obtain the required degree of frequency stability by
deriving the local oscillator frequency from a frequency synthesizer instead of using a.f.c.
10.2.6 THE AUDIO-FREQUENCY STAGE
The function of the audio-frequency stage of a radio receiver is to develop sufficient a.f power
to operate a loudspeaker or other receiving apparatus. The a.f. stage will include a volume
control and sometimes treble and bass controls. The a.f. stage may also include a squelch or
muting facility. A sensitive receiver will produce a considerable output noise level when there is
no input signal because there will then be no a.g.c voltage developed to limit the gain of the

receiver. The noise unavoidably present at the input terminals of the receiver then receivers
maximum amplification. This noise output can cause considerable annoyance to the operator of
the receiver and, to reduce or eliminate this annoyance, a SQUELCH circuit is fitted which
disconnects, or severely attenuates, the gain of the amplifier whenever there is no input signal
present.
10.3 TYPES OF NOISE IN RECEIVERS
10.3.1 IMAGE CHANNEL INTERFERENCE
No matter what frequency a superheterodyne receiver is tuned to there is always another

frequency that will also produce the intermediate frequency. This other frequency is known as
the image frequency. The image signal has a frequency Fim such that the difference between it
and the local oscillator frequency is equal to the intermediate frequency, fi, i.e.
Substituting for fo from equation 10.1
Or
The image signal is thus separated from the wanted signal by twice the intermediate frequency.
The image signal must be prevented from reaching the mixer or it will produce an interference
signal which, since it is at the intermediate frequency, cannot be eliminated by the selectivity of
the i.f. amplifier. The r.f. stage must include a resonant circuit with sufficient selectivity to
reject the image signal when tuned to the wanted signal frequency. Tuning is necessary
because the wanted signal frequency, and hence the image signal frequency will vary. It is not
difficult to obtain a resonant circuit with good enough selectivity to accept the wanted signal
and reject the image signal when their separation is an appreciable fraction of the wanted
signal frequency. As the signal frequency is increased, the fractional frequency separation
becomes smaller and the image rejection less efficient. Any vestige of the image signal reaching
the mixer will produce a signal appearing as crosstalk at the output of the receiver. If a signal at
a few kilohertz away from the image signal should reach the mixer, the two i.f. signals produced
would beat together to produce a whistle at the output of the receiver. The image response
ratio is the ratio, in decibels, of the voltages at the wanted signal and image signal frequencies
necessary at the receiver input terminal to produce the same audio output.
EXAMPLE 10.1
A superheterodyne radio receiver has an intermediate frequency of 470 kHz and is tuned to
1065kHz. Calculate
a. The frequency of the local oscillator, and
b. The frequency of the image signal.

SOLUTION
From equation (10.1)

65 7 5 5
And from equation (10.2)

65 9 5
EXAMPLE
A superheterodyne radio receiver has an intermediate frequency of 10.7 MHz and is tuned to
97.3 MHz Calculate
a. the frequency of the local oscillator and
b. The image channel frequency.
SOLUTION
97 7 8
And from equation (10.2)
97 87
I.F. BREAKTHROUGH
If a signal at the intermediate frequency is picked up by an antenna and allowed to reach the
mixer, it will reach the i.f. amplifier and interfere with the wanted signal. Such a signal must
therefore be suppressed in the r.f. stage by an i.f. trap. The i.f. trap consists of either a parallel-
resonant circuit, tuned to the intermediate frequency, connected in series with the antenna
lead, or a series-resonant circuit, also tuned to the intermediate frequency, connected between
the antenna lead and earth. In the first circuit the i.f. trap has a high impedance and blocks the
passage of the unwanted Lf. signal; in the second circuit the i.f. trap has a low impedance and
shunts the unwanted signal to earth.
EXAMPLE 10.2
A superheterodyne radio receiver has an intermediate frequency of 465 kHz and is tuned to
receive an unmodulated carrier at 1200 kHz. Calculate the frequency of the audio output signal
if present at the mixer input there are also
a. a 1208 kHz, and
b. a 462 kHz sinusoidal signal.
SOLUTION

a. The local oscillator frequency is 465 + 1200 = 1665 kHz, and hence the 1208 kHz signal
produces a difference frequency output from the mixer of 1665 -1208 = 457 kHz. If the
i.f. bandwidth is only 9 kHz centered on 465 kHz, the 457 kHz signal will be rejected.
b. The 462 kHz signal will appear at the mixer output and will be passed by the i.f. amplifier
and will beat with the 465 kHz signal to produce a 3 kHz tone at the receiver output.
10.4 OTHER SOURCES OF INTERFERENCE
10.4.1 CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE
This is due to another signal at the same frequency and cannot be eliminated by the receiver
itself. When it occurs it is the result of unusual propagation conditions making it possible for
transmissions from a distant (geographically) station to be picked up by the antenna. Harmonic
of the local oscillator frequency may- combine with unwanted station or with harmonic
produced by the mixer to produce various difference frequency components, some of which
may fall within the passband of the i.f. amplifier. It is also possible for two r.f signals arriving at
the input to the mixer to beat together and produce a component at the intermediate
frequency
10.4.2 INTERMODULATION INTERFERENCE
The transfer and mutual characteristic of a bipolar or a field-effect transistor exhibit some non-
linearity and as a result the output waveform will contain components at frequencies which
were not present at the input. If for example, the input signal contains components at
frequencies f1 and f2, the output may contain components at frequencies f1 ± f2, 2f1 ± f2, f1 ± 2f2,
etc. These new frequencies are known as intermodulation products. Intermodulation can take
place in both the r.f amplifier and the mixer if the input signal level is so high that the active
device is operated non-linearly. If two unwanted strong signals, separated in frequency by the
intermediate Frequency, or near to it, are present at the r.f amplifier or mixer stages, they will
produce an interfering component that will not be rejected by the i.f. amplifier.
One example of intermodulation which particularly affects v.h.f./f.m receivers is known as half
i.f interference . Consider two signals at frequencies f and if to be present at the i.f.
stage and to produce a voltage at their difference frequency. The second harmonic of this
component is * ( )+which is equal to the intermediate frequency of the receiver.
Intermodulation interference can be reduced by operating the r.f. stage as linearly as possible
and if possible rejecting one of the input voltages generating the interference.

10.4.3 LOCAL OSCILLATOR RADIATION
The local oscillator operates at a radio frequency and may well radiate either directly or by
coupling to the antenna. Direct radiation is limited by screening the oscillator. Radiation from
the antenna is reduced by using an d. amplifier to prevent the oscillator voltage reaching the
antenna. Radiation of the local oscillator frequency does not have a detrimental effect on the
receiver in which it originates but is a source of interference to other nearby receivers.
10.4.4. CROSS-MODULATION
Cross-modulation is the transfer of the amplitude modulation of an unwanted carrier onto the
wanted carrier and is always the result of non-linearity in the mutual characteristic of the r.f
amplifier or of the mixer. If the amplitude of the input signal is small, or the mutual
characteristic is essentially square law, cross-modulation will not occur. The unwanted signal
may lie well outside the passband of the i.f. amplifier but, once cross-modulation has occurred,
it is not possible to remove the unwanted modulation from the wanted carrier.
Cross-modulation is only present as long as the unwanted carrier producing the effect exists at
the antenna, and it can be minimized by linear operation of the r.f. stage and by increasing the
selectivity of the r.f. stage to reduce the number of large-amplitude signals entering the
receiver. It is also helpful to avoid applying a.g.c. to the d. stage and, if large amplitude signals
are expected, to use a switchable antenna attenuator to reduce the signal level and avoid
overload with its consequent non-linearity. Cross-modulation does not occur in a frequency-
modulation receiver because the unwanted amplitude variations will be removed by the limiter
stage.
10.4.5 BLOCKING
Blocking is an effect in which the gain of one or more stages in a radio receiver is reduced by an
interfering signal of sufficient strength to overload the stage, or to excessively operate the a.g.c.
system of the receiver. The practical result of blocking is that the wanted signal output level
falls every time the interfering signal is received.
10.5.1 SELECTIVITY
The SELECTIVITY of a radio receiver is its ability to discriminate between the wanted signal and
all the other signals picked up by the aerial, particularly the adjacent-channel signals. The
selectivity of a receiver is usually quoted by means of a graph showing the output of the
receiver, in dB relative to the maximum output, plotted against the number of kHz off-tune or
by quoting some points on this graph. For example, the selectivity of an h.f. receiver may be
quoted as -6 dB at 3 kHz bandwidth and -60 dB at 12 kHz bandwidth. Fig. 10.13 shows typical
selectivity curves for a.m. broadcast, f.m. broadcast, and h.f. s.s.b. communication receivers.

Fig. 10.13 Selectivity characteristics of radio receivers
Clearly, there are large differences between the 3 dB bandwidths of the three receivers; the
a.m. broadcast receiver has a 3 dB bandwidth of about 9kHz, the s.s.b. receiver approximately
3kHz, but the f.m, broadcast receiver’s bandwidth is about 200kHz.
The adjacent channel selectivity of a radio receiver is mainly determined by the Gain/frequency
characteristic of the i.f amplifier
10.5.2 ADJACENT CHANNEL RATIO
This is the ratio, in dB, of the input voltage at the wanted and the adjacent channel frequencies
necessary for the adjacent channel to produce an output power 30 dB smaller than the signal
power.
In Fig 10.13, the 6 dB and the 60 dB bandwidths are often known, respectively as the nose and
the skirt bandwidths. The nose bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which a signal can be
received with little practical loss of strength. The skirt bandwidth is the band of frequencies
over which it is possible to receive a strong signal. The ratio of the skirt bandwidth to the nose
bandwidth is known as the shape factor. Thus the h.f.s.s.b. receiver quoted earlier has a nose
band-width of 3 kHz, a skirt bandwidth of 12 kHz, and a shape factor of 12 kHz/3 kHz or 4.0.
The selectivity curves shown in Fig.10.13 relate to a single input frequency and do not entirely
predict the performance of a receiver when signals at several different frequencies are
simultaneously received. The effective selectivity of a receiver when interfering signals are
present is determined by the following:
(a) The selectivity provided by the d. stage.

(b) The ability of the r.f. stage to handle strong signals.
(c) The adjacent-channel selectivity provided by the i.f stage.

Factors (a) and (b) arise because of the possibility of spurious frequencies at or near the
intermediate frequency being produced by intermodulation.
10.5.3 SENSITIVITY
The SENSITIVITY of a radio receiver is the smallest input signal voltage that is required to
produce a specified output power with a specified signal-to-noise ratio. For amplitude
modulation receivers, the specified output power is usually 50 mW with a signal-to-noise ratio
of 20 dB and the input signal modulated 30% at 1000 Hz (or 400 Hz). For an f.m. receiver a
signal-to-noise ratio of 40 dB is required with the input signal modulated by a 1000 Hz signal to
give 30% modulation. (This means that the frequency deviation produced should be 30% of the
rated system deviation, i.e. for the v.h.f. sound broadcast system 30% of 75 kHz is 22.5 kHz.)
It is necessary to include signal-to-noise ratio in the definition of sensitivity, otherwise the

output power could consist mainly of noise and be of little use. The sensitivity of a radio
receiver is determined by
(a) The overall voltage gain of its individual stages.
(b) The gain/frequency characteristic of the d. stage.
(c) The noise generated by thermal agitation in its input stages.
This means that the sensitivity is directly related to the noise figure of the receiver.
Typical figures for sensitivity are (a) a.m. broadcast receiver 50 µV, (b) f.m. broadcast receiver
2µV, and (c) s.s.b. receiver 1µV.
10.5.4 NOISE FIGURE
The noise figure or factor of a radio receiver is a measure of the degree to which the receiver
degrades the input signal to noise ratio. The output of a radio receiver must always contain
some noise and the receiver must be designed so that the output signal-to-noise ratio is always
at least as good as the minimum figure required for the system. The noise appearing at the
receiver's output terminals originates from two sources;
a. noise picked up by the aerial and

b. noise generated within the receiver
Because of the internally generated noise, the signal-to-noise ratio at the output terminals is
always less than the input signal-to-noise ratio. The noise figure or factor of a radio receiver is a
measure of the degree to which the receiver degrades the input signal-to-noise ratio. The
NOISE FACTOR F is related to the input and output signal-to-noise ratios by equation (10.3):

An ideal receiver would have no internal noise sources and would not degrade the input signal-
to-noise ratio; hence its noise figure would be unity or zero dB.
EXAMPLE
The signal-to-noise ratio at the input to a communication receiver is 40 dB. If the receiver has a
noise figure of 12 dB calculate the output signal-to-noise ratio.
SOLUTION
or in dB
8
10.5.5 GANGING AND TRACKING
When a superheterodyne radio receiver is tuned to receive a particular signal frequency, the
resonant circuit(s) in the r.f. stage must be tuned to that frequency and the tuned circuit of the
local oscillator must be tuned to a frequency equal to the sum of the signal and the
intermediate frequencies. Clearly it is convenient if the tuning of these circuits can be carried
out by a single external control. To make this possible the tuning capacitors are mounted on a
common spindle so that they can be simultaneously adjusted; this practice is known as
GANGING.
The maintenance of the correct frequency difference (the intermediate frequency) between the
r.f. stage and local oscillator frequencies is known as TRACKING. It is possible to achieve nearly
perfect tracking over one particular waveband if the plates of the oscillator tuning capacitor are
carefully shaped, but this practice requires a different capacitor for each waveband and
involves design problems. Most radio receivers use identical tuning capacitors for the r.f. and
oscillator circuits and modify the capacitance values by means of trimmer and/or padder
capacitors.
TRIMMER CAPACITOR
A trimmer capacitor must be connected in parallel with the tuning capacitance in order to
modify the effective capacitance and as a result modifies the tuning range of the tuned circuit
(see Fig 10.14).

Fig.10.14 Use of trimmer capacitor in the r.f stage
For example,
Receiver tuning band= 525- 1605 kHz
IF=470 kHz
RF and LO circuits capacitance range=400pF i.e. max capacitance minimum capacitance.
From above detail r.f frequency ratio= 1605/525 =3.057:1
Then capacitance ratio =3.0572: 1
Let min capacitance needed be =X
Then 9 6
79 8
8 6
From the above, maximum capacitance 8 8

If the minimum capacitance of the variable capacitor plus the inevitable stray capacitances add
up to 40pF and not equal to 48 pF, then a 4pF TRIMMER capacitance must be connected in
parallel with the tuning capacitance. The inductance L1 required to tune the r.f. stage to the
wanted signal frequency can be calculated as follows
5
6 5 8
TRIMMER CAPACITOR IN THE LOCAL OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT
Let the minimum capacitance needed in the local oscillator be pF then

9 9 9
The minimum capacitance of the oscillator tuning circuit can be increased to this value by
connecting a trimmer capacitor in parallel with the variable capacitor. Assuming the minimum
capacitance of the variable plus strays to be the same as in the r.f. circuit, i.e. 40pF, then a
trimmer capacitor of 9 79 is needed (see Fig.10.15).
Fig 10.15 Use trimmer capacitor in the oscillator
EXAMPLE
A superheterodyne radio receiver employs ganged capacitors in its aerial and local oscillator
circuits with an additional parallel capacitor in the local oscillator circuit. As the capacitance in
the signal circuit varies from 80 pF to 320 pF the receiver is tuned from 1200 kHz to 600 kHz. If
the local oscillator capacitance variation is from 160 pF to 400 pF, and the intermediate
frequency is 433 kHz, what is
(i) the frequency to which the receiver is tuned when the signal circuit capacitance
is 200 pF,
(ii) the local oscillator frequency when the local oscillator capacitance is 280 pF,
(iii) the tracking error when the capacitance is at the mid-point of its range?
SOLUTION
For both the r.f. and the local oscillator circuits the maximum frequency corresponds to the
minimum capacitance. Therefore,
√
10.5
√
Dividing equation (10.4) by equation (10.5),

√

58 758 95
(ii) Maximum oscillator frequency 6
6
√ 6
√ 8
6 8
√
6
(iii) The midpoint of the capacitance range corresponds to the values used in parts (i) and (ii).
Therefore,
758 95 8
USE OF A PADDER CAPACITOR
The alternative method of reducing the capacitance ratio in the local oscillator circuit is the
connection of a padder capacitor in series with the tuning capacitor. Suppose that the same
tuning capacitor and frequencies as before are used. The minimum and maximum capacitances
are then 40 pF and 440 pF. If the padder capacitor is denoted by Cp then, since the required
capacitance ratio is 4.349 :1,
9 9
9 9
9
6
9
Fig.10.16 shows the arrangement of the r.f. and local oscillator circuits.

Fig 10.16 Use of a padder capacitor
The total capacitance of the circuit will now vary from
89 7 55
The inductance L3 required to tune the circuit can be calculated using the maximum frequency
of 2075 kHz and the minimum capacitance of 33.89 pF (or vice versa). Thus,
7 6 7
75 89
Again, correct tracking is not obtained over most of the tuning range of the receiver.
The tracking error does not have much effect on the quality of the audio output signal since the
tuning of the receiver positions the wanted signal into the middle of the passband of the i.f.
amplifier. This means that the intermediate frequency is correct and the tracking error exists in
the r.f. stage. The error in tuning the r.f. stage has little, if any, effect upon the adjacent channel
selectivity but both the sensitivity and the image channel rejection are worsened. Tracking is
not a problem in v.h.f. receivers because the required frequency and capacitance ratios are
small. If both a trimmer and a padder capacitor are used, three-point tracking can be obtained
and the tracking error reduced to a small figure.
10.6 THE DOUBLE SUPERHETERODYNE RADIO RECEIVER
To obtain good adjacent channel selectivity, the intermediate frequency of a superheterodyne

radio receiver should be as low as possible, but to maximize the image channel rejection the
intermediate frequency must be as high as possible. For receivers operating in the low and
medium frequency bands it is possible to choose a reasonable compromise frequency. In the
h.f. band it may prove difficult to select a suitable frequency and for this reason many receivers
use two, or more rarely, three or four different intermediate frequencies.

The first intermediate frequency is chosen to give good image channel rejection ratio and the
second frequency is chosen for good adjacent channel selectivity. Typically, the first
intermediate frequency might be 3 MHz and the second intermediate frequency 100 kHz,
although in modern receivers there is a tendency to use a very high first intermediate
frequency, such as 35 MHz, to give a very good image rejection (usually the second
intermediate frequency is then about 1 MHz).
The disadvantages of the double superheterodyne principle are the extra cost and complexity
involved and the generation of extra spurious frequencies because there are two stages of
mixing. The most serious of these new frequencies is the second/image channel frequency.

10.8 EXERCISES
1. What is meant by the terms ganging and tracking when applied to the alignment of a
superheterodyne receiver? A receiver having an intermediate frequency of 465 kHz is
required to tune over a range of 600 kHz to 1800 kHz with a ganged variable capacitor
having a range of 320 pF per section. Calculate the values of
a. The minimum capacitance needed in the circuit,
b. The inductance required in the d. circuit,
c. The padding capacitance required in the local oscillator circuit assuming
that the minimum value of the capacitance is the same as that found in
(a), and (d) the inductance required to tune the local oscillator.
2. With the aid of a block schematic diagram, describe the principle of operation of a
superheterodyne receiver suitable for amplitude-modulated sound broadcast reception.
What are the reasons for the use of a tuned d. amplifying stage? Define the terms
a. sensitivity and
b. image channel response ratio
In relation to the performance of a superheterodyne radio receiver. Why is the image
channel response generally lowest when the receiver is tuned to the highest frequency
in its range?
3. A single superheterodyne receiver with a Lf. of 465 kHz is tuned to an incoming

sinusoidal signal of 1000 kHz. Assume the oscillator frequency to be above the signal
frequency. What signal appears in the audio output if another unmodulated signal
appears in the aerial at a frequency of
a. 1932kHz,
b. 1008 kHz, and
c. 469 kHz?
For each of these frequencies state what factor in the receiver design affects the level
of the output signal. Explain the advantages of a double superheterodyne receiver over
a single superheterodyne receiver.
4. Explain the meaning of the terms and the need for

a. Ganging,
b. Padding,
c. Trimming in a superheterodyne receiver.
The capacitor in the r.f. tuned circuit of a superheterodyne receiver varies from 60 pF to
540 pF as the receiver tunes from 1500 kHz to 500 kHz. The receiver has a Lf. of 465 kHz
and the local oscillator frequency is above the signal frequency. What value of trimming
capacitance should be added to an identical ganged capacitor in the tuning section of
the local oscillator to obtain correct tracking at both ends of the frequency range?
5. With the aid of a block schematic diagram describe the application of automatic
frequency control to an f.m. radio receiver. Why is a.f.c. more necessary at v.h.f. than at

lower frequencies? An a.f.c. discriminator produces 1 V of control bias for a frequency
error of 50 kHz and. the controlled oscillator is shifted by 250 kHz. Calculate the tuning
error if the oscillator would have drifted 20 kHz from the correct frequency without
a.f.c.
6. A superheterodyne receiver has an intermediate frequency of 10.7 MHz, and the local
oscillator frequency is above the signal frequency. The receiver covers the band of f.m.
carriers spaced at 0.5 MHz intervals between 75 MHz and 97 MHz Each of these carriers
has a modulation index of 5, when the maximum modulating frequency is 15 kHz.
a. What is the number of f.m. channels in the band?
b. What is the minimum i.f. bandwidth required?
c. When the receiver is tuned to the carrier at 75 MHz, what is the band
covered by (i) the image channel.
(ii) The adjacent channel?
d. Which carries are most susceptible to image channel interference from
within the band
e. What are the frequencies the interfering carriers?
7. Answer the following

i. In what part of a superheterodyne receiver is image rejection provided?
ii. Why is image rejection needed?
iii. Is image rejection better at the high frequency end of the tuning range of the
receiver or at the low frequency end
iv. Why is an r.f. amplifier not always used
v. Why is the double-superheterodyne principle often employed
vi. Quote common intermediate frequencies for such a receiver.
8. Draw the block schematic diagram of a superheterodyne receiver. Discuss the function
of each block. What are the advantages of using integrated circuits in a receiver? State
some of the functional circuits which are currently available in IC form and draw a block
diagram for a receiver using some, or all of these ICs.
9. A superheterodyne radio receiver has fif = 470 kHz. It is tuned over the frequency band
500 -1500 kHz. What range of frequencies must its local oscillator cover? What are
i. the lowest and
ii. the highest image frequencies?
iii. How can Image frequencies be suppressed?
iv. Draw a typical circuit, including waveband switching
10. A superheterodyne radio receiver is tuned to 1.2 MHz and its local oscillator then
operates at 1665 kHz. What is its intermediate frequency? Discuss the reasons leading
to the choice of such a frequency for this purpose.

11. Draw the block diagram of a superheterodyne receiver. Explain its operation. A receiver
tunes to the band 90-100 MHz and has an i.f. of 10.7 MHz, Calculate
i. The range of frequencies over which the local oscillator is tuned and
ii. The maximum and minimum image frequencies.
iii. Which of these two frequencies are suppressed most efficiently?
12. In a v.h.f receiver the local oscillator frequency is 140 MHz and the first intermediate
frequency is 10.7 MHz Calculate
i. The signal frequency
ii. The image channel frequency. Assume the signal frequency is higher than the
oscillator frequency.
13. Briefly explain the advantages of double superheterodyne operation of a receiver over
single-superheterodyne operation.
14. State the factors affecting the sensitivity of a radio receiver.
15. List the reasons why the local oscillator in a superheterodyne communications radio
receiver should be of high frequency stability.
16. Why is it usual to provide automatic gain control for an a.m. radio receiver? Why a.g.c. is
not always applied to a.f.m receiver?
17. What is the function of the limiter in a fm. receiver? In what stage of the receiver might
limiting be provided?
18. What is meant by squelch or muting as applied to radio receiver and why is it often
applied to communication receivers? Why it is not applied to a.m. broadcast receivers?
19. What is meant by the terms ganging and three-point tracking when applied to a
superheterodyne radio receiver?
20. List the factors which influence the choice of intermediate frequency for a radio
receiver.
21. Why is it desirable for radio receivers operated at frequencies above about 3 MHz to be
provided with r.f gain?
22. An f.m. receiver which is tuned to a frequency of 93 MHz is found to receive

interference from a strong signal which has a frequency of 87.65 MHz. What is the name
for this type of interference?

CHAPTER 11
THE PROPAGATION OF RADIO WAVES
CONTENTS
11.0 INTRODUCTI0N
11.1 PROPAGATION MODES

11.1.1 GROUND OR SURFACE WAVE
11.1.2 SKY WAVE
11.1.3 SPACE WAVE
11.1.4 COMMUNICATION SATELLITE
11.1.5 TROPOSPHERIC SCATTER
11.2 REFRACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
11.3 THE I0NOSPHERE

11.3.1 IONOSPHERIC LAYERS
11.3.2 THE TROPOSPHERE
11.4 CRITICAL FREQUENCY
11.5 MAXIMUM USABLE FREQUENCY (M.U.F)
11.6 OPTIMUM WORKING (0.W.F)/TRAFFIC FREQUENCY
11.7 LOWEST USEFUL FREQUENCY (L.U.F)
11.8 SKIP DUSTANCE
11.9 MULTIPLE-HOP TRANSMISSIONS
11.10 FADING
11.10.1 GENERAL FADING
11.10.2 SELECTIVE FADING
11.11 USE OF FREQUENCY BANDS
11.12 EXERCISES

11.0 INTRODUCTION
When a radio-frequency current flows into a transmitting antenna a radio wave at the same
frequency is radiated in a number of directions as determined by the radiation Pattern of the
particular antenna. The radiated energy will reach the receiving antenna or, In the case of
broadcast or mobile systems receiving antennas, by one or more of five Different mobile
systems, receiving antenna by one or more of five different modes of propagation. Four of
these modes, the surface waves, sky wave, space wave and the use of a communication
satellite are illustrated by fig 11.1.
Fig 11.1 Modes of propagation
11.1 PROPAGATION MODES
11.1.1 THE GROUND OR SURFACE WAVE
The surface or ground wave is one that leaves the transmitting antenna very nearly parallel to
the ground. The surface wave is supported at its lower edge by the surface of the earth and is
able to follow the curvature of the earth as it travels. This is because the Wave is diffracted
which is a phenomenon which occurs with all wave motion; that causes a wave to bend around
any obstacles it passes. For the surface wave; the earth itself is the obstacle. Vertically polarized
waves must be used because horizontal polarization would result in the low resistance of the
earth short circuiting the electric component of the wave
At v.l.f and l.f the transmitting antenna is electrically short but physically very large and must
therefore be mounted vertically on the ground. The antenna will radiate energy in several
directions and produce both surface and space waves (sometimes the sky wave too). The

combined surface and Space Wave is known as the GROUND WAVE. At these frequencies the
signal wavelength is long and the antenna height is only a small Fraction of a wavelength. The
reflected component space wave experiences a 180o phase shift upon reflection and since the
difference in wavelength. The reflected component of space wave experience a 180 o phase
shift upon reflection, and since the difference in wavelengths between the lengths of the direct
and reflected waves is very small, the two waves cancel out. Because of this v.l.f and l.f
propagation is predominantly by means of the surface wave. Very often the term ground wave
is used to represent the surface wave.
Further bending of the wave occurs because the magnetic component of the wave cuts the
earth’s surface as it travels and induces e.m.f in it. The induced e.m.f causes alternating current
to flow and dissipate power in the resistance of the earth. This power can only be supplied by
the surface wave, and so a continuous flow of energy from the Wave into the earth takes place.
The signal wave front, therefore, has two components of velocity, one in the forward direction
and one downwards towards the earth, the resultant direction is the phasor Sum of the
forward and downward components, and this Result in the wave being tilted forward, as shown
in Fig11.2
Fig 11.2 Wave front of the surface wave
The down ward component is always normal to the earth and the forward component 90 o
advanced, hence the tilted wave front follows the undulations of the ground as shown in
fig11.3.
Fig 11.3 propagation of surface wave over undulating terrain

The transfer of energy from the wave to the ground attenuates the wave as it travels, and the
field strength Ed at a distance d kilometer from the transmitter is given by
Where E1=field strength 1km from the transmitter
K= factor representing the wave attenuation caused by the power dissipated in

the ground
The attenuation factor K depends upon the frequency of the wave, and the conductivity and
permittivity of the earth. The attenuation at a given frequency is least for propagation over
expenses of water and greatest for propagation over dry ground, such as desert. Ground waves
are used for propagation over ground of average dampness, with a radiated power of 1kW. The
distance giving field strength of 1mV/m varies approximately with frequency as shown in
table11.1
frequency Range (km)

100kHz 200
1MHz 60
10MHz 6
100MHz 1.5
At m.f. particularly at the higher end of the ban, the height of the antenna is a much larger
fraction of the signal wavelength. Now complete cancellation of the direct and reflected
components of the space wave no longer occurs and the space wave partially contribute to the
field strength over shorter distances.
11.1.2 SKY WAVES
The sky wave is directed upwards from the earth into the upper atmosphere IONOSPHERE
where, if certain conditions are satisfied, it will be returned to earth at the required locality by
REFRACTION. In the high-frequency band, directive antennas which propagate most of the
radiated energy towards the sky are used.
11.1.3 SPACE WAVE
The space wave generally has two components;
1. One of which travels in a very nearly straight line between the transmitting and
receiving antenna.

2. The other which travels by means of a single reflection from the earth.
The total, field strength at the receiving antenna is the phasor sum of the field strengths
produced by energy arriving over each of the two paths as in fig 11.4a. Fig11.4b shows that the
maximum possible spacing between two antennas occurs when direct wave grazes the earht’s
surface at the centre of the link. In fig11.4c, when slight refraction of the direct wave bends
around the earth’s surface resulting in maximum possible range somewhat greater than “line of
sight”.
Fig 11.4 space wave propagation
In real life, the average link is shorter than the line of sight path in order to achieve greater link
reliability. This is the reason why RADIO RELAY STATIONS are employed for communications
over long distances in the v.h.f and u.h.f as shown in fig11.5.
11.1.4 COMMUNICATION SATELLITE
The fourth method illustrated is a relatively modern technique that utilizes the ability of a
communicating satellite orbiting the earth to receive a signal, amplify it, and then transmit it at
a different frequency towards the earth. The basic principle of a communication satellite
system is shown simply in fig11.6.

Fig 11.5 an earth satellite communication system
Since frequencies in the s.h.f. band are used in both directions of propagation, the ionosphere
has negligible effect on the path of the radio waves, and so these travel in straight lines. This
method or propagation can provide wide band multi-channel telephony systems over distances
of thousands of kilometers with the utmost reliability.
11.1.5 TROPOSPHERIC SCATTER PROPAGATION
The fifth method of propagation called scatter and is only used only when for any reason or
another one of these other methods is not available as shown in fig11.7 below.
Fig 11.7 Tropospheric scatter propagation
A high-power radio wave is transmitted upwards from the earth and a very small fraction of the
transmitted energy is forward scattered by the troposphere and directed downwards towards
the earth. This occurs at frequencies above about 600 MHz, but particularly at 900 MHz, 2GHz
and 5GHz. The forward-scattered energy is received by a high-gain aerial, often of the parabolic
reflector type, to provide a reliable long-distance, wideband, u.h.f radio link. The distance
between the transmitting and receiving stations is usually in the range of 300 to 500 km and
nearly always covers geographically hostile terrain, such as mountains, jungle or ocean. Since

only a small fraction of the transmitted power arrives at the aerial, the system is very inefficient
and demands the use of high-power transmitters and high-gain, low noise radio receivers. For
this reason a tropospheric scatter system is only provided when no other alternative is
available.
The frequency spectrum has been subdivided into a number of frequency bands and these are
given in table11.2 below.
frequency classification abbreviatio USE propagation

band n mode
10-30kHz Very Low v.l.f Worldwide communication Surface wave
30-300kHz Low l.f Worldwide communication Surface wave
300- Medium m.f Broadcasting Surface wave
3000kHz
2-30MHz High h.f Communication; Sky wave
Long distance, radio-telephony,
sound broadcasting
30-300MHZ Very High v.h.f Sound and TV broadcasting, Space wave
multi-channel telephony systems,
mobile communication systems,
eg police fire brigade
communication network
300- Ultra High u.h.f Sound and TV broadcasting, Space wave,
3000MHz multi-channel telephony systems, scatter systems
mobile communication systems (only for multi-
channel
telephony
links)
3-30GHz Super High s.h.f Sound and TV broadcasting, Communicatio
multi-channel telephony systems, n satellite
mobile communication systems, systems
international multi-channel
telephony systems and TV
11.2 REFRACTION OF AN ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
When an electromagnetic wave is travelling in one medium passes into a different medium, its
direction of travel will probably be altered. The wave is said to be refracted. The ratio;

Is a constant for a given pair of medium and is known as the REFRACTIVE INDEX for the
medium. If one of the two media is air the absolute refractive index of other medium is
obtained.
If a wave passes from one medium to another medium that has a lower absolute refractive
index, the wave is bent away from the normal; fig 11.8a. Conversely, if the wave travels into a
region of higher absolute refractive index, the wave is bent towards the normal; fig 11.8b.
Fig 11.8 refraction of electromagnetic waves

a. Wave passing into a medium of lower absolute refractive index
b. Wave passing into a medium of higher absolute refractive index
Suppose a wave is transmitted through a number of thin parallel strips, each strip having an
absolute refractive index lower than that of the strip immediately below it, the wave will pass
from higher to lower absolute refractive index each time it crosses the boundary between two
strips and it is therefore progressively bent away from the normal. If the widths of the strips are
made extremely small, the absolute refractive index will steadily decrease and the wave will be
continuously refracted as in fig11.9 below.
Fig 11.9 Refraction of an electromagnetic wave passing through media of progressively lower
absolute refractive index.

Within an ionosphere layer the electron density increases with increase in height above the
earth. Above the top of the layer, the density falls with further increase in height until the lower
edge of the next higher layer is reached. At heights greater than the top of the F2-layer, the
electron density falls until it becomes negligibly small.
The refractive index ɳ of a layer is related to both the frequency of the wave and the electron
density according to equation below.
8
√
F= the frequency of the radio wave in Hz
N=the number of free electrons per cubic meters
Фi and Фr = the angles of incidence and refraction respectively
NB. The equation above shows that the refractive index of a layer decreases as the electron
density is increased. This means that within a layer the refractive index falls with increase in
height above the ground. Also to be noted is that an increase in frequency results in an
increase in the refractive index of a layer.
A radio wave at a particular frequency entering a layer with angle of incidence Фi will always be
passing from lower to higher refractive index as it travels upwards through the layer. Therefore,
the wave is continuously refracted away from the normal. If, before it reaches the top of the
layer, the wave has been refracted to the extent that the angle of refraction Фr becomes equal
to 90° the wave will be turned to earth. Should the angle of refraction be less than 90 o, the
wave will emerge from the top of the layer and travel on to a greater height. If then the wave
enters another, higher layer, it will experience further refraction and may now be returned to
earth. If the frequency of the wave increased, the wave will be refracted to a lesser extent and
will have to travel further through a layer before it is returned to earth
Suppose sky waves at frequencies 5, 10, 20 and 10 MHz are transmitted and are incident
on the lower edge of the E-layer with an angle of incident Фi as in Fig11.10 below.

Fig 11.10 effect on ionosphere refraction of angle of incidence and frequency of wave
The 5 MHz wave is refracted to the greatest extent and is returned to earth after penetrating
only a little way into the E-layer. The 10 MHz wave must penetrate much further into the E-
layer before it is returned to earth , while the 20 MHz wave hardly refracted at all by the E-layer
and passes on to the F-layer, The 20 MHz wave meets the F1-layer with a much larger angle of
incidence, Ф3 > Ф1. A small change in direction is now required to return the wave to earth, and
sufficient refraction is produced by the F1-layer. The 30 MHz wave is not refracted to the extent
required to return it to earth and escapes from the top of the F2-layer.
If the at which the waves are incident on the E-layer is reduced to Ф2, greater refraction is
necessary to return the wave to earth, Consequently, only the 5 MHz wave is now returned by
the E-layer, the 10 MHz and 20 MHz waves passing right through and arriving at the F-layer. The
refractive index of the F1-Iayer is lower at 10 MHz than at 20MHz; hence the 10 MHz wave is
refracted sufficiently to be returned, but the 20 MHz wave is not. The 20MHz wave passes on to
the F2-Iayer and is then returned. Once again the 30MHz wave is not returned.
Further decrease in the angle of incidence of the wave on the E-layer may well result in the
20MHz wave escaping the F2-layer also and not returning to earth at all, the 5 MHz and 10MHz
waves being returned by higher layer.
EXAMPLE 11.1
An ionosphere layer has a maximum electron desnity of 6 x 1011 electrons/m3. Calculate the
maximum frequency that will be returned to earth if the angle of incidence is
i. 60o
ii. 30o

SOLUTION
i. From the refractive index equation;
8 6
6 866 √
8 6
75
8 6
5
9
ii.
8 6
5 √
8 6
5
8 6
75
8 5
11.3 THE IONOSPHERE
The ionosphere is in fact an ionized part of the atmosphere or a wide belt of ionized gases
surrounding the earth.
It exists because of the following explanation:
Ultra violet radiation from the sun entering the atmosphere of the earth supplies energy to the
gas molecules of the atmosphere. This energy is sufficient to produce ionization of the molecule
that is removing some electrons from their parent atoms. Each atom losing an electron in this
way has resultant positive charge and is said to be ionized.

The IONIZATION thus produced is measured in terms of the number of free electrons per cubic
meter and is dependent upon the intensity of the ultra-violet radiation. As the radiation travels
towards the earth, energy is continually extracted from it and so its intensity is progressively
reduced.
The liberated electrons are free to wander at random in the atmosphere and in so doing may
well come close enough to a positive ion to be attracted to it. When this happens, the free
electron and the ion recombine to form a neutral atom. Thus a continuous process of ionization
and recombination takes place.
At high altitudes the atmosphere is rare and little ionization takes place. Near the earth the
number of gas molecules per cubic metre is much greater and large numbers of atoms are
ionized; but the air is still sufficiently rare to keep the probability of recombination at a low
figure. Nearer still to the earth, the number of free electrons produced per cubic metre falls,
because the intensity of the ultra-violet radiation has been greatly reduced during its passage
through the upper atmosphere. Also, since the atmosphere is relatively dense the probability of
recombination is fairly high. The density of free electrons is therefore small immediately above
the surface of the earth, rises at higher altitudes, and then falls again at still greater heights.
11.3.1 IONOSPHERE LAYERS
In the ionosphere, layers exist within which the free electron density is greater than at heights
immediately above or below the layer. Four layers exist in the daytime (the D, E, F 1 and F2
layers) at the heights shown in Fig.11.11a and b.
Fig.11.11 Ionosphere layers
The heights of the ionospheric layers are not constant but vary both daily and seasonally as the
intensity of the sun’s radiation fluctuate. The electron density in the, D-layer is small when
compared with other layers. At night-time when ultra-violet radiation ceases, no morefree
electrons are produced and the D-layer disappears because of the high rate of recombination at
lower altitudes. The E-layer is at a height of about 100 km and so the rate of recombination is

smaller. Because of this, the E-layer, although becoming weaker, does not normally disappear
at night-time. In the daytime, the F1 layer is at a more or less constant height of 200-220 km
above ground but the height of the F2 layer varies considerably. Typical figures for the height of
the F2 layer are 250-350 km in the winter and 300-500 km in the summer.
11.3.2 THE TROPOSPHERE
The region of the earth's atmosphere between the surface of the earth and the lower edge of
the ionosphere is known as the TROPOSPHERE. The behaviour of the ionosphere when a radio
wave is propagated through it depends very much upon the frequency of the wave. At low
frequencies the ionosphere acts as though it were a medium of high electrical conductivity and
reflects, with little loss, any signals incident on its lower edge. It is possible for a v.l.f. or l.f.
signal to propagate for considerable distances by means of reflections from both the lower
edge of the ionosphere and the earth. This is shown by Fig. 11.12. The wave suffers little
attenuation on each reflection and so the received field strength is inversely proportional to the
distance travelled.
Fig.11.12. Multi-hop transmission of a l.f wave
In the m.f. band the D-layer acts as a very lossy medium whose attenuation reaches its
maximum value at a frequency of 1.4 MHz, often known as the gyro-frequency. Generally, m.f.
signals suffer so much loss in the D-layer that little energy reaches the E or F layers. At night-
time, however, the D-layer has disappeared and an m.f. signal will be refracted by the E-layer
and perhaps also by the F-layer(s) and returned to earth. With further increase in frequency to
the h.f band, the ionospheric attenuation falls and the E and F layers provide refraction of the
sky wave. At these frequencies the D-layer has little, if any, refractive effect but it does
introduce some losses.
The amount of refraction of a radio wave that an ionospheric layer is able to provide is a
function of the frequency of the wave, and at v.h.f. and above no useful reflection is obtained

(usually). This means that a v.h.f. or s.h.f. signal will normally pass straight through the
ionosphere.
11.4 CRITICAL FREQUENCY
The critical frequency of an ionospheric layer is the maximum frequency that can be radiated
vertically upwards by a radio transmitter and be returned to earth. This condition corresponds
to a wave that travels to the top of the layer, where the electron density is at its maximum
value, before its angle of refraction becomes 90°. The angle of incidence is 0°. Therefore, using
equation for refractive index:
8
√
but in this case Ф1 = 0o
8
√
Therefore,
9√
The critical frequency of a layer is of interest for two reasons:
1. it is a parameter which can be measured from the ground and,

2. it bears a simple relationship to the maximum usable frequency of a sky-wave link.
11.5 MAXIMUM USABLE FREQUENCY
The maximum usable frequency (m.u.f.) is the highest frequency that can be used to establish
communication, using the sky wave, between two points. If a higher frequency is used, the
wave will escape from the top of the layer and the signal will not be received at the far end of
the link. The m.u.f. is determined by both the angle of incidence of the radio wave and the
critical frequency of the layer; thus

The m.u.f. is an important parameter in sky-wave propagation. Since the attenuation suffered
by a wave is inversely proportional to the frequency of the wave it is desirable to use as high a
frequency as possible.
EXAMPLE 11.2
Calculate the maximum usable frequency of a sky-wave link if the angle of incidence is 45° and
the maximum electron density of the layer used is 4 x 1011 electrons/m3.
SOLUTION
From equation
9√
9√ 5 69
Therefore, from equation
5 69
8 5
5
The electron density of an ionospheric layer is not a constant quantity but is subject to many
fluctuations, some regular and predictable and some not. As a consequence the m.u.f. of any
given route is also subject to considerable variation over a period of time. The m.u.f. of a link
will vary throughout each day as the intensity of the sun's radiation changes.
Maximum radiation from the sun occurs at noon, while after dark there is no radiation. There is
always a time lag of some hours between a change in the ultra-violet radiation passing through
the ionosphere and the resulting change in electron density, and so the m.u.f. may be expected
to vary in the manner shown by the typical graphs of Fig. 11.13.

Fig 11.13 variation of m.u.f with time of day
11.6 OPTIMUM WORKING (TRAFFIC) FREQUENCY
In addition to the predictable m.u.f. variations, further fluctuations often take place and
because of this, operation of a link at the m.u.f. prevailing at a given time would not produce a
reliable system. Usually a frequency of about 85% of the m.u.f. is used to operate a sky-wave
link. This frequency is known as the optimum working (traffic) frequency or o.w.f. Since the
m.u.f. will vary over the working day, the o.w.f. will do so also and it is therefore necessary to
change the transmitted frequency as propagation conditions vary. The number of available
frequencies is limited and international frequency sharing is necessary. Usually, an individual
transmitter is allocated several carrier frequencies, anyone of which can be employed if
necessary. When propagation conditions are poor, it may prove necessary to transmit on more
than one frequency and even, when conditions are particularly bad, to re-transmit when
conditions improve.
11.7 LOWEST USEFUL FREQUENCY (l.u.f)

The attenuation of a sky-wave link increases with decrease in the frequency of the transmission
and, if the transmitted power is maintained at a constant level, the received field strength is
inversely proportional to frequency. The lowest useful frequency (l.u.f.) is the lowest frequency
at which a link with a given signal-to-noise ratio at the receive aerial can be established. The
l.u.f. varies with time of day and year in a similar manner to the m.u.f.
11.8 SKIP DISTANCE
The skip distance is a minimum distance over which communication at a given frequency can be
established by means of the sky wave. Usually, the frequency considered is the m.u.f. of the
link. If an attempt is made to reduce this minimum distance by using a smaller angle of
incidence, the wave will not be returned to earth by the E-layer but will pass through it. This
minimum distance is known as the skip distance and is shown in Fig.11.14.
Fig.11.14 Skip distance
For a given frequency each of the ionospheric layers has its particular skip distance. It should be
evident from the previous discussion that the higher the frequency of the wave the greater is
the skip distance.
11.9 MULTIPLE-HOP TRANSMISSIONS
When communication is desired between two points which are more than about 4000 km
apart, it is necessary to employ two or more hops, as shown in Fig. 6.11.

Fig.11.15 Multi-hop transmission of sky wave
The sky wave is refracted in the ionosphere and returned to earth, and the downward wave is
reflected at the surface of the earth to be returned skywards. The overall m.u.f. of a multi-hop
link is the lowest of the m.u.f.(s) of the individual links.
The number of hops that are possible depends upon both the transmitter power and the losses
incurred at each ground reflection and ionospheric refraction. The main disadvantage of a
multi-hop route is the likelihood of pronounced selective fading.
11.10 FADING
Fading, or changes in the amplitude of a received signal, is of two main types: general fading, in
which the whole signal fades to the same extent; and selective fading, in which some of the
frequency components of a signal fade while at the same time others increase in amplitude.
11.10.1 GENERAL FADING
As it travels through the ionosphere, a radio wave is attenuated, but since the ionosphere is in a
continual state of flux the attenuation is not constant, and the amplitude of the received varies.
Under certain conditions a complete fade-out of signals may occur for up to two hours. With
the exception of complete fade-outs, general fading can be combated by automatic gain control
(a.g.c.) in the radio receiver.
11.10.2 SELECTIVE FADING
The radio waves arriving the receiving end of a sky-wave radio link may have travelled over two
or more different paths through the ionosphere (Fig. 11.16a).

The total field strength at the receiving aerial is the phasor sum of the field strength produced
by each wave. Since the ionosphere is subject to continual fluctuations in its ionization density,
the difference between the lengths of paths 1 and 2 will fluctuate and this will alter the total
field strength at the receiver. Suppose, for example, that path 2 is initially one wavelength
longer than path 1; the field strengths produced by the two waves are then in phase and the
total field strength is equal to the algebraic sum of the individual field strengths. If now a
fluctuation occurs in the ionosphere causing the difference between the lengths of paths 1 and
2 to be reduced to a half-wavelength, the individual field strengths become in anti-phase and
the total field strength is given by their algebraic difference.
The phase difference between the field strengths set up by the two waves is a function of
frequency and hence the phasor sum of the two field strengths is different for each component
frequency in the signal. This means that some frequencies may fade at the same instant as
others are augmented the effect is particularly serious in double-sideband amplitude-
modulated systems because, if the carrier component fades to a level well beat together and
considerable signal distortion will be produced.
Selective fading cannot be overcome by the use of a.g.c. in the receiver since this is operated by
the carrier level only. Several methods of reducing selective fading do exist. For example, the
use of frequencies as near to the m.u.f as possible, the use of a transmitting aerial that radiates
only one possible mode of propagation, the use of single-sideband or frequency-modulated
systems, or the use of a specialized equipment as Lincomplex. Selective fading of the sky wave
is most likely when the route length necessitates the use of two or more hops. Suppose, for
example, that a two-hop link has been engineered. Then, because of the directional
characteristics of the transmitting aerial, there may well also be a three-hop path over which
the transmitted energy is able to reach the receiving aerial. Selective fading can also arise with
systems using the surface and space waves. In the daytime the D-layer of the ionosphere
completely absorbs any energy radiated skywards by a medium-wave broadcast aerial. At night
the D-layer disappears and any skywards radiation is returned to earth and will interfere with
the ground wave, as shown in Fig. 6.16b.

In the regions where the ground and sky waves are present at night, rapid fading, caused by
fluctuations in the length of the sky path, occurs. This is why reception of medium-waveband
broadcasts is much worse at night than in the daytime; it is minimized by the use of
transmitting aerials having maximum gain along the surface of the earth and radiating
minimum energy skywards.
Fig. 6.16c illustrates how multi-path reception of a v.h.f. signal can occur. Energy arrives at the
receiver by a direct path and by reflection from a large object such as a hill or gasholder. If the
reflecting object is not stationary the phase difference between the two signals will change
rapidly and rapid fading will occur.
11.11 USE OF THE FREQUENCY BANDS
AI frequencies in the v.l.f. and l.f. bands, aerials are very inefficient and high-power
transmitters must be used. The radiated energy is vertically polarized and will propagate
reliably (no fading) for thousands of kilometers using the surface wave or by means of
multiple reflections between ionosphere and earth. Services provided in this band are
ship to shore telegraphy, navigation systems, and sound broadcasting (If) band. In the
m.f. band the range of the surface wave is limited to some hundreds of kilometers and the
main use of the band is for sound broadcasting (647-1546 kHz). Also provided is ship
telephonic and telegraphic links in, respectively, the bands 40525 kHz and 1.6 to 3.8 MHz,
At high frequencies the main mode of propagation is the sky wave, the surface wave giving, if
required, service for distances of up to the skip distance. The h.f band is used for international

point-to-point radio-telephony links on a number of sub-bands, for sound broadcasting, and for
marine and aero mobile systems.
In the v.h.f. and higher bands the surface wave has a very limited range and the ionosphere
(normally) does not return waves to earth. The modes of propagation used are therefore the
space wave and, at certain frequencies in the s.h.f. band, the communication satellite. Scatter is
also sometimes used. Services provided are sound broadcasting in the v.h.f. band (88.1-96.8
MHz), land, marine and aero mobile systems in the v.h.f. and u.h.f. bands, television
broadcasting in the u.h.f. band, and point-to-point multi-channel telephony systems in the
u.h.f. and s.h.f. bands.

11.12 EXERCISES
1. answer the following

a. Which ionized regions are present in the atmosphere during a summer day? Give the
approximate height of each of these regions.
b. What is meant by the following terms in connection with ionospheric propagation:
i. maximum usable frequency,
ii. Gyro-frequency.
c. How is the maximum usable frequency related to
i. critical frequency,
ii. angle of incidence,
iii. Density of ionization of the reflecting layer?

a. What is the meaning of the following terms:
i. Maximum usable frequency,
ii. Optimum traffic frequency?
b. How are (i) and (ii) related?
c. Explain how a radio wave incident on an ionized region is returned to earth by
refraction.
d. How does the refraction vary with
i. frequency,
ii. electron density in the ionized region,
iii. Angle of incidence?

a. Explain the mode of propagation whereby low radio frequencies can be used for
world-wide communication.
b. How does field strength vary with the distance from the transmitter and with
radiated frequency?
c. What are the advantages and disadvantages of low-frequency propagation?

a. Explain the meanings of the following terms:
ii. selective fading,
iii. surface wave,
iv. Ground wave.

b. With what frequency band is each of the above normally associated?

a. Briefly describe the propagation of radio signals by means of the ground wave.
b. Why is the range of a broadcast transmitter using the ground wave limited even
when the ground is lossless?
c. What is the name of the propagation mechanism whereby ground waves move
around relatively small objects?
d. Does loss in the ground wave increase or decrease with increase in
i. conductivity,
ii. frequency,
iii. permittivity?

a. Which ionized regions are present in the atmosphere during a winter night? Give the
approximate height of each of these regions.
b. What do you understand by the following terms in connection with ionospheric
propagation:
i. skip distance,
ii. Gyro-frequency?
c. What is the effect on the skip distance of an increase in
i. transmitted frequency,
ii. transmitted power,
iii. Density of ionization of the reflecting layer?

a. Briefly describe what you understand by the terms
ii. maximum usable frequency,
iii. Optimum traffic frequency.
b. What is the relationship between (i) and (ii) in (a)?
c. Fig. 11.17 is a simplified diagram of an ionospheric region in the atmosphere:
i. Explain how the radio wave incident on the ionized region represented in Fig.
11.17 is returned to earth when it is below the m.u.f.
ii. Why does a wave at a frequency above the m.u.f. penetrate the region?
iii. Where is the maximum electron density in the ionospheric region shown in
Fig. 11.17?

Fig 11.17
8. Explain how selective fading can arise on a long-distance short-wave radio link. How can
its occurrence be minimized by a suitable choice of frequency? Briefly outline some
radio transmission and reception techniques which reduce the effects of selective fading
in
a. telephony,
b. telegraphy.

CHAPTER 12
ANTENNAS
CONTENTS
12.0 INTRODUCTION
12.1 ACHIEVEMENTS OF RADIATION FROM AN ANTENNA
12.1.1 RADIATED FIELD
12.1.2 INDUCTION FIELD
12.1.3 RELATIONSHIP OF THE ELECTRIC (E) AND MAGNETIC (H) FIELD
12.2 CURRENT AND VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION IN ANTENNAS
12.3 ANTENNA IMPEDANCE
12.4 TERMS USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH ANTENNAS
12.4.1 RADIATION PATTERNS
12.4.2 DIRECTIVITY
12.4.3 FRONT-TO-BACK RATIO
12.4.4 BEAM WIDTH
12.4.5 ANTENNA GAIN
12.4.6 EFFECTIVE RADIATED POWER
12.4.7 BANDWIDTH
12.4.8 RADIATION RESISTANCE
12.4.9 ANTENNA EFFICIENCY (ɳ)
12.4.10 ANTENNA EFFECTIVE HEIGHT OR LENGTH
12.5 TYPES OF ANTENNA
12.5.1 MONOPOLE OR UNIPOLE
12.5.2 DIPOLE (λ) ANTENNA
12.5.2.1 DIPOLE IMPEDANCE
12.5.2.2 FOLDED DIPOLE
12.5.2.3 λ/2 DIPOLE
12.5.3 YAGI ANTENNA
12.5.3.1 USE OF REFLECTORS AND DIRECTORS
12.5.3.2 OTHER TYPES OF REFLECTORS
12.5.4 PARABOLIC REFLECTOR ANTENNA
12.5.4.1 PROPERTIES OF PARABOLIC REFLECTORS
12.6 MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION PATTERN
12.7 MEASUREMENT IF AERIAL GAIN
12.8 EXERCISES

12.0 INTRODUCTION
Antenna is a generic term used for that part of a radio system that is used to radiate radio
waves into free space and /or abstract energy from incoming radio wave. It is in actual fact just
a system of conductors used at any radio installation to either radiate or receive
electromagnetic waves. In a radio system, whether for point-to-point communication or for
sound and/or television broadcasting, the intelligence signal is used to modulate a radio-
frequency carrier wave and the modulated wave is radiated into the atmosphere, in the form of
an electromagnetic wave, by a TRANSMITTING AERIAL. For the signal to be received the
electromagnetic wave must be intercepted by a RECEIVING AERIAL. The performance of an
aerial is the same whether it is used for transmission or for reception, the main difference lying
in the magnitudes of the powers involved. The power handled by a transmitting aerial may be
very large, perhaps several kilowatts, but the power absorbed by a receiving aerial is very small,
possibly only a microwatt or so.
12.1 ACHIEVEMENT OF RADIATION FROM AN ANTENNA
Whenever a current flows in a conductor, the conductor is surrounded by a magnetic field, the
direction of which is determined by the direction of current flow, If the current changes, the
magnetic field will change also. Now, a varying magnetic field always produces an electric field
that exists only while the magnetic field continues to change. When the magnetic field is
constant the electric field disappears. The direction of the electric field depends on whether the
magnetic field is growing or collapsing and can be determined by the application of Lenz's law.
Similarly, a changing electric field always produces a magnetic field; this means that a
conductor carrying an alternating current is surrounded by continually changing magnetic and
electric fields that are completely dependent on one another. Although a stationary electric
field can exist without the presence of a magnetic field and vice versa, it is impossible for either
field to exist separately when changing.
When a sinusoidal current is flowing in a conductor the electric and magnetic fields around the
conductor will also attempt to vary sinusoidally. When the current reverses direction the
magnetic field must first collapse into the conductor and then build up in the opposite
direction. A finite time is required for a magnetic field and its associated electric field to
collapse, however, and at frequencies above about 15 kHz not all the energy contained in the
field has returned to the conductor before the current has started to increase in the opposite
direction and created new electric and magnetic fields. The energy left outside the conductor
cannot then return to it and instead, is propagated away from the conductor at the velocity
of light (approximately 3xl08 m/s), see Fig. 12.1.

Fig 12.1 Radiation from an antenna
The amount of energy radiated from the conductor increases with increase in frequency, since
more energy is then unable to return to the conductor. To be effective as a radiator, the
antenna must therefore have dimensions that are comparable with the wavelength i.e
12.1.1 RADIATED FIELD
The energy radiated from the conductor or aerial, known as the radiated field, is in the form of
an ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE in which there is a continual interchange of energy between the
electric and magnetic fields. In an electromagnetic wave the electric and magnetic fields are at
right angles to each other and they are mutually at right angles to the direction of propagation,
as shown in Fig. 12.2 for a particular instant in time. The magnitude of the radiated field is
proportional to the frequency of the wave and inversely proportional to the distance from the
antenna.
Fig 12.2 Electromagnetic wave

The plane containing the electric field and the direction of propagation of the electromagnetic
wave is known as the plane of polarization of the wave. For example, if the electric field is in the
vertical plane, the magnetic field will be in the horizontal plane, and the wave is said to be
vertically polarized. A vertically polarized wave will induce an e.m.f. in any vertical conductor
that it passes, because its magnetic field will cut the conductor, but will have no effect on any
horizontal conductor.
12.1.2 INDUCTION FIELD
The induction field represents energy that is not radiated away from the aerial, i.e. the energy
that does succeed in returning to the conductor, and its magnitude diminishes inversely as the
square of the distance from the aerial. In the immediate vicinity of an aerial the electric and
magnetic fields are of greater magnitude and different relative phase than in the radiated field.
This is because there is, in addition to the radiated field, an INDUCTION FIELD near the aerial.
The magnitude of the RADIATED FIELD is proportional to the frequency of the wave and
inversely proportional to the distance from the aerial. Near the aerial, the induction field is
larger than the radiation field, but the radiation field is the larger at distances greater than r,
where λ is the wavelength of the signal radiated from the aerial.
12.1.3 RELATIONSHIP OF THE ELECTRIC (E) AND MAGNETIC (H) FIELDS
The amplitudes of the electric field E, and the magnetic field H, in an electromagnetic wave
bear a constant relationship to each other. This relationship is known as the impedance of free
space and is the ratio of the electric field strength to the magnetic field strength, i.e.
77
12.1
It is customary to refer to the amplitude of a radio wave in terms of its electric field strength.
EXAMPLE 12.1
The magnetic field strength 10km from a transmitting aerial is 0.053 At/km. Calculate the
electric field strength 50 km from the aerial in the same direction.
SOLUTION
77

77 77 5
At 50 km from the aerial the electric field strength is therefore
5
The above then serves to explain why the radio wave signal strength reduces as the distance
from the transmitting point increases.
12.2 CURRENT AND VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTIONS IN ANTENNAS
A RESONANT AERIAL is one which is an integral number of wavelengths long, for example the
half-wavelength (λ/2) dipole shown in Fig. 12.3.
Fig 12.3 the half wave dipole

The r.m.s. current and voltage distributions on an open circuited loss-free line that is one
wavelength long are shown by Figs. 12.4a and 12.4b respectively.
Fig 12.4 current and voltage distributions on a half wave dipole

a. r.m.s values
b. peak values
Using these graphs the standing waves of current and voltage on a λ/4 length are easily
obtained and are shown by Fig. 12.5.

Fig 12.5a standing waves of current and voltage on a λ/4 open circuited loss-free line
Similar standing-wave patterns will result if the two conductors forming the transmission line
are each opened out through 90° to form a DIPOLE AERIAL. As the conductors are opened out
they will begin to radiate energy, since their separation will be an appreciable fraction of a
wavelength and the resultant losses will slightly modify the standing-wave pattern. Since each
conductor is a quarter-wavelength long, a λ/2 dipole will be formed. Reference to Fig. 12.5
shows that for a λ/4 length of open-circuited line the current increases from zero at the open-
circuit to a maximum, while the voltage falls from its maximum value at the open-circuit to zero
at the input terminals. Hence the r.m.s. current and voltage distributions on a λ/2 dipole are as
shown in Fig. 12.4a. If peak values are considered Fig. 2.5 b will give the current and voltage
distributions.
The above can be further explained by the following diagrams fig 12.5b and c which reinforce
fig 12.4.

The opened line has been shown together with the voltage and current distribution to enable
us to appreciate their behaviour as related to an opened out transmission line.
ELECTRICALLY SHORT ANTENNA
Electrically short aerials are employed at low and medium frequencies where it is impracticable
to construct an aerial whose length is comparable with the signal wavelength. For example, a
half-wavelength at 300 kHz is 500 m, and at 30 kHz it is 5 km.In the case of an electrically short
antenna in which its length is very short as compared to the signal wavelength: say λ/16 or less:
the current distribution is linear as shown in Fig.12.6
Fig 12.6 current distribution on an electrically short antenna
12.3 ANTENNA IMPEDANCE
Impedance is the ratio of voltage to current. It is evident from the current and voltage
distributions shown in Figs. 12.5 and 12.6 that the impedance will vary along the length of an
antenna. It is necessary, therefore, to specify the point in the aerial at which the impedance is
measured, and usually the input terminals of the aerial are chosen. It would appear from Fig.
12.5 that the input impedance of a centre-fed λ/2 dipole is zero, since in the middle of the
aerial the voltage is zero and the current is a maximum. It should be remembered, however,
that Fig. 12.5 is based on the assumption of zero losses. Lets examine what happens to the
impedance of a dipole antenna.

Impedance varies in the same way as a tuned circuit
 At f=fr, dipole electrical length is λ/2 and input Z is purely resistive and is equal to 73Ω.
(Physical length is shorter than λ/2 by 5% or slightly less.) See Fig. 12.7b
 At f>fr, the signal wavelength (λ) is reduced but dipole becomes electrically longer than
is λ /2 and input Z is inductive.
 At f < fr, the signal wavelength (λ) is increased but dipole becomes electrically shorter
than is λ /2 and input Z is capacitive.
Note that the current fed into the antenna is at its maximum when the antenna is of resonant
length. Since the radiated power is proportional to the square of the cu rrent, the Antenna is
then at its most efficient. The reactive component of the input impedance of an antenna is a
function of the diameter of the conductor; an increase in diameter reduces the reactance. If an
antenna is to handle signals of wide bandwidth its input impedance should have as low a
reactive component as possible, and hence a thick conductor should be employed.
12.3.1 ANTENNA FEEDERS
Energy must be fed into, or taken away from, an aerial by means of a transmission line known
as a feeder. If a two-wire feeder is employed it cannot be connected directly to the input
terminals of a λ/2 dipole because considerable mismatch would occur. A two-wire line has a
characteristic impedance of a few hundred ohms, and for correct matching the feeder must
be connected to a point of higher impedance. Connection between the feeder and the aerial
can be made by the method shown in Fig. 12.8a, the tapping points selected being those where
the voltage/current ratio is reasonably close to the feeder impedance. If a coaxial feeder is
employed it can be connected to the mid-point of the aerial (Fig. 12.8b) because the 75 Ω
characteristic impedance of a coaxial feeder is very nearly equal to the 73Ω aerial input
impedance.

Fig 12.8 Half-wave dipole fed by : a. two-wire feeder
b. cozxial feeder
12.4 TERMS USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH ANTENNAS
12.4.1 RADIATION PATTERNS
The radiation pattern of an aerial is a graphical representation of the way in which the electric
field strength produced by the aerial varies at equal distances from the aerial. Since an aerial
radiates energy in all directions, other than along its axis, two radiation patterns are needed to
give a reasonable idea of the aerial's performance. The two planes normally chosen are shown
in Fig.12.9.
Fig. 2.8 The meridian and equatorial planes of an antenna
The meridian plane contains the axis of the aerial, while the equatorial plane is at right angles
to the aerial. For example, for a vertical aerial, the meridian plane is vertical and the equatorial
plane is horizontal.
A radiation pattern refers to the performance of the aerial itself, i.e. when it is mounted well
away from any objects, such as buildings or the earth, which by reflecting signals might
affect the shape of the pattern. Since aerials are generally mounted near to some object or
other, a radiation pattern does not give a true indication of the performance to be expected
from a particular aerial installation. However, a radiation pattern does give a method of
comparing different types of antenna.

12.4.2 DIRECTIVITY
All antennas have the property of being able to radiate power better in some directions than in
others. The directional characteristic, or DIRECTIVITY, of a transmitting antenna is very useful
because it allows most of the transmitted power to be sent in the wanted direction and very
little in unwanted directions. This reduces the transmitter power required to produce a given
field strength at a distant point in the wanted direction. The directivity of a transmitting
antenna is expressed by its RADIATION PATTERN (or polar diagram).
An antenna may be used for receiving signals as well as transmitting them, and the radiation
pattern also gives an indication of the receiving capabilities of the aerial. Directivity in a
receiving aerial is useful because it enables the aerial to distinguish, to some extent, between
wanted and unwanted signals.
12.4.3 FRONT TO BACK RATIO
The FRONT-TO-BACK RATIO of an aerial is the ratio of the electric field strengths produced
at the same distance from the aerial but in opposite directions. Many radiation patterns exhibit
much greater directivity in one direction than in any other. Thus in Fig. 12.10 the front-to-back
ratio is Ef/Eb .
Fig 12.10 front to back ratio of an antenna
EXAMPLE 2
The field strength produced kilometres in the wanted direction from an aerial is 100mV/m
and at the same distance in the opposite direction it is 10mV/m. Calculate the front-to-back
ratio of the aerial.
SOLUTION
or, in decibels,

12.4.4 BEAMWIDTH
The BEAMWIDTH of an aerial is a convenient measure of the directivity of the aerial. It is the
angle subtended by the points at which the radiation power has fallen to half its
maximum value or the field strength has fallen to 1/√ of its maximum voltage, i.e. the angle
subtended by the 3 dB points on the radiation pattern of the aerial. Thus, in Fig. 12.11, the
angle θ is the beamwidth.
Fig 12.11 beamwidth of an antenna
14.4.5 ANTENNA GAIN
The GAIN OF AN ANTENNA is not, as with amplifiers, the power-output/power-input ratio.

Instead, the gain of an aerial is a measure of its directional properties and indicates the extent
to which radiation is concentrated in a particular direction, or the extent to which the aerial
receives signals better from one direction than from all others. Aerial gain is defined relative to
a reference aerial and is the same whether the aerial is used for transmission or reception, but
may be defined in terms of either.
The GAIN OF A TRANSMITTING AERIAL is the square of the ratio of the field strength produced
at a point in the direction of maximum radiation from the aerial to the field strength produced
at the same point by the reference aerial, both aerials transmitting the same power.
Alternatively, it may be expressed as the ratio of the powers required to be transmitted by the
two aerials to produce the same field strength at a particular point in the direction of maximum
radiation.
The GAIN OF A RECEIVING AERIAL is the ratio of the power delivered by the aerial to a matched
load connected to its terminals to the power delivered by the reference aerial to a matched
load, the field strengths at the locations of the aerials being the same.
The reference aerial is either a λ/2 dipole or an isotropic radiator. An isotropic radiator is one
which will radiate equally well in all directions. Such an aerial is not a practical possibility but it

is a useful concept in more advanced aerial work. It can be shown that the gain of a λ/2 dipole
relative to an isotropic radiator is 1.64 times, or 2.15 dB.
EXAMPLE 3
An aerial must be fed with 20 kW of power to produce the same field strength at a given point
as a λ/2 dipole fed with 40 kW of power. Calculate the gain of the aerial
a. relative to a λ/2 dipole,
b. relative to an isotropic radiator.
If a modification to the aerial results in the 10 kW input power producing double the field
strength at the same point, calculate the new aerial gain relative to a λ/2 dipole.
SOLUTION
(a)
(b) 5
5 5 5
The aerial modification doubles the field strength at the point in question so that
6
and
6 9
EXAMPLE 4
In a test to determine the gain of an aerial, a standard aerial of known gain is used. Both aerials
are situated in a particular field strength and the powers delivered to matched loads are
measured. It is found that the power delivered to its load by the aerial under test is 2W and the
power delivered by the standard aerial is 8W. If the gain of the standard aerial is 30 dB relative
to an isotropic radiator, calculate the gain of the aerial under test.
SOLUTION
Gain of standard aerial relative to aerial under test is:
8
6

Gain of erial under test relative to isotropic radiator —6
12.4.6 EFFECTIVE RADIATED POWER
The EFFECTIVE RADIATED POWER, e.r.p., of an aerial is the power that an isotropic radiator
would have to radiate to produce the same field strength at a particular point in the direction of
maximum radiation. An isotropic radiator is an aerial that is (theoretically) able to radiate
energy equally well in all directions, and which therefore produces a constant field strength at a
given distance from the aerial in all directions. Any practical aerial does not possess such a
radiation characteristic; instead it will concentrate its radiated energy in one or more particular
directions. This means that a practical aerial will need to radiate a smaller total power than an
isotropic radiator to produce the same field strength at a particular point in the direction of
maximum radiation. Numerically, the effective radiated power of an aerial is equal to the
product of the total transmitted power Pt and the gain G of the aerial, i.e.
EXAMPLE 5
An aerial with a gain of 10 dB relative to an isotropic radiator radiates a power of 1000 watts.
Determine the effective radiated power of the aerial.
SOLUTION
10 dB is a power ratio of 10:1
Therefore, from equation above
12.4.7 BANDWIDTH
The BANDWIDTH of an aerial is the band of frequencies over which its operation can be
considered to be satisfactory. Unfortunately, the satisfactory performance of an aerial can be
specified in more than one way but in this book it will be taken as referring to the main lobe of
the radiation pattern. For many aerials, maximum radiation in the wanted direction takes place
when the lengths and/or spacings of the elements making up the aerial are particular sub-
multiples of the signal wavelength. If the frequency is varied the critical dimensions are no
longer correct and the radiation in the wanted direction is reduced. Then, the bandwidth of an
aerial is the band of frequencies over which the power radiated by the aerial in the wanted
direction is not more than 3 dB down on the maximum radiation.

12.4.8 RADIATION RESISTANCE
It is often convenient in aerial work to regard the power radiated from an aerial as being
dissipated in a fictitious resistance, known as the radiation resistance. The power radiated from
an aerial is then given by
where is the current fed into the aerial and is the radiation resistance.
The radiation resistance of a λ/2 dipole is equal to its impedance, i.e. 73 Ω, while the radiation
resistance of an electrically short aerial, say λ/50, is only about 0.1 Ω. The power radiated from
an aerial is always less than the power fed into it because some power is lost in the aerial.
Sources of power loss are losses in the aerial conductor and in the ground adjacent to the
aerial, corona losses(also referred to as corona disharge and it is visible discharge of electricity
surrounding a charged conductor when its potential value exceeds the critical value at which
the surrounding air is ionised. This discharge is often accompanied by a hissing noise and
becomes more marked as the radius of curvature of the conductor is reduced. Sharp points
therefore gives a pronounced corona discharge and it is minimized by making the conductor
surface smooth) and dielectric losses in insulators. The aerial losses can be lumped together
and represented by a loss resistance RL, in which all the lost power is assumed to be dissipated.
12.4.9 ANTENNA EFFICIENCY (ƞ)
The efficiency ƞ of an aerial is the ratio of the power radiated to the power fed to the aerial,
usually expressed as a percentage:
EXAMPLE 6
A low-frequency transmitting aerial has a radiation resistance of 0.3 Ω and a loss resistance of
1.5 Ω. If the current fed into the aerial is 50 A, calculate the radiated power, the power input
and the aerial efficiency.
SOLUTION
Power radiated 5 75
Input power
5 5 5 5
Aerial efficiency 6 67

At very low frequencies, aerial efficiencies may be only a few per cent, but at very high
frequencies, efficiencies greater than 90% can be obtained.
12.4.10 ANTENNA EFFECTIVE HEIGHT OR LENGTH
The current flowing in an aerial is not of uniform amplitude at all points along the aerial but
varies for example as shown for two particular aerials in Figs. 12.5 and 12.6.
The EFFECTIVE HEIGHT or EFFECTIVE LENGTH of a transmitting aerial is that length which, if it
carried a uniform current having the same magnitude as the input current of the aerial, would
produce the same field strength at a given point. This means that the product of the actual
height of the aerial and the mean value of the current flowing must be equal to the product of
the effective length and the uniform current. That is
Or
In the case of an electrically short aerial in which the aerial current varies linearly from a
maximum value of I amperes at the base to zero at the top, the mean aerial current is 1/2.
Hence, from above,
Since the apparent height of an earthed monopole is twice its physical height, because of earth
reflections, its effective height is equal to its physical height.
EXAMPLE 7
An electrically short aerial that is mounted normal to perfectly conducting earth is 100 m high
and carries a current that varies linearly from a maximum of 10 A at the base of 0A at the top.
Determine the effective height of the aerial.
SOLUTION
From equation above, the effective height of the aerial is 5 , but since the aerial
is mounted on perfectly conducting earth the effective height is doubled. Therefore
The effective height of a receiving aerial is also an important parameter since the e.m.f. induced
into the aerial by an incident electromagnetic wave is given by

where E is the electric field strength of the wave in V/m. Hence the voltage induced into a
receiving aerial is directly proportional to the electric field strength.
EXAMPLE 8
An aerial of effective length 1 m is situated in a field strength of 10 mV/m. Calculate the voltage
induced into the aerial.
SOLUTION
12.5 TYPES OF ANTENNA
It is important to note that if an antenna radiates most effectively in one direction; it will
receive signals best in the game direction . For different frequency ranges and directional
properties required for a given situation: different antennas can be used. There are many types
of antennas in use today and the type used is dependant on the factors mentioned above
However, only a few types will be considered
12.5.1 MONOPOLE ANTENNA
Transmitting aerials operating at frequencies in the very-low, low, and medium bands must
employ structures of considerable height and be mounted vertically upon the earth, because at
these frequencies the wavelength of the signal is long. It is possible at the upper end of the low-
frequency band, and in the medium band, to employ aerials which are λ/4 in length, but often
for economic reasons somewhat shorter masts are used. Fig. 12.12 shows a λ/4 aerial that is
mounted on the earth's surface and is fed at the bottom between the aerial and the earth. Such
an aerial is known as a unipole or MONOPOLE.
Fig 12.12 Monopole or Unipole antenna

The aerial will radiate energy equally well in all directions in the horizontal plane. In the vertical
plane some energy is radiated towards the sky and some is directed downwards towards the
earth, as shown by the dotted lines. The downward-directed waves strike the earth and are
reflected, provided the earth is flat, with equal angles of incidence and reflection.
At a point distant from the aerial, energy is received by means of both the direct wave and the
wave that has been vreflected from the earth. The field strength produced at this point is the
resultant of the individual field strengths produced by the two waves. From the point of view of
an observer located at the distant point, it appears as though the reflected wave has originated
from an extension of the aerial beneath the earth. In the diagram this apparent extra length of
aerial has been labelled as the image aerial. This means that, electrically, the aerial is operating
as though its height was twice as great as it actually is. The effective increase in the height of
the aerial is advantageous because the field strength produced by an aerial at a given point is
proportional to the height of that aerial. The total height of the aerial and its image is λ/2 and
so the current and voltage distributions on the aerial are the same as those on the λ/2 dipole
illustrated by Fig. 12.4. The input impedance of the aerial is purely resistive and is equal to 37Ω.
The current standing wave pattern results in the existence of a current maximum at the earthed
end of the aerial. As a result large currents will flow in the earth in the vicinity of the aerial and
will dissipate power. To minimize such power losses, and so keep the aerial efficiency at as high
a figure as possible, the earth should be of high conductivity. To ensure this it is usually
necessary to instal a network of radial conductors buried beneath the surface of the earth to a
depth of about one third of a metre. The network should extend around the aerial for a
distance about equal to the height of the aerial. If the earth is too rocky or too sandy near the
aerial a counterpoise earth may well be employed. A counterpoise earth consists of a network
of radial copper conductors that is supported on low-permittivity, insulated poles at a height of
about two metres above the surface of the earth.
At low frequencies the aerial height needed to make an aerial λ/4 long is too large to be
economically worthwhile. The use of an electrically short aerial results in the input impedance
of the aerial possessing a capacitive component, in a reduction in the radiation resistance of the
aerial, and in a reduction in the aerial current (the current in a tuned circuit is a maximum at
resonance). The aerial can be tuned to be resonant by the addition of a suitable inductance in
series with its input terminals. Unfortunately, the maximum value of the aerial current is now
found to exist in the series inductance and not in the aerial itself. Because of this the
transmitted power is not as great as might be anticipated.

12.5.2 DIPOLE ANTENNA
Fig 12.13 below is the diagram of a folded dipole
Fig 12.13 folded dipole
A folded dipole is often used as the driven element when there is need to raise the antenna
terminal impedance. As has been mentioned; the input impedance of a resonant λ/2 is 73Ω
resistive. As might be appreciated; the parasitic elements are quite closely coupled to the
driven element thereby resulting in the lowering of the radiation resistance. For example; the
radiation resistance reduces to 50Ω with just one reflector and director. With more directors it
reduces to perhaps 20Ω. So then; the use of a 50Ω or 70Ω coaxial feeder as is normaly the
practice; would cause it mismatch at the antenna terminals thereby producing a standing wave
pattern on the feeder. The folding of a dipole increases the impedance to four times that of a
straight one i.e. 7 9 . A multi - element antenna (Yagi) with a folded dipole would
have a resistance of 200Ω to 300Ω. Impedance multiplying factors other than four are possible
by making the two halves folded dipole from different diameter rods.

The folded dipole may be viewed as twn short-circuited; quarter-wave transmission lines
connected together at O and fed in series as in Fig 12. 14 below.
Folded dipole showing antenna and line currents
The transmission line currents are labelled Tt ; whereas the antenna currents are identical to
those already shown for a straight half-wave dipole and are labelled Ia. When a voltage is
applied at a-b; both sets of currents flow but the antenna currents are only ones contributing to
the radiation. The transmission-line currents flow in opposite directions; and their radiations
cancel. We however have two short circuited λ/4 transmission lines across a-b: and the antenna
impedance will remain resistive over a significant frequency range. It will in fact remain
acceptable over a range in excess of 10% of the centre frequency. It should however be noted
that the antenna is useless at twice the frequency because the short circuited transmission-line
sections are each a λ/2 long thereby throwing a short circuit across the feed point. Also note
that the Yagi antenna is also broadband since the driven element is almost always a folded
dipole.
12.5.2.2 HALF-WAVE DIPOLE RADIATION PATTERNS
A vertical dipole antenna will radiate, or receive, equally well in all directions in the horizontal
plane: hence its horizontal plane radiation pattern is a circle (Fig. 12.15a). In the vertical plane
such an antenna does not radiate or receive at all in the line of the aerial axis, its vertical plane
radiation pattern having a figure-of-eight shape (Fig. 12.15b)

Fig 12.15 Radiation of a vertical λ/2 dipole
a. horizontal plane pattern
b. vertical plane pattern
12.5.3 THE YAGI ANTENNA
The Yagi antenna is made up of a λ/2 or folded dipole dipole and a number of parasitic
elements. A limitation for such an antenna is that its correct operation is dependant on the
choice of element lengths and spacings (in fractions of the signal wavelengths). This means
the satisfactory operation of the antenna is restricted to a narrow band of frequencies
centred on the design frequency. It is therefore only used at v.h.fand u.h.f. If it is to be
used at h.f and the medium wave band, the antenna structure tends to be mechanically
large and therefore expensive. The bandwidth of the antenna is defined b the 3dB points
plus or minus 3%. Yagi aerials are commonly used for the reception of television broadcast
signals in the home and are visible on many rooftops. The aerial also finds considerable
application in v.h.f. point-to-point radio-telephony systems for both transmission and
reception. Typical performance figures for Yagi antennas are as below.
ANTENNA INPUT FREQUENCY BANDWIDTH GAIN in dB
IMPEDANCE(Ω) (MHz) (MHZ) RELATIVE to λ/2
DIPOLE
A 50 90 2 10
B 50 87-100 1-2 10
C 50 47-54 1 8.5

12.5.3.1 USE OF REFLECTORS AND DIRECTORS
At v.h.f . and at u.h.f. the wavelength of a signal is fairly short and half-wavelength elements
can be used. The equatorial plane radiation pattern of a λ/2 dipole is a circle, which means that
the aerial will receive or radiate equally well from or to all directions in this plane. The meridian
plane pattern is a figure of eight. The gain and directivity of a λ/2 dipole can be increased by the
addition of a reflector and one or more directors. Reflectors and directors are both known as
parasitic elements since neither is directly connected to the aerial feeder.
A REFLECTOR is usually about 5% longer than λ/2 and it is mounted in the position shown in Fig.
12.17a.
Consider a radio wave travelling towards the aerial from the direction shown. As the wave
travels past the dipole it will induce an e.m.f. into it. In passing on to the reflector the radio
wave suffers a phase lag, the magnitude of which depends upon the spacing between the
dipole and the reflector, e.g. if the spacing is 0.15λ the phase lag is 5 6 ° = 5 °. The radio
wave induces an e.m.f. into the reflector and this causes a current to flow; the reflector current
lags the induced e.m.f. because the longer than λ/2 element has an inductive impedance. The
reflector re-radiates energy, some of which is directed towards the dipole. By the time the
radiated energy reaches the dipole, a further phase lag will have been experienced. If both the
reflector length and the element spacing have been correctly chosen, the energy radiated by
the reflector will arrive at the dipole in phase with the energy received from the transmitter.

The total field strength at the dipole will then be increased; this means that the gain of the
aerial in this direction will have been improved. When a radio wave arrives at the aerial from
the opposite direction, it will reach the reflector before it reaches the dipole. Voltages will be
induced into both elements by the incident wave. A lagging current will flow in the reflector and
it will radiate energy towards the dipole. Now, the re-radiated energy arrives at the dipole with
such a phase that it reduces the total field strength.
A DIRECTOR is a parasitic element, cut to a shorter length than λ/2 at the operating frequency,
and mounted in front of the dipole (Fig. 12.17b). The action of the director is similar to that of
the reflector. Since the length of the director is greater than λ/2 its impedance is capacitive and
an e.m.f. induced by an incident radio wave will produce a leading current. The effect of the
director is to assist the action of the reflector and still further increase the gain of the aerial in
the wanted direction.
Usually, the dipole-reflector spacing is somewhere between 0.15λ and 0.25λ as a suitable
compromise between the conflicting requirements of maximum gain in the wanted direction
and maximum front-to-back ratio. The radiation pattern of a λ/2 dipole and a reflector is as
shown, in the equatorial and meridian planes by Figs. 12.18a and b respectively. The radiation
pattern can also be shown as in fig 12.18d. only one reflector need to be used; since the
addition of a second or third reflector adds practically nothing to the directivity of the antenna
structure.
Fig. 12.18 Radiation patterns, (a) A/2 dipole and reflector: in equatorial plane,
(b) A/2 dipole and reflector: in meridian plane,
(c) A/2 dipole, reflector and director; in equatorial plane
direction.

Fig. 12.18c shows the effect on the equatorial plane pattern of adding a director to a dipole-
reflector array; obviously there is an increase in the directivity of the aerial. The spacing
between the dipole and the director is usually somewhere in the range of values 0.1λto 0.1 5 λ.
Fig 12.18d. the effect of reflector on the radiation pattern of dipole
12.5.3.2 OTHER TYPES OF REFLECTORS (PLANE REFLECTORS)
At UHF it is common practice to use a plane reflecting surface which is either just a flat surface
or a corner of two surfaces in place of the single reflector element of the Yagi. The reflecting
surface must be at least one wavelength across each direction; and can be much larger. It may
be a solid metal surface or a wire mesh or a network of interconnected metal rods. However; a
sharper directivity is obtained with the corner reflector, but only in the plane across the field as
in the figure below.
The plane reflector is arranged so that the driven dipole (or directional antenna of any type) is
mounted a λ/4 ahead of the reflector surface. A mirror image of the driven antenna occurs a

λ/4 behind the surface and appears to radiate a wave which arrives at the driven antenna in
phase with the driving antenna radiation; but delayed one period. The resulting radiation
appears to be the vector sum of the radiation from two in-phase antennas: one of which is the
image.
EXAMPLE 9
An aerial array consists of a vertical half-wave dipole with a reflector and one director.
Calculate approximate dimensions and spacings for the elements if operation is to be at
100MHz.
SOLUTION
At 100 MHz,
In practice, the dipole would be made slightly shorter because the electric field fringes out at
each end of the dipole making its length effectively greater. Generally, about 5% is allowed.
Therefore
8
The reflector should be about 5% longer than λ/2 and should be 0.15-0.25λ behind the dipole.
Therefore
57
and
6
The dipole-director spacing should be 0.1— 0.1 5λ, i.e.
A progressive increase in gain can be achieved by adding director elements, each extra director
being slightly shorter than the previous one. A typical multi-element dipole aerial is shown in
Fig. 12.20.

Fig 12.20 Multi-element λ/2 dipole or Yagi antenna
A limitation of aerials which utilize a dipole and a number of parasitic elements is that their
correct operation depends upon the choice of element lengths and spacings (in fractions of the
signal wavelength). This means that the satisfactory operation of the aerial is restricted to a
narrow band of frequencies centred on the design frequency.
12.5.4 THE PARABOLIC REFLECTOR ANTENNA
The parabolic feflector or DISH antenna is capable of Producing a very directive; high gain
radiation pattern. It is normally used at frequencies at the upper- end of the U.H.F band and in
the S.H F band of simply in microwave bands where the signal wavelength becomes sufficiently
small to allow a completely different kind of antenna to be used.
The antenna is made up of a large metal dish which is used to reflect the radio energy directed
onto it by a smaller radiator e.g. dipole/reflector array or horn that can be mounted at the
focal point. The idea or the antenna is shown in Fig. 12.23 below.

Fog 12.23 reflection from a parabolic reflector
The parabola is a plane curve which is difined as the focus of a point which moves so that its
distance from another point called the focus plus its distance from a straight line directrix is
constant. This means that the distance from the focal point of the dish to an arbitrary plane the
other side of the focal point is a constant regardless of which point on the dish is considered;
i.e. From the definition of a parabola we can
also say: Where k = constant; which may be
changed if a different shape of parabola is required And RA, RB etc= the focal length of the
parabola.
These geometric properties yield an excellent microwave or light reflector. If we consider a

source of radiation placed at the focus: all waves coming from the source and reflected by the
parabola will have travelled the same distance by the time they reach the directrix; no matter
from what point of the parabola they are reflected. All such waves will thus be in phase
resulting in iI very strong radiation concentrated along the axis RA axis; but cancellation will
take place in any direction because of path length differences. The parabola is therefore seen to
be to have properties that lead to production of concentrated beams of radiation i.e a highly
directive radio wave.

When used as a receiving antenna, the action of the dish is reversed i.e the incoming wavefront
radio wave is reflected by the dish and brought to a focus at the focal point where a small
receiving antenna e. g λ/2 dipole is mounted and connected to the feeder.
12.5.4.1 PROPERTIES OF PARABOLIC REFLECTORS
The ratio of the focal length to the mouth diameter (RA/FA) is called the aperture of the
parabola just as in camera lenses. The gain of the parabolic dish antenna is dependant upon its
diameter in terms of the signal wavelength. If the diameter is made several times targer than
the signal wavelength; very high gains can be obtained . The relationship between the antenna
gain and the diameter D of the dish is given by:·
6( )
The beamwidth of the aerial is also a function of the dish diameter;
EXAMPLE
A parabolic dish aerial has a diameter of 1m. Determine
i. its gain at 1 GHz
ii. its beamwidth
SOLUTION
Signal wavelength
Therefore, from equation above
6( ) 66 7
Fig. 12.24 shows the appearance of a practical dish aerial. The radiation pattern of a parabolic
reflector has one main, very-narrow-beamwidth lobe and a number of much smaller side lobes.
The main lobe is so narrow that the radiation pattern cannot conveniently be plotted in the
usual manner. Usually, the radiation pattern is only drawn for a small angular distance either
side of the direction of maximum radiation, and Fig. 12.25 shows a typical pattern.

Fig 12.25 fig12.25
12.6 MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION PATTERNS
The radiation pattern of a particular aerial is the same for both transmission and reception, and
in practice, therefore, the more convenient one is measured.
One method of measuring the horizontal plane radiation pattern of a vertical aerial is as
follows. The aerial is mounted on a test rig that can be rotated through 360° and placed in a
position well clear of any obstructing or reflecting surfaces. The output terminals of the aerial
are then connected to the input of a radio receiver, the output of the receiver is fed to a
voltmeter that has been calibrated to indicate electric field strength directly. Another, distant
aerial is then fed with a constant power at constant frequency and provides the test signal. The
aerial under test is then rotated in a number of convenient steps and the indicated field
strength at each step is noted, the gain of the receiver remaining unaltered. The results
obtained are then plotted to give the radiation pattern of the aerial.
If the aerial to be tested is too large to be rotated, an alternative method of measurement is

called for. One possibility is to connect the aerial to a radio transmitter and measure the field
strength produced around the aerial. This method necessitates transporting a field-strength
measurement equipment around the aerial, at a constant distance from it and obviously
introduces some practical difficulties.
12.7 MEASUREMENT OF AERIAL GAIN
The measurement arrangement is shown in Fig. 12.26, both aerials being located in the
constant field strength produped by a distant transmitting aerial. The receiver is first connected

to the reference aerial and the output voltage of the receiver is noted. The receiver is then
connected to the aerial under test and the new output voltage recorded. The gain of the tested
aerial, relative to the reference aerial, is then given by the ratio of the two output voltages. The
reference aerial may be either a λ/2 dipole or some other aerial whose gain is already known.
Fig 12.26 Measurement of antenna gain
12.8 EXERCISES
1. Dcscribe the way in which energy is radiated from a conductor carrying high frequency
current.
2. Distinguish between the induction field and the radiation field of an antenna and also
explain why a transmitting antenna works more efficiently as the frequency of the
exciting current increases.
3. Sketch the radiation pattern of a λ/2 dipole in both the horizontal and vertical planes
and further explain what information these patterns give.
4. Define and briefly explain the following terms as regards to antennas:
a. Radiation pattern
b. Directivity
c. Front-to-back ratio
d. Gain
e. Bandwidth
f. Efficiency
g. Radiation resistance
h. Beamwidth
i. Effective radiated power
j. Polarization
k. Isotropic radiation
l. Parasitic element

5. Sketch and give approximate dimensions in terms or wavelengths for a v.h.f yagi
antenna comprising a folded dipole with a reflector and director. Explain fully the
purpose of the folded dipole. Why is such an antenna not used at m.f and what is its
frequency band.
6. Describe the construction and action of a paraboloid antenna ans sketch a typical
Radiation pattern. Also explain how the gain and beamwidth of an antenna relate to its
diameter and the frequency of transmission.
7. A λ/2 dipole is to be used at a frequency of 100MHz with one reflector and three
directors. Calculate the lengths of the elements and the spacings between them; then
sketch the construction of such an antenna illustrating how you would feed it.

CHAPTER 13
ELECTRICAL NOISE
CONTENTS
13.1. INTRODUCTION
13.2. EXTERNAL NOISE IN RADIO SYSTEMS
2.1. MAN-MADE NOISE
2.2. NATURAL NOISE
13.3. EXTERNAL NOISE IN LINE SYSTEMS
3.1. INTERFERENCE
3.2. CROSSTALK
13.4. INTERNAL NOISE
4.1. THERMAL NOISE
4.2. NOISE IN SEMICONDUCTORS
13.5. SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
13.6. EXERCISES

13.1. INTRODUCTION
Electrical noise may be defined as undesired voltages or currents that ultimately end up
appearing in the load of a communication system. Noise signals at their point of origin are
generally very small e.g in the microvolt or millivolt level. However, they become important if
the level of a desired signal is also very low.
Consider the block diagram shown in fig. 13.1 to be representative for a standard
communication system. It consists of a transmitter and a receiver with in between the so called
transmitting medium, which may consist of antennas in the case of a radio system or
transmission lines in the case of a line system. The first amplifier block of the receiver is
required to amplify a signal received from the transmitting medium. The signal is often very
small because of attenuation in the transmitting medium. If the desired signal received is of the
same order of magnitude as the undesired noise signal received, it is likely that the results will
be unintelligible. The situation is aggravated by the fact that the receiver itself introduces noise
in addition to the noise already present in the received signal.
Fig13.1

The noise present in a received signal has been introduced in the transmitting medium and is
termed external noise. The noise introduced by the radio receiver itself is termed internal
noise. In the next sections we will discuss the various sources of external and internal noise.
13.2. EXTERNAL NOISE IN RADIO SYSTEMS
The noise arising in the radio transmitting medium and picked up by the receiving aerial can be
classified in man-made noise and noise of natural origin.
13.2.1. MAN-MADE NOISE
ADJACENT-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE
The available frequency spectrum for the various radio services is limited, and band width
allocated to each channel, or station, is the minimum practicable. For example, medium-wave
broadcast stations have a bandwidth of about 9 kHz. One consequence of this is that signals
modulated at frequencies close to that of the wanted signal may also be received. Such
adjacent-channel signals cause interference and I or whistles at the output of a receiver, and
this interference may be considered to be a form of noise.
INTERFERENCE FROM ELECTRICAL APPARATUS
When an electric current is switched on and/ or off its waveform is abruptly changed and a
number of components at radio frequencies are produced. These radio-frequency components
may be radiated directly from the point where the current is interrupted or they may be
propagated along the mains radiation accounts for most cases of interference since the
interference can be radiated over a fairly wide area. Typical sources of such interference are
electric motors in domestic apparatus, and car ignition systems. This form of interference may
be significant up to 100 MHz or so.
Since man-made noise is weakest in sparsely populated areas, this explains the locations of
extremely sensitive communications equipment, such as satellite earth stations, in desert-type
locations (Mazowe).
13.2.2 NATURAL NOISE
ATMOSPHERIC NOISE
Atmospheric noise is caused by naturally occurring disturbances in the earth's atmosphere,

lighting discharges being the most prominent contributors. Its frequency content is spread over
the entire radio spectrum, but its intensity is inversely related to frequency. It is therefore,
most troublesome at the lower frequencies. It manifests itself in the static noise that you hear

on standard AM radio receivers. It is not significant factor for frequencies exceeding about
20MHz.
SPACE NOISE
The other form of external noise arrives from outer space and is therefore termed space noise.
The noise originating from our star (the sun) is termed solar noise. Solar noise is cyclical and
reaches very annoying peaks every 11 years. These 11 years peaks are also cyclical, with the
1957 peak being the highest in recorded history. All the other stars also generate this space
noise, and their contribution is termed cosmic noise. Since they are much further away than the
sun, their individual effects are small but they make up for this by their countless numbers and
their additive effects.
Space noise occurs at frequencies from about 8 MHz to over 1 GHz. While space noise contains
energy at less than 8MHz. these components are absorbed by the earth's ionosphere before
they can reach the atmosphere. The ionosphere is a region above the atmosphere where free
ions and electrons exist in sufficient quantity to have an appreciable effect on wave travel. It
includes the area from about 100 kilometers up to several hundred kilometers above the earth.
13.3. EXTERNAL NOISE IN LINE SYSTEMS
The noise arising in the transmission line consists of interference picked up by nearby power
lines and crosstalk from other pairs in the same cable.
13.3.1 INTERFERENCE
If a transmission line runs more or less parallel to a power line or an electric railway, it may
have unwanted power-frequency voltages induced in it via induction and /or capacitive
couplings between the lines. Underground cables often have a metallic sheath, and this acts as
a screen to reduce the magnitude of the unwanted voltages. Coaxial pairs are generally
operated with their outer conductor earthed and are quite efficiently self-screened. This type of
interference is minimized by keeping telecommunication cables spaced as far away from power
lines as possible.
13.3.2. CROSSTALK
Crosstalk is a voltage appearing in one pair in a cable when a signal is applied to another pair.
Any multi-pair will experience crosstalk between all its pairs to a greater or less extent.
Crosstalk in a cable is caused by electrical couplings between the conductors; these couplings
may be capacitive, inductive or via insulation resistances. The construction of a cable is
designed to minimize crosstalk, and, when necessary, balancing the couplings between pairs at
the end of each section of line can give a further reduction.

13.4. INTERNAL NOISE
Internal noise is that which is produced by the receiver itself. Thus, the noise already present in
the received signal (external noise) has another component added to it before it reaches the
receiver's output. The receiver's effective noise contribution is normally limited to its very first
stage of amplification. It is there that the desired signal is at its lowest level, and noise injected
at that point will be at its largest value in proportion to the intelligence signal. Fig13.2 helps
clarify this point.
Fig 13.2
Even though all following stages also introduce noise, those effects are usually negligible with
respective to the very first stage because of the much higher signal level of the stages following
tile first one. For this reason, the very first receiver stage must be carefully designed to have
low noise characteristics, with the following stages being decreasingly important as the desired
signal gets larger and larger. In the following paragraphs we will discuss the various sources of
internal noise.
13.4.1 THERMAL NOISE
This basic type of noise generated by electronic circuits is due to thermal interaction between
the free electrons and vibrating ions in a conductor. Resistors are the major contributors, but
noise exists within all other electrical devices. Thus, a resistor, all by itself, is constantly
producing a voltage. Since it is dependent on temperature, it is referred to as thermal noise. Its
frequency content is spread equally throughout the usable spectrum.

The power of this generated noise is given by:
Where
K= Boltzmann’s constant ( 8 )
T= resistor temperature ( )
B = bandwidth of frequencies that the subsequent amplifier is able to amplify.
It is the bandwidth and not the frequency of operation that is important with regard to thermal
noise. Thus a wide band amplifier is noisier than a narrow-band amplifier whatever their
operating frequencies may be.
Since , it is possible to rewrite eq. (1) to determine the noise voltage generated by a
resistor:
Where
en = noise voltage generated in V (r.m.s.)
R =resistance (Ω)
Equation (2) applies to copper wire-wound resistors, with all others exhibiting somewhat
greater noise voltages. Thus, dissimilar resistors or equal value exhibit different noise levels,
which gives rise to the term “low-noise resistor”, which you may have heard before but not
understood. Standard carbon resistors tend to be the noisiest ones while metal film resistors
can be used in all but the most demanding low-noise designs. The best low noise performance
is obtained with wire-wound resistors. Equation (2) may also be extended to find the noise
voltage produced in an impedance Z; R is then the resistive component.
EXAMPLE 1

Calculate the noise voltage produced in a 10kΩ resistance in a 1 MHz bandwidth if the
temperature is 20 . (To convert to K, simply add 273 )
SOLUTION
From equation (2):
√ 8 9
EXAMPLE 2
A parallel resonant circuit has an inductance of 5µH and Q factor of 50. If the circuit is resonant
at a frequency of 10 MHz, calculate the thermal noise generated. Assume a temperature of
27 .
SOLUTION
The thermal noise is generated in the resistive component of the impedance of the tuned
circuit. At the resonant frequency of 10 MHz this is the dynamic resistance
5 5 57
The bandwidth is the 3dB bandwidth of the circuit:
Thus, from equation (2).
√ 8 57
13.4.2 NOISE IN SEMICONDUCTORS
Diodes
The major contributor of semiconductor noise is called shot noise. It is due to the discrete-
particle nature of the current carriers in all semi-conductors. These current carriers are not
moving in a continuous flow since the distance they travel is somewhat different for each
carrier, because of their random motion. The name “shot noise” is derived from the fact that

when driving a speaker, excessive shot noise sounds like a shower of lead shot falling on a
metallic surface. Shot noise and thermal noise are additive. The equation for shot noise in a
diode is:
Where
In= shot noise in A (r .m .s.)
q = electron charge (= 1.6 10-19 Coulomb)
Idc = diode DC current (A)
B = bandwidth of frequencies involved (Hz)
TRANSISTORS
Unfortunately, there no valid formula to calculate its value for a complete transistor, where the
sources of shot noise are the currents within the emitter-base and collector-base diodes.
Hence, the device user must refer to the manufacturer’s data sheet for an indication of shot
noise characteristics. Shot noise generally increases proportionally with d.c bias currents.
Two other little understood forms of devise noise Occur at the opposite extremes of frequency.
The low frequency effect is called excess noise and occurs at frequencies below about 1kHz.
Fluctuations in the conductivity of the semiconductor material produce a noise source which is
inversely proportional t frequency and directly proportional to temperature and dc current
levels. Excess noise is often referred to as I/f noise. It is present in both bipolar junction
transistors (BJT) and field effect transistors (FET). At the upper end of the frequency spectrum,
device noise starts to increase rapidly in the vicinity of the device's high frequency cutoff.
These high- and low-frequency effects are relatively unimportant in the design of receivers,
since the critical stages will usually be working well above 1 kHz and hopefully below the
device's high-frequency cutoff area. The low frequency effects are, however. Important to the
design of low-level, low-frequency amplifiers.
The overall noise intensity versus frequency curves for semiconductor devices have a bathtub
Shape, as represented in fig 13.3. At low frequencies, the excess noise is dominant, while in the
mid-range, shot noise and thermal noise predominate and above that the high frequency
effects take over. Since semiconductor possesses inherent resistance, they generate thermal
noise in addition to shot noise.

Fig 13.3 Noise intensity vs Frequency curve for semiconductor devices
13.5. SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO
We have thus far dealt mainly with just the concept of noise of different types without really
showing how to apply this information in a practical way. The most fundamental tool is known
as the signal-to-noise ratio, which is a relative measure of the desired signal power to the noise
signal power at any given point in an electronic system. The signal-to-noise ratio is often
designated simply as S/N and can be expressed mathematically as
at any particular point in a communication system.
It is often expressed in decibel form as
( ) [ ] 5
If the signal and the noise powers are already expressed in absolute logarithmic units like dBm
then equals to the difference between the two levels:
[ ] 6
The signal-to-noise ratio required of a particular system depends upon the potential use of the
signal. For example, a line music circuit may require a signal-to-noise ratio of 60 dB in order that

the transmitted music may not be noticeably degraded, but a low-quality telephone circuit may
only require the spacing of the line amplifiers in a line communication system and of the relay
stations in a microwave radio-relay link, and is a factor in the minimum transmitter power
necessary in radio system. For economic reasons, therefore, it is necessary to maximize the
signal-to-noise ratio of a system by reducing the magnitude of any noise sources as far as
possible.
EXAMPLE 3
An amplifier has a gain of 30 dB and generates a noise power of 3 mW. If the signal applied to
the amplifier input is -10 dBm (dBm = decibels relative to 1mW) with a S/N of 20 dB, calculate
the S/N at the output of the amplifier.
SOLUTION
Output signal level;
S/N of signal = 20 dB, so output noise level of noise contained in signal equals
Amplifier noise power = 3mW.
Total noise power at output is signal noise plus amplifier noise:
Or in dBm
( ) 6
S/N at output is signal level (dBm) minus noise level (dBm):

13.6. EXERCISES
1. a) What is meant by noise in a communication circuit?
b) Tabulate the main sources of noise, both external and internal, which are common in
communication systems.
2. Briefly explain the origin of thermal noise.

3. The thermal noise power at the input of a receiver is 10µW. What will be the noise
power if:
a. the noise temperature is doubled
b. the bandwidth is doubled
c. both the noise temperature and the bandwidth are doubled.
4. Calculate the r.m.s. noise voltage developed in a 330kΩ resistor in a 2MHz bandwidth at
25 .
5. An amplifier has rectangular band-pass characteristic from 300 kHz to 500 kHz and a
gain of 40 dB. Calculate the noise voltage at its output due to a 100kΩ resistor at 20°C
connected across its input. What will be the change in output noise if the resistor
temperature is reduced to -190°C?
6. Explain briefly the main sources of internal noise in a transistor.
7. Define the term signal-to-noise ratio S/N.
8. The S/N at the output of a system is 33 dB. If the signal power is 50 mW determine the
noise power.
9. Determine the S/N in a receiving system in which the received signal level is 10µW. The
effective bandwidth of the receiver is given as 200 kHz and the effective noise
temperature is 3000°K. Give your answer in decibels.
10. If the effective noise level at the input level at the input of a receiver is -130 dBm, and
the S/N expected is 23 dB, what receiver gain is required to produce an output of
25mW?

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Telone centre for learning

POWER RATIOS AND LEVELS IN LOGARITHMIC UNITS

TELONE CENTER FOR LEARNING

the input power to item 3 is equal to

and so on. Hence the output

1.2 THE DECIBEL

N.B. The logarithm is in base 10

As an illustration consider again the system shown in fig 1.1.

Power ratio of item 1 = 10 x -1.602 = -16.02 dB

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Convert the following power ratios into decibels.

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Loss of item 1= 10 log

Gain of item 2 =10 log

Loss of item 3= 10 log

Overall loss = 7+3-7=3dB

And so the output power Pout is equal to Pin or Pout =5mW

TELONE CENTER FOR LEARNING

The power P dissipated in a resistance R may be written as or , where I is the

If and only if R1 = R2 the resistances cancel and the equations become

Three methods of attack are possible:

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Input power to the amplifier:

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It is therefore customary in telecommunication engineering to express power levels as so many

and a smaller power, P2 watts, is said to have a level of

Express in dBm the following power levels

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1.5 MEASUREMENTS OF DECIBELS

A voltage of 1 volt corresponds to

TELONE CENTER FOR LEARNING

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The true dBm reading is

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If the gain of the amplifier is 20 dB calculate the output power:

TELONE CENTER FOR LEARNING

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2.2 SYMMETRICAL ATTENUATOR

2.2.4 Balanced T-And Pi-Types

2.2.5 Bridged T-Type

2.2.6 Component Values For Attenuators In 600 Ohm Circuits

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In transmission equipment, it is often desired to attenuate the signal voltages or currents at

In most line communications equipment characteristic impedance of 600 ohms is used

2.2. SYMMETRICAL ATTENUATORS

1. The correct input impedance

2. The correct output impedance

3. The specified attenuation

The attenuation (D) is usually quoted in decibels:

Where Pin = power input and Pout = power output.

TELONE CENTER FOR LEARNING

But the impedance looking into the attenuator is required to be R

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From this it follows that

Substituting (5) gives

Design a T-type attenuator to give 25 dB attenuation and to have a characteristic impedance of

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It may be shown that:

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The resulting network is shown in fig 2.4.

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The design formulae for the bridged T section are:

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