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INDIGENOUS AFRIC AN
ME TALLURGY: NATURE AND
CULTURE
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S. Terry Childs
David Killick
INTRODUCTION
0084-6570/93/1015-0317$05.00 317
318 CHILDS & KILLICK
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Key:
UPEMBA Region
have seen a marked surge in research on all aspects of metal production and
use in Africa, in particular, ethnographic studies of iron smelting. Interest in
this topic has grown in part because of the urgent need for "salvage ethnogra
phy," as these technologies are now extinct and the few surviving former
ironworkers are elderly. This increased interest also reflects growing intellec
tual fascination in the West with the seamless web of perception, social theory,
social organization, and technical prowess that together constitute African
metalworking.
INDIGENOUS AFRICAN METALLURGY 319
technology for smelting copper appears, based on the present, meager evi
dence, to have been introduced from upper Egypt during the early Old King
dom period (ca. 2686-2181 Be). The principal evidence for this is an Egyptian
colonial outpost that was established at Buhen in 2600 Be to smelt Nubian
copper ores (1). A crucible furnace for casting bronze, dating to 2300-1900 cal
Be, has also been found within the temple precinct at Kerma (11). The source
of the tin in the bronze is not yet known. During the next millennium, Nubian
artisans developed great skill in working copper, bronze, silver, and gold. The
gold deposits in the desert of upper Nubia appear to have been discovered by
Middle Kingdom times, ca. 2700-2200 Be, and were the major source of gold
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for the Egyptian dynasties of the New Kingdom (1991-1633 Be) (1).
Metallurgy does not appear to have been practiced elsewhere in sub
Saharan Africa until the early first millennium Be, except perhaps in Ethiopia.
The early metallurgical history of Ethiopia is still obscure, but a fully devel
oped bronze- and ironworking industry with strong stylistic affinities to south
ern Arabia existed by the fifth century Be (26). The only other regions of
sub-Saharan Africa that have yielded evidence of copperworking before the
advent of iron are near the southern fringes of the Sahara in Mauretania and
Niger.
Several small copper mines and a smelting site were excavated at Akjoujt,
Mauretania, dating from the ninth through the third centuries cal Be (64). The
origin of this technology is unknown, although some contact with Punic North
Africa is indicated by the recovery of a type of bronze fibula known to have
circulated around the Mediterranean in the sixth century Be. The scale of
production at Akjoujt appears to have been very small; it ceased after the third
century Be, but resumed in the late first millennium AD .
A large survey project in the region west of Agadez, Niger, also discovered
the remains of numerous copper smelting furnaces and purported furnaces
between 1977 and 1981. Several dozen of these were excavated and dated (54,
55). On the basis of these data and chemical analyses of some associated
residues, the excavator proposed the following metallurgical sequence:
"Cuivre I" began with the melting of native copper before 2000 cal Be,
followed by smelting copper from oxide ores by 900 cal Be in "Cuivre II," and
iron smelting by 500 cal Be in "Fer I" (54, 55). A subsequent and more
thorough technical study of these residues, however, found no definite evi
dence for copper metallurgy in Niger before the early first millennium cal Be
(63).
Elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa, iron is the first metal to appear in the
archaeological record. Iron smelting furnaces have been radiocarbon dated to
the interval 500-1000 cal Be in Nigeria (81,99),Niger (55,84), Tanzania (93),
and Rwanda (109). These dates have fueled the long-running debate about the
origins of ironworking in Africa. Before the first of these dates were published
INDIGENOUS AFRICAN METALLURGY 321
in the mid-1960s, it was widely accepted that iron smelting had been transmit
ted from Egypt to Nubia, and then to West and East Africa ( lIS), with possible
independent transmission from Phoenician North Africa across the Sahara
(71). The early radiocarbon dates for West and East Africa imply, if taken at
face value, that iron smelting in sub-Saharan Africa may be as old as that in
Egypt or North Africa, and older than that in Nubia. Trigger (lOS) showed that
the earliest known occurrence of iron in Nubia dates from the reign of Taharqa
(689-664 Be), even though presently there is no evidence of iron smelting in
Nubia before the sixth century Be (106). Iron smelting in Egypt was not
known before the eighth century Be. There is no material evidence for early
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carried from the proto-Bantu cradle in present-day Cameroon through the rain
forest of the Congo Basin and into the savannas of Central Africa or further
east seems to be refuted by excavations in Zaire and the Congo Republic.
Although there is evidence of iron smelting by the late first millennium cal Be
in present-day Gabon (38) and along the Congo coast (33), iron does not
appear in northeastern Zaire until much later (44). It is increasingly likely that
ironworking technology arrived in Central Africa from the interlacustrine area
to the east (113). Only in southern Mrica is it still plausible to see iron
technology arriving as part of a "package" with cereal agriculture, Bantu
languages, and permanent architecture. The knowledge of smelting was appar
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The most significant developments in sub-Saharan Africa during the first and
early second millennia AD were: 1. the collapse of the Nubian and Ethiopian
civilizations, 2. the Islamization of North Africa, 3. the establishment of long
distance trade routes, and 4. the rise of towns and states in West and Southeast
Mrica. Metals figure prominently in the last two developments. Long distance
trade in both West and Southeast Africa exported Mrican gold to the Islamic
world and India and imported brass and copper to West Africa. Elite metal
goods reflect early political stratification.
The earliest historical records of West Africa are in Arabic, dating to the
ninth century AD. The trans-Saharan gold trade was well established by this
time, as were towns and at least three states (68). These documents led histori
ans to view both urbanism and political stratification in West Africa as prod
ucts of the gold and slave trade (74), but this conclusion has been contested
recently.
The first revelation was the archaeological discovery at Igbo-Ukwu, Nige
ria, (eighth to tenth centuries cal AD) of a royal burial, whose wealth pointed to
political stratification (98). Igbo-Ukwu is famous for its corpus of over a
hundred copper and bronze objects that are triumphs of artistic virtuosity and
unique styling (45). The site is not in a gold producing area and lies deep in the
rainforest, a zone that was essentially unknown to the Islamic world until the
fourteenth century. These facts have led to heated argument between those
who see social stratification and craft specialization at Igbo-Ukwu as an indig
enous phenomenon and those who see external stimuli at work. Recent scien
tific studies of the objects (17, 24) support indigenous development. The
subsequent association of art in metal with royal status in Nigeria is now fairly
INDIGENOUS AFRICAN METALLURGY 323
well understood (40, 46), but no precursors to Igbo-Ukwu have yet been found
(117).
The only thorough archaeological study of the chronology and process of
urbanization in West Africa is that established for Jenne-Jeno, Mali (73, 74).
The McIntoshes have shown that a substantial town existed at this site by ca.
250 cal AD and a large walled city by 800 cal AD (the beginning of the Islamic
era in West Africa). No gold and very few imports from north of the Sahara
have been found at Jenne-Jeno dating before 850-900 cal AD (72). The origins
of urbanism on the middle Niger appear, therefore, to be unrelated to the
trans-Saharan trade. This does not rule out the possibility that the gold trade
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played a part in state formation further to the west in the Senegal River valley,
where the earliest states known to Islamic writers were located. Intriguing
evidence from records of North African mints also suggests some importation
of West African gold by the end of the Roman era, around 400 AD (50). A
major program of archaeological fieldwork in the middle Senegal is now
nearing completion and will undoubtedly provide some answers to these ques
tions (S. McIntosh, personal communication).
The presence of brass, the alloy of copper with zinc, is the most sensitive
indicator of the beginning of trans-Saharan trade in West Africa. The Romans
were the first to make brass in quantity (23), but it does not appear to have
been produced in sub-Saharan Africa. The fact that there is not a single brass
object among over a hundred analyzed objects from Igbo-Ukwu (24) is strong
evidence that the metal used was mined locally rather than imported from
across the Sahara. The earliest brass recovered at Jenne-Jeno is from contexts
dated to 900-1000 cal AD (72), similar to recent findings in the Senegal River
valley (S. K. McIntosh, personal communication) . The scale of metal imports
in later years is suggested by the discovery in the Mauretanian Sahara of a lost
caravan load of two tons of brass rods, dated to 1030-1280 cal AD (77).
While the role of the trans-Saharan gold trade in the origin of West African
states is still uncertain, the link between long distance trade and state forma
tion in southern Africa is more clear. Islamic, Persian, or Chinese imported
ceramics occur at coastal sites between Kenya and Mozambique from the
eighth century AD; by the ninth century, glass beads of probable Indian origin
are found in Botswana and the Limpopo valley. The commodities first ex
ported from this region by the coastal trade were ivory and skins; gold is first
mentioned in Arabic documents by the tenth century (49). The oldest gold
artifacts yet recovered from an archaeological site come from Mapungubwe
(floruit 1220-1270 cal AD), the largest and richest site in what was a very large
chiefdom or, possibly, southern Africa's first state (61).
The richest sources of gold lay on the Zimbabwean plateau where a much
larger state grew in the thirteenth century. Its capital, Great Zimbabwe, is
dated to ca. 1275-1550 cal AD, and is estimated to have had a maximum
324 CHILDS & KILLICK
population of between 11,000 and 18,000. This site and many smaller, lower
level elite residences have yielded gold, imported glass, ceramics, and metals,
and are spatially associated with gold mines. There is now little doubt that
much of the state's power flowed from taxing the gold trade (61). Since no
examples of true tin bronzes yet exist from southern Africa before AD 1000, it
is possible that local tin mining was also stimulated by external demand.
Political stratification and the intensive exploitation of metal resources in
Africa were not always the result of external demand. Ancient cemeteries in
the Upemba Depression of southeastern Zaire provide evidence of emerging
social stratification by the late first millennium cal AD . Marked variation in the
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abundance and quality of grave goods in over 300 burials is well documented,
and some artifacts suggest direct continuity from these peoples to the emer
gence of the Luba state by the eighteenth century (18, 31). Many of the more
elaborate graves contain copper, presumably smelted some 200 Ian to the
south in the KatanganlZambian Copperbelt. Control of the distribution of
copper, as well as local sources of iron, was critical to the vitality of the Luba
state (88). The distinctive cross-shaped ingots produced in the Copperbelt
became general purpose currency in Central and Southeast Africa after the
fifteenth century (30). It was not until the sixteenth century, when the Portu
guese established trading posts in present-day Angola, that this region was
connected to a world system.
When da Gama's fleet rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1498 it marked the
beginning of a profound reorientation of patterns of production and trade in
metals. The caravels of the Portuguese and their competitors provided more
direct access to the rich Akan goldfields of present-day Ghana, and the means
to flood the market with copper and copper alloys, hitherto restricted by the
perils of the Saharan crossing and the carrying capacity of the camel. The
trans-Saharan caravan trade persisted into the late nineteenth century, but its
importance in the metal trade was much diminished. The greater abundance of
copper alloys gave rise throughout the West African rain forest to a flowering
of metal casting traditions, of which those of Benin and Owo are best known
(45). The kingdom of Ashanti, which controlled the major goldfields, is well
known for the quantity and exuberance of its royal regalia in gold.
The arrival of Europeans led to a sharp increase in the production of gold in
West Africa, but had an opposite effect in Southeast Africa. There, the Portu
guese failed to understand the dispersed nature of the industry and the labor
intensive form of production. Their greed and persistent interference in the
political affairs of the kingdoms that succeeded Great Zimbabwe led to a sharp
decline in gold production (3).
INDIGENOUS AFRICAN METALLURGY 325
The scramble for Africa from the mid-nineteenth century onward also
brought European metal imports, which gradually drove out the more expen
sive local products. Indigenous copper and tin mining and smelting ceased by
the late nineteenth century, except in present-day ZaIre, Angola, and Zambia,
where they lingered into the present century. Iron smelting was extinct in
many parts of Africa by World War I, but survived in remote areas of West
Africa until the 1960s. The last indigenous furnaces used to smelt for the
market went out of production in the northern Ivory Coast in 1983, bringing to
a close a technological tradition spanning some 2500 years. Forging and
casting scrap metal by traditional methods continues in rural and urban Africa,
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many societies are the deceased ancestors, who have the power to assure
success or failure in any enterprise, such as the productivity of a mine or an
iron smelt, or the protective potency of a gold charm. The favor of the ances
tors was courted through specific rituals and taboos that were an integral and
essential part of metal technologies.
The dimensions of gender and age were sometimes made explicit in African
metalworking, although it was more often expressed subtly in ritual, dance,
and song. Iron (and sometimes copper) smelting was most commonly seen as
analogous to gestation and birth (19, 21, 29, 59, 94).
Among the Fipa of Tanzania, for example, the construction of a furnace
was accompanied by the same rituals and decorations used to prepare a bride
on her wedding day (119). The smelting process was not explicitly likened to
giving birth, although analysis of the ritual strongly suggests an implicit asso
ciation (59). The Phoka of Malawi described their smelting furnace as a fertile
young woman while under construction, and as their "wife" once smelting
began (l08). Shona ironworkers of Zimbabwe, by contrast, made the associa
tion explicit by modeling their furnace as a fertile woman, with breasts and
scarifications to indicate and activate her fertility, and sometimes with a
waistbelt to strengthen her sexuality and guard her fertility (36). The bloom
dropped from her stomach area into an opening between leg-like projections
(5). Finally, among the Yeke of ZaIre, the operation of the forced draft furnace
for copper smelting involved a chant with the words "a high furnace with a
large womb" (27 as translated in 58).
The obstetrical model of iron smelting could account for failure as well as
success, though not all failures were explained as such. Failures due to poor
choice of materials or to mistakes in operation were also recognized, and some
failures were ascribed to acts of sorcery. One of the major explanations for
INDIGENOUS AFRICAN METALLURGY 327
failure, however, was the displeasure of ancestral spirits, and a major reason
for such displeasure was often a transgression of sexual and marital norms.
Strict sexual abstinence was usually mandated for all male ironworkers
(21), and frequently for other metalworkers (e.g. 52), during smelting and
some stages of mining and smithing. In many cultures, such as the Phoka ( 108)
and Chewa (62) of Malawi, the male ironworkers were the "husbands" of the
female furnace during smelting operations. Sexual abstinence from his human
wife meant that the ironworker was fully available to his furnace "wife."
Adultery by either marital partner during pregnancy was widely believed to
cause miSCarriage. Failure of a furnace to form a bloom, therefore, often led to
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production, however, provide strong material clues for examining the ideas
and concerns that might have motivated prehistoric behavior. These are pri
marily features of furnaces, the most permanent remains of metallurgical
activity.
The shape and decoration of the furnaces may provide evidence of a con
ceptual association between smelting and rites of passage such as marriage,
gestation, and birth. Decoration of furnaces as brides by the Fipa (119), or as
fertile women with breasts and scarification by the Shona (5, 36), Luchazi
(60), or Luba (14) are ample evidence that furnace walls communicate import
ant information on belief systems. Many Early Iron. Age furnaces have been
found with vertical grooves, chevrons, and dot-like markings on some brick
wall materials (e.g. 93, 96, 109). Collett (22) notes the similarities between the
furnace decorations and those found on Early Iron Age pots, and hypothesizes
an ideological parallel between smelting and cooking. Not only is cooking
historically considered a woman's role that promotes good health and produc
tivity in a society, but it is metaphorically related to sexual relations and the
conception of children (see also 59).
We noted above that most recent smelting sites were built at some distance
from villages to keep sorcerers and sexually active women away. Such rela
tionships between ancient smelting areas and villages should be evident in
regional archaeological surveys. In central Malawi and southern Zambia, for
example, smelting sites dated before 1200 AD are often located within villages
(62). This suggests that ironworkers before this time were less concerned
about isolating the smelting process from women than were their more recent
counterparts. Furnaces may also have been located on ancient smelting sites to
express the linkage between metalworking and ancestral spirits, as among the
Ushi of Zambia (4). Reuse of the same smelting site over time has been noted
in Tanzania (96).
Another continuity between the ethnographic record and the distant past is
the presence of one or more small pits, often sealed, in the furnace floor. In the
ethnographic record these are known to have been receptacles for the protec
tive medicines used to placate ancestors or deter sorcerors (e.g. 104, 108) .
INDIGENOUS AFRICAN METALLURGY 329
32, 82). Many ironmasters had rights similar to those of the king, but as among
the Fipa (118), regularly had to pay a tribute to the ruler.
A distinctive feature of many West African societies is that ironworkers
(male) and potters (female) are segregated from the rest of society in endoga
mous groupings that often are wrongly called "castes" (20, 25, 75). Members
of these groups usually hold exclusive rights to perform other transformative
acts, notably circumcision and burial, and are feared for their powers as divin
ers and potential sorcerers. McNaughton (75) suggests that this segregation
has been actively promoted by smiths as a way to restrict access to a poten
tially lucrative and prestigious status, while Tamari (102) favors a political
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After a metal is won from ore, it is given social roles that may change during
its lifetime (14, 56, 58). An iron hoe, for example, may have multiple uses and
meanings, depending on the context of its use, whether as an agricultural tool,
a currency, a burial offering, bridewealth or dowry, or political regalia. A gold
nugget, quite apart from its potential economic value, might be sought as a
protective talisman (52). African art or artifacts cannot be understood without
reference to their exact social context. This explains why historians of African
art have almost unanimously rejected the aesthetic approaches that dominate
INDIGENOUS AFRICAN METALLURGY 331
Metal objects played other roles in African political arenas, besides embody
ing divine power. Political leaders, such as the Oba of Benin, commissioned
bronze plaques and portrait heads of themselves to immortalize their achieve
ments (9). Ray (86) suggests that the Igbo-Ukwu corpus (eighth to tenth
centuries cal AD) should be read as material expressions of the authority of
elders, and of the cultural values and attitudes they espoused. Furthermore,
some objects of metal or embellished with metal served as critical mnemonic
devices used in relating oral history or law (80), or in teaching moral values
[e.g. the gold rings of the Akan (52)]. While some objects were the property of
INDIGENOUS AFRICAN METALLURGY 333
the state to be used over generations, other insignia were personal property that
leaders carried into their new roles as ancestors (92).
Other key political roles of metal objects were for tribute and taxes. Metals
were highly valued all over Africa, some more so than others. Political leaders
often levied a tax on metalworkers by demanding a portion of their output (e.g.
52, 94). In Central Africa, copper was demanded as tribute from conquered
groups whose territory contained copper ores (8). Gold was collected as a tax
for the Zimbabwe state by a network of administrators dispersed across the
Zimbawean plateau (61). Gifts of precious metals were also used by rulers to
build and maintain alliances, as well as to designate regional chiefs as local
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agents of authority. The Asantehene of Ashanti, for example, sent gifts of gold
and silver to chiefs to maintain their allegiance to him, and he sent silver to
Muslim religious leaders in exchange for their blessings (51).
Metal objects also functioned in rituals to benefit the society and the state.
The new moon ceremony of monthly renewal in some parts of eastern Africa
required the presence of the state leader with all his metal regalia (e.g. 92). The
Asantehene of the Ashanti still brings out the elaborate Gold Stool, the soul of
the nation, at the annual yam festival (52, 85). It is likely that the remarkable
heads, cast in copper or bronze, from Ife in Nigeria, were also used in annual
ceremonies of purification and renewal (40).
CONCLUSION
One question needing further scrutiny is the role of metal production and
the metal trade in the rise of towns and states in Africa. How crucial was the
control of ore sources and metal production to state formation over the conti
nent? The work of the McIntoshes at Jenne-Jeno suggests that too little atten
tion has been paid to the role of local and regional trade in agricultural produce
and other staples. In this case, and possibly in others, the gold trade may have
intensified a process that was already well under way. Recent thought on the
rise of the Zimbabwe state has taken a similar tack, suggesting that the external
trade in ivory and gold may have amplified rather than initiated the process of
state formation (61). In this, as in all other aspects, the role of metals needs be
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are most grateful to Eugenia Herbert and to Susan Keech McIntosh for
their careful reading of and constructive comments on an earlier draft of this
review.
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