Archaeological Ceramics:

A Review of Current Research

Edited by

Simona Scarcella

BAR International Series 2193

2011
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Archaeological Ceramics: A Review of Current Research

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 CHAINE OPERATOIRE, TECHNICAL GESTURES
AND POTTERY PRODUCTION AT SOUTHERN ANDES
DURING THE LATE PERIOD (c. AD 900 – AD 1450)
(CATAMARCA, NORTHWESTERN ARGENTINA, ARGENTINA)

Guillermo A. De La Fuente
Abstract: More than 30 years after of the publication of Le Geste et la Parole, Leroi-Gourhan´s theoretical and
methodological approach still continues enriching the debate on technological studies in archaeology, especially related
to the chaîne opératoire concept, a well organized syntax of actions, gestures, tools, and technical knowledge applied to
the physical transformation of matter in a socially embedded final product.
Concepts like chaîne opératoire, technical gestures, and technical facts have been explored and applied mainly in lithic
studies, emphasizing different aspects of the operational sequence. In this paper, we present a case study involving the
research of the main ceramic primary and secondary forming techniques involved in the shape of archaeological vessels
from the Late Period (c. AD 900 – AD 1450) at Northwestern Argentine region through the conceptual framework of
chaîne opératoire developed by Leroi-Gourhan. The operational sequence and technical gestures developed by ancient
potters are explored in detail to give a special emphasis on those features which are intrinsical to a socially defined
pottery tradition in the geographical region under research.

Keywords: archaeological ceramics, chaîne opératoire, technical gestures, Late Period, Northwestern Argentina,
Southern Andes

Introduction defines the sequential nature of body action-movements

The Late Period in Northwestern Argentina (c. AD 900 –
AD 1450) was traditionally characterized as a time of
marked regional development, increased socio-political
complexity, inequality, economic stratification, and
internal conflicts (warfare). It was a time when regional
chiefdoms emerged in different geographical areas,
leading to centralized power, controlled labor forces,
increased social inequality, craft specialization, and the
beginning of large fortified archaeological sites in the
form of conglomerates strategically built on defensive
locations. Pottery production during the Late Period has
been characterized by present local pottery traditions and
standardized ceramic forms (especially funerary urns and
different kind of bowls).
Concepts like chaîne opératoire, technical gestures, and
technical facts have been explored and applied mainly in
lithic studies, emphasizing different aspects of the
operational sequence. This approach taken from the
‘ethnology of techniques’ had a limited impact in South
America, and was barely applied in ceramic studies.
In this paper, a case study that will allow to examine and
present some theoretical and methodological ideas on
how to approach the study of pottery production during
the Late Period (c. AD 900 – AD 1450) at Northwestern
Argentine region is discussed through the conceptual
framework of chaîne opératoire developed by Leroi-
Gourhan. Additionally, I explore through experimental
archaeology and archaeometry some ideas related to the
study of ‘technical gestures’ involved in different
manufacturing stages for some specific ceramic forms
from the Late Period.
Chaîne opératoire: a conceptual framework
for the study of technical identity
The term chaîne opératoire was originally proposed by
André Leroi-Gourhan (1943; 1945; 1964; 1965); it
as one goes about daily repetitive technological activities
(see discussion in Desrosiers 1991; Dobres 2000;
Edmonds 1990; Lemonnier 1992; Schlanger 1994). As
originally proposed, the concept was strongly influenced
by the ideas Mauss proposed in his seminal work Les
techniques du corps; he saw technology as a ‘total social
fact’, and focused his attention on understanding how
body movements reflected, while at the same time were
conditioned by social tradition (Mauss 1934; see also
Dobres 2000). In exploring the link between the physical
and social body, Mauss explained that even the
apparently natural body actions were, in fact, learned
through primary socialization of the individual. Thus,
material transformation of natural resources into cultural
products through sequential physical actions, were
choices –technological choices- made from alternatives
that in their very enactment, and whether intended or not,
expressed ethnic, gender, age, and personal identities
(Mauss 1934; see Dobres 2000 and Schlanger 1998 for an
excellent discussion of these topics). This means that, as
part of technologies, sequential physical actions on matter
are part of a cultural mileu, and they embody what Leroi-
Gourhan (1964; 1965) called ‘social memories’. As
Dobres (2000) has pointed out, much of the recent use of
chaîne opératoire term refers only to the technical chain
of sequential material operations by which natural
resources are acquired and physically transformed into
cultural commodities (e.g. Creswell 1983; Delaporte
1991; Sellet 1993). Two other concepts deserve our
attention, namely technical gestures and technical
identity. Technical gestures are the corporeal basis of the
bodily engagement with the material and social
conditions of their productive activities (Leroi-Gourhan
1964; 1965). Physical interaction with the material world
is accomplished through technical gestures, and this
transforms matter through action into cultural products
which, in turn, leave physical marks that the

89
archaeologist can identify. Most importantly, technical (Hualfín Valley, Catamarca) and La Paya (northern
gestures are embodied, mediated, meaningful, and Calchaquí Valley, Salta) (Ambrosetti 1907-1908;
collective practices (Dobres 2000). González and Díaz 1992; Orgaz 2008; Raffino 1991).
On the other hand, while not developed by Leroi- Although the Sanagasta culture was not originally defined
Gourhan, the concept of technical identity is a wider and as a chiefdom, it has large settlements with rooms made
more inclusive concept; it focuses on technical gestures of mudbricks (tapia and adobes) and shares with Belén
and chaînes opératoires displayed by ancient technicians. and Santamaria the presence of agricultural terraces, and
I prefer to define and understand technical identity as a the common mortuary practice of burying infants in
final expression of technical practices by ancient decorated funerary urns (González 1977; González and
technicians (see Gosselain and Livingstone-Smith 2005 Pérez 1972).
for discussion). Ancient technicians mediate their
understanding of physical and social conditions through Geographical context: southern Abaucan
the lens of cultural reason and through the embodied Valley
knowledge and skill that derives from the habitus of The archeological research carried out recently in the
technological practice (Mauss 1934). During their southern sector of Abaucán valley (Province of
physical existence, people navigate social conventions Catamarca, Argentina) has allowed to detect several
regarding the right and wrong ways to make and use archaeological sites linked to the prehispanic occupation
material objects, thus navigating a generative identity during the Late Period (c. AD 900 – AD 1450).
process. The southern sector of Abaucán valley has been a
geographical area lacking systematic research through
Late period in northwestern Argentina: time, although some stratigraphical excavations were
chiefdom and power done during the 1960s, and ceramic artifacts were the
The Late Period in Northwestern Argentina was most important archaeological items recovered (González
traditionally characterized as a time of marked regional and Sempé 1975, Sempé 1973; 1976; 1977a; 1977b;
development, increased socio-political complexity, 1980; 1983a; 1983b; Cigliano 1965; Borrello 1972; 1974)
inequality, economic stratification, and internal conflicts (Figure 1).
(warfare) (González 1977; González and Pérez 1972;
Ottonello and Lorandi 1987; Raffino 1983; 1991; Tarragó
2000). It was a time when regional chiefdoms arose in
different geographical areas - identified with specific
valleys -, leading to centralized power, controlled labor
forces, increased social inequality, craft specialization,
and the beginning of large fortified archaeological sites in
the form of conglomerates strategically built on defensive
locations (cf. Leoni and Acuto 2008; Nielsen 2007). The
Belén and Santamaría cultures were characterized as Late
Period chiefdoms with an increased socio-political
complexity, a strong emphasis in agricultural and
pastoralist economy - evidenced by large stone masonry
settlements and intensified agricultural infrastructure -,
and the existence of craft specialization mostly based in
the archeological record of pottery production (González
1977; González and Pérez 1972; Ottonello and Lorandi
1987; Raffino 1983; 1991; Tarragó 2000) (cf. González
2004 for a discussion on metallurgical production). One
of the most important aspects of the Late Period concerns
the mortuary practices, namely the occurrence of funerary
urns for infant burials, and in some exceptional cases also
for adults (González 1977; González and Pérez 1972;
Berberían 1969). Treatment of these burials involved a Figure 1: Map of Province of Catamarca, Argentina, showing the
complex ritual mortuary practice, including several research area.
different patterns of fantastic decoration on the external
surfaces of funerary urns, which in turn is a very To date, we have surveyed and studied 15 archaeological
conspicuous feature characterizing these Late Period sites, of these only five have surface architecture and
societies (e.g. Nastri 2007; Sempé and García 2007; grinding artifacts. Additionally, three sites were
Wynveldt 2007). The sites are large clustered residential characterized by present agricultural structures. The five
compounds, in which households are the basic unit of sites with surface architecture can be assigned as follows:
spatial organization (Leoni and Acuto 2008). Some of one to the Middle Period (c. AD 500 – AD 900), 2 sites
these sites (Belén and Santamaría) include Inka are Inka (c. AD 1480 – AD 1530), and one site to the
arquitecture in a differentiated sector, for example Fuerte Early Period (c. 600 AC – AD 500). The remaining sites
Quemado (middle Calchaquí Valley, Catamarca), Hualfín date back to the Late Period, and they are characterized

90
by abundant surface ceramic materials (De La Fuente
2008) (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Detail of Southern Abaucan Valley research area with the
archaeological sites under research.
Site SaCat01 is an Inka site, known as Costa de Reyes N°
5 (González and Sempé 1975; Borello 1972; 1974). The
site was partially excavated by Borello (1972; 1974)
during the 1960s, and it was classified as a tambo linked
to the Inka road system (Hyslop 1984) (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Archaeological sites detected in the study region: (a) Costa de
Reyes Nº 5, detail of a stone rectangular shaped structure, (b) view of
SaCat04 site with agricultural structures, (c) CV2 site, a Late Period
occupation, (d) multiple grinding stone at Río Colorado archaeological
locality.
Ceramic sample
With the main goal being to study the main
characteristics of pottery production organization during
the Late Period, I started a program of archaeometric
research through the application of several analytical
techniques on a ceramic sample recovered in these sites.
The ceramic sample analyzed was divided in order to
apply different analytical approaches. The technological
characterization was done through binocular microscope
(n=1200) and ceramic petrology (n=68) (De La Fuente in
press a). The study of primary and secondary forming
techniques of the vessels involved macroscopic and
microscopic analysis (X-ray Industrial Radiography and
ceramic petrology) of 41 complete vessels and 1197
ceramic sherds (rims, bases, handles, and body
fragments) (Figure 4) (De La Fuente in press a).
Additionally, some experimental replications of specific
ceramic forms, such as bowls, were carried out in order to
get a broader picture of the primary and secondary
forming techniques involved in the several stages of
91
vessel forming (De La Fuente in press a). Finally, I
applied SEM-EDS and Raman Microespectroscopy to
study the paintings and pigments used by ancient potters
to decorate the vessels. The study was completed with a
provenance study involving the application of INAA
(Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis) both to
ceramic artifacts (n= 310) and clays (n=14) collected in
the study region (De La Fuente in press b).
Figure 4: Main Sanagasta ceramic forms: bowls and infant funerary
urns.
Ceramic forming techniques: a way to
understand technical gesture
In this paper, I wish to focus on the two most significant
aspects for studying ‘technical gestures’: (1) primary and
secondary forming techniques, and (2) experimental
replication of vessels by modern potters. For this, I built
and analysed a database of 41 complete vessels and 1197
sherds (rims, bases, handles, and body fragments). The
vessels and ceramic fragments were studied by
macroscopic observations, ceramic petrology, and X-ray
Industrial Radiography (De La Fuente in press a).
The analysis of ceramic forming techniques is the study
of the several pressures, i.e. physical actions that are
applied to a clay body in order to shape a specific form of
vase (Rye 1981; Rice 1987). This process involves the
reconstruction of the amount of force or energy applied,
the area where the force is applied, and the conditions of
the clay body (e.g. the properties in relation to water
content) when this force is finally applied (Rye 1981, 58).
There are two kinds of important data in the study of
ceramic forming techniques: the physical attributes, and
the sequence of physical actions involved in the potter´s
work, that is the chaîne opératoire. An attribute might be
a mark on the surface, a particular form of fracture, a
protuberance on the internal or external surface of the
vessel, or any other useful observable characteristic
which allows reconstructing its physical origin (Rye
1981; Rice 1987; Orton et al. 1993). Rye (1981, 58)
points out that because clay is an extremely plastic
material, in many occasions during the manufacture
process spurious ‘marks’ are generated as a result of
accidental actions, but they do not have any useful
information about the manufacture process itself. These
attributes are classified as ‘accidentals’ (Rye 1981, 58).
In the process of establishing the operational sequence
through which techniques were applied during the
manufacture of a vessel, two concepts are extremely
important: the essential sequence, and the dry sequence
(Rye 1981, 58). The essential sequence accounts for the
procedures or techniques applied in the initial stages
during which the basic form of the vessel is generated.
On the other hand, the dry sequence involves the moment
when the ceramic vessel, already with its basic form
established, starts to dry or to acquire its ‘hard leather’
state. According to the primary techniques used by the
potter, each of these two sequences can present particular
physical attributes; although sometimes the attributes
correlated with specific primary forming techniques
might not appear in the vessels being analyzed, even
though a specific technique has been effectively used by
the potter. Moreover, these attributes might be altered and
darkened by those which are generated when a new or
different forming technique is applied in a later stage of
the process (Rye 1981, 58; Rice 1987).
Also, the surface evidence of the initial stages in the
manufacture process varies according to the form of the
vessels. This evidence, visualized as attributes, lingers
sometimes in the internal surfaces of the vessels,
especially in those unalterable and inaccessible zones,
once the vessel has been shaped (Rye 1981, 58-59). Rye
(1981, 59-62) has excellently revised and classified the
categories of macroscopic physical attributes that can be
found in the internal and external surfaces of ceramic
vessels.
Another important and often used classification in the
study of ceramic manufacture process is the one grouping
manufacture techniques into: primaries and secondaries
(Rye 1981; Rice 1987; Sinopoli 1991; Orton et al. 1993).
During the application of primary techniques a clay body
is shaped until it achieves a ceramic basic form, which in
a certain sense will reflect the final form of the vessel.
Usually, a part of the vessel, be the upper part, the neck
or the base, is completed and dried until it acquires its
‘leather state’. The remaining part of the vessel is
completed when the first part dried enough to enable
joining the two sections. Although this procedure holds
true in a general sense can be directly executed in only
one sequential action. The main primary forming
techniques are: wheel-throwing, coiling, slab-building,
pinching, drawing, and moulding. With the application of
secondary forming techniques the shape of the vessel is
defined and completed, and the relative proportions of the
different parts of the vessel are finally established. The
main secondary forming techniques are: turning,
scraping, paddle and anvil, knife-trimming, and
smoothing.
92
Each of these manufacturing techniques, be they primary
or secondary, yields their own basic physical
characteristics (attributes), which can be identified in
different ways and through macroscopic and microscopic
observations, and sometimes with the help of specific
analytical instrumental (X-ray Radiography and ceramic
petrology) (Rye 1981; Berg 2008; Carr 1990, 1993; De
La Fuente in press a).
However, the primary forming techniques are the most
important because they involve the ‘essential sequence’
of actions carried out by ancient potters in order to obtain
the desired basic ceramic form of the vessel (Rye 1981,
67-83, figs. 49, 52, 54, 59 and 70).
Primary and secondary forming techniques
Sanagasta bowls
The observation of macroscopic physical attributes on the
sample of bowls analyzed allowed identifying the
following manufacture techniques:
Primary forming techniques
(1) bodies manufactured by coiling – or flat coils –
approximately 3cms to 3,5cms wide, successively joined
(Figure 5). Horizontally oriented inclusions are observed
in normal view on the internal and external surfaces of
these vessels. Also, the random distribution of the
inclusions can be observed in the cross section view.
(2) concave bases done with support moulds – in order to
achieve the desired concavity (Rye, 1981, 63) – and by
vertical drawing of clay (Figure 6).
Secondary forming techniques
(1) paddle and anvil was determined in different sections
of the body to achieve an even thickness in all vessel
walls and to eliminate air pores in order to get an
optimum dry (Figure 7).
(2) smoothing was identified in all analysed bowls; it was
easily observed in the concentric marks left by the
potter’s hand both in the external and internal surfaces of
the vessels (Figure 7).
The primary forming technique, namely coiling, could be
identified in all the bowls analyzed, whereas the
secondary forming technique, paddle and anvil, was
identified only in 5 bowls, and smoothing was recorded
in all the vessels. For most of the Sanagasta bowls
analyzed, a marked lateral asymmetry in their final form
was observed. On the other hand, the physical attributes
more often observed in the internal and external surfaces
of the bowls were marks and grooves of different shapes,
depths and thicknesses, associated with the variations in
walls thickness, mainly in the external surfaces of the
vessels.
Fractures and micro-fractures were identified in the walls
of some vessels. The most common fractures were
normal to the walls of the vessels, although in some cases
we could identify the existence of laminar fractures
following the direction of the coils.
Figure 8 summarizes the main primary and secondary
forming techniques identified in the sample of bowls as
well as the physical attributes observed through
macroscopic observation.
 Figure 5: Sanagasta bowls showing the macroscopical evidence of primary forming technique, coiling.

Figure 6: Detail of concave bases in Sanagasta bowls. Non-conventional moulding and drawing were identified as the primary forming techniques
used by the ancient potters.

Figure 7: Secondary techniques identified in Sanagasta bowls: paddle and anvil and smoothing marks detected in the internal surfaces of the vessels.

93
 Ceramic Forming Techniques and Physical Atributes - Bowls (N=18)
Secondary forming
Primary forming techniques Physical atributes
techniques
coiling paddle and
drawing (base) smoothing internal surface external surface
(body) anvil
References

Belen bowl (Batungasta) X -------- X X 2(b), 4, 7 2(a), 6, 7

Sanagasta bowl 2833-97 - MAQ X X X X 2(a) y (b), 4 2(a), 4, 6, 7, 8
Escudilla bowl- 2523 - MAQ X -------- -------- X 2(a), 4, 6 2(a), 3, 6
Sanagasta bowl - 3597-591-MAQ X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 6, 7(b) 2(a), 4, 6, 7(b)
Sanagasta bowl 166-2829- MAQ X X X X 2(a), 4 1, 2(a) (b), 4, 6, 7(b) (c)
Sanagasta bowl - 3608- MAQ X X -------- X 2(a), 3, 4, 6 2(a), 4, 5, 6, 8
Sanagasta bowl - 26 (MTR) X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 6, 7(b) 2(a), 6, 7(b)
Abaucán bowl - 126 (MTR) X X -------- X 2(a) (b), 4, 6, 7(b) 2(a), 6, 7(b)
Belén bowl - 144 (MTR) X X -------- -------- 1, 2(a), 6, 7(c) 2(a), 6
Abaucán bowl - 147 (MTR) X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 6 2(a), 6
Abaucán bowl - 125 (MTR) X X -------- X 2(a) (b), 6, 7(b) 2(a), 6, 7(b)
Belén bowl - 51 (MTR) X X X X 1, 2(a) (b), 6, 7(b) (c) 1, 2(a), 6, 7(b) (c)
Abaucán bowl - 124 (MTR) X X -------- X 2(a), 6, 7 (b) (c) 1, 2(a), 6, 7(b) (c)
Sanagasta bowl- 127 - (MTR) X X -------- X 2(a), 6, 7 (b) 2(a), 6, 7(b)
Sanagasta bowl - 141 (MTR) X X X X 2(a) (b), 6, 7 (b) 2(a), 6, 7(b)
Sanagasta bowl 14Bn426 - ME X X -------- X 2(a), 6, 7(b) 2(a), 6, 7(b)
Sanagasta bowl 14Bn471- ME X X -------- X 2(a), 6 2(a), 6
Sanagasta bowl 14Bn 485 - ME X -------- -------- X 2(a), 6 2(a), 6

References: (1) selective fracture in vessels, (2) marks in vessel surfaces: (a) grooves of different forms, thicknesses and depth, (b) faces or depressed areas,
(3) differential pressures, (4) burnishing -surface-, (5) surface deposits, (6) variations in the thickness of the walls, (7) fractures in the vessel walls: (a) surface
fracture, (b) normal fracture, laminar fracture, (8) inclusions oriented preferentially in normal view.

Figure 8: Ceramic forming techniques and physical attributes – Bowls (N=18).

Sanagasta infant funerary urns (Types A and B)

Primary forming techniques
(1) vessels shaped by coiling, with coils of approximately
3cms to 4cms in width (Figure 9); in general, for the
whole sample of urns the essential sequence should
involve at least 2 different sections: (1) the base and
bowl, and (2) the body, neck, rim, and handles (Figure 9).
However, in some cases 3 sections were recorded: (1)
base and bowl, (2) body, neck and handles, and (3) rim
(Figure 9).
Additionally, the thickness differences left between the
join of coils were clearly observed, both in the inner part
and in the external surface of the vessels. In some cases,
also the addition of clayish material was observed in
different parts inside the vessels as well as the presence
of attributes in the sectors where the handles were joined.
(2) concave bases made with support moulds, in order to
achieve the desired concavity (Rye, 1981, 63), and by
vertical drawing of clay (Figure 10).

Figure 9: Coiling in Infant Funerary Urns.

94
 Figure 10: Marks left by coiling, smoothing and detail of the concave bases in Sanagasta urns.

Figure 11: Extensive smoothing marks left in the internal surface of the vessels, and detail of the attached handles in the funerary urns.

95
 Ceramic Forming Techniques and Physical Atributes - Infant Funerary Urns (N=23)
Secondary forming
Primary forming techniques Physical atributes
techniques
paddel and
coiling (body) drawing (base) smoothing internal surface external surface
anvil
References

Abaucán-Sanagasta Urn 2817-174 - MAQ X X -------- X 2(a), 4 2(a), 6

Abaucán-Sanagasta Urn 295-226 - MAQ X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 6 2(a), 4, 6
Sanagasta Urn 1187 - MAQ X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 6 2(a), 3, 6
Sanagasta Urn 3638-3657 - MAQ X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 6 2(a), 4, 5, 6, 7(b)
Abaucán-Sanagasta Urn 123-2258 - MAQ X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 5 2(a), 5, 6, 7(b)
Sanagasta Urn s/d - MTR - F2 X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 6 2(a), 4, 6, 7(b)
Abaucán-Sanagasta Urn -170-MTR X -------- -------- X 2(a), 4, 6 2(a), 4, 5, 6
Abaucán Urn - s/d - MTR F21 X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 6, 7(b) 2(a), 5, 6, 7(b)
Abaucán-Sanagasta Urn - 148- MTR X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 6 2(a), 4, 5, 6
Abaucán-Sanagasta Urn - 21- MTR X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 6, 7(b) (c) 2(a), 6
Sanagasta Urn 14bn 398 - ME X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 6 2(a), 5, 6
Sanagasta Urn 14bn 424 - ME X X -------- X 1, 2(a), 4, 6, 7(b) (c) 1, 2(a), 4, 6, 7(b) (c)
Sanagasta Urn 14bn 496 - ME X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 6 2(a), 6
Sanagasta Urn 14bn 508 - ME X X -------- X 1, 2(a), 4, 6, 7(b) (c) 1, 2(a), 6, 7(b) (c)
Sanagasta Urn 1 - MF X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 6 1, 2(a), 6, 7(c)
Sanagasta Urn 2 - MF X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 5, 6 2(a), 5, 6
Sanagasta Urn (M.B. N° 1) X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 7(b) 2(a), 5, 6, 7(b)
Abaucán Urn -1246-3641 - MAQ X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 6, 7(b) 2(a), 5, 6, 7(b)
Sanagasta Urn - 150 - MTR X -------- -------- X 2(a), 4, 6 2(a), 4, 5, 6, 7(b)
Sanagasta Urn - 171 - MTR X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 6, 7(b) 2(a), 4, 5, 6, 7(b)
Sanagasta Urn - 14Bn 402 - ME X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 5 2(a), 5, 6, 7(b)
Sanagasta Urn - 14Bn 453 - ME X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 6 2(a), 5, 6, 7(b)
Sanagasta Urn - 14Bn 484 - ME X X -------- X 2(a), 4, 5, 6, 7(b) 2(a), 4, 5, 6, 7(b)

References: (1) selective fracture in vessels, (2) marks in vessel surfaces: (a) grooves of different forms, thicknesses and depth, (b) faces or depressed areas, (3) differential
pressures, (4) burnishing -surfaces- (5) surface deposits (6) variations in the thickness of the walls, (7) fractures in the vessel walls: (a) surface fracture, (b) normal fracture,
(c) laminar fracture, (8) inclusions oriented preferentially in normal view.

Figure 12: Ceramic forming techniques and physical attributes – Infant funerary Urns (N=23).

Secondary forming techniques achieve the different stages in the pottery shaping
(1) the only secondary forming technique observed was process. As I mentioned before, technical gestures are
smoothing, both in the internal and external surfaces of repetitive movements and they can involve one or more
the vessels (Figure 11). physical actions on the materials potters work with.
A marked lateral asymmetry was observed in all vessels Physical actions of a potter include shaping, turning,
analyzed in this study, and in some cases this asymmetry extraction of clay, pressing with fingers, different
was very pronounced. Also, in many cases addition of movements of the vessel between the potter’s hands,
clayish material was identified to fill different sector of waiting time between one physical action and the next,
the vessels, especially in the external surface in the areas position of the hands and body, and their associated
of join of the different sections of the vessel (bowl / movements. Also important here is the perception the
body-neck / rim) (Figure 11). The most important potter has about the clay, the vessel form, and the
thickness differences in the vessel walls were detected in techniques she uses to achieve the desired vessels. Thus,
the joining zone between the bowl and the rest of the the different technical gestures performed by the potter in
body; this phenomenon is due to the differential drying shaping the vessel constitute the operational sequence.
process, between one section and the other, and the later Figures 13, 14 and 15 show the stages developed by the
join of these sections (e.g. base and bowl dried + coils of modern potter to shape the bowl. I recorded 64 stages in
the body in leather state). the manufacturing process involving at least 15 technical
Figure 12 summarizes the main primary and secondary gestures and 10 different physical actions working with
forming techniques identified in the sample of urns as the clay body.
well as the physical attributes recorded through Figure 13 (1-6) shows the physical actions (kneading and
macroscopic observation. mixing clay) in the preparation of the clay body before
starting to shape the vessel. Figure 13 (7-12) involves
Experimental replication of archaeological forming the base, rolling the first coil, joining the coil to
vessels the base, and the addition of the second coil.
In order to get a clearer and broader picture of the Figure 13 (13-21) shows the joining of the second coil,
primary and secondary forming techniques involved in smoothing the internal and external walls, extracting
pottery manufacture during the Late Period, I carried out paste and forming the basic ceramic form with both hands
an experimental replication of one type of vessels, (turning). Figure 13 (22-28) depicts the addition of the
namely bowls, with the help of a traditional modern third coil, joining the coil to the vessel, and extraction of
potter. The potter utilized the same traditional forming paste. Also, Figure 13 (27-28) shows the addition of the
techniques as the ancient potters in the past: a concave fourth coil to the vessel. In this stage, the potter helped
mould for the base, drawing, coiling, smoothing and herself with a ‘tournette’ - or false wheel.
paddle and anvil. I was interested in recording the
technical gestures developed by the modern potter to

96
Figure 13: Experimental shaping a Sanagasta bowl; stages 1-28. Technical gestures involved in the clay paste preparation, coiling, smoothing, and
paste extraction.

97
Figure 14: Experimental shaping a Sanagasta bowl; stages 29-59. Technical gestures performed by the potter involving coiling, paste extraction,
paddle and anvil, smoothing, and final smoothing.

98
Figure 14 (29-36) shows how the fifth coil is added and
the process of joining, extraction of paste from the walls,
and smoothing tasks performed by the potter. In Figure
14 (37-40) we can observe the application of paddle and
anvil technique to achieve the desired thickness of the
vessel walls. Figure 14 (41-56) shows the repetitive
technical gestures involved in the addition of the sixth,
seventh, and eighth coils: rolling the coils, joining to the
Figure 15: Experimental shaping a Sanagasta bowl; stages 59-64. Coiling, smoothing, and finishing the vessel.
Discussion and conclusions
The results obtained in this research show that the study
of ceramic forming techniques through different
approaches is at least a complicated task, depending of
the ceramic forms involved and the degree of finishing
they have. Usually, the combination of macroscopic and
microscopic observations on different attributes in
ceramic vessels surfaces helps to identify attributes and
marks left by the ancient potter in the several stages that
constitute the operational sequence (De La Fuente in
press a).
Concerning the primary forming techniques, I could
identify without any problem both coiling and drawing in
most of vessels analysed. Coiling was easily identified
both in bowls and urns due to the thickness differences
macroscopically observed. This observation was later
checked by the application of X-ray industrial
radiography and ceramic petrology to large sherds (De La
Fuente in press a). Secondary forming techniques such as
paddle and anvil are more complicated to identify due to
the smoothing process the potter applied several times to
the surfaces of the vessel in leather state, and also
depending on the mineral inclusions the potter used to
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vessel body, extraction of paste, paddle and anvil - Figure
14 (51) - and smoothing. Figure 14 (57-59) shows the
vessel after a whole smoothing process in the internal and
external surfaces of the vessel.
Finally, Figure 15 (60-64) shows the addition of the last
coil, and the smoothing and finishing process using a
clayish liquid preparation from the same clay the potter
used to shape the whole vessel.
temper the ceramic pastes. The experimental approach
developed with a traditional modern potter involving the
replication of one type of ceramic form, bowls, helped to
understand the whole operational sequence followed in
order to achieve the desired ceramic form. It allowed to
differentiate the multiple stages involved in the
manufacturing process and the physical actions and
technical gestures developed by the potter during the
shape of the vessel.
Interestingly, we observed through this approach that the
secondary forming technique paddle and anvil was
applied several times alternated with coiling, extraction
of paste, and smoothing. It was applied in stages 37 to 40
and again in the stage 51 with the main goal to keep the
vessel walls thickness even and to eliminate the air pores
contained into the ceramic matrix. Surprisingly, and
contrary to what is traditionally thought, this secondary
forming technique was applied in the middle of the
operational sequence, not at the end. Technical gestures
involved in shaping vessels depend exclusively on the
potter and help us to understand the attributes and marks
left by ancient potters. Technical gestures also help us
understand the ideas or perceptions of forms behind the
vessels. Ultimately, this can be translated into patterns
recorded through the study of forming techniques in
archaeological vessels and ceramic sherds which, in turn,
gives us a whole idea about how things were done in the
past (the ‘know how’): for example shaping the bases, the
body, the neck, the handles. Most of these features can be
studied as part of the archaeological record of pottery
production. Finally, this leads us to a more interesting
point, which is related to the possibility to link specific
technical gestures and finally technological choices done
by the ancient potters with broader social aspects such as
technical identity. The recording of several operational
sequences to shape different ceramic forms through
experimental approaches give us the unique possibility to
compare with specific archaeological contexts of ceramic
production and to get a better understanding of how and
why things were done in the past.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to thank Escuela de Arqueología, Universidad
Nacional de Catamarca and CONICET for financial
support in different stages of this research. The potter
Claudia Ferreyra helped us with the shape of the
experimental vessels. This research has been benefited by
several useful comments when it was partially presented
at XVIII Congreso Nacional de Arqueología Chilena,
held at Valparaiso, Chile, during 5-9 October 2009. Dr.
Victoria Horwitz (UBA) helped with the English
language improvement in several stages.
AUTHOR’S ADDRESS
Guillermo A. De La Fuente
Laboratorio de Petrología y Conservación Cerámica,
Escuela de Arqueología
Universidad Nacional de Catamarca – CONICET
Belgrano Nº 300, (4700) Catamarca, Argentina
gfuente2004@yahoo.com.ar
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