International Journal of Coal Geology 62 (2005) 223 – 236

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijcoalgeo

Mercury in Eastern Kentucky coals: Geologic aspects

and possible reduction strategies
James C. Howera,T, Cortland F. Ebleb, Jeffrey C. Quickc
a
University of Kentucky, Center for Applied Energy Research, 2540 Research Park Drive, Lexington, KY 40511, USA
b
Kentucky Geological Survey, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
c
Utah Geological Survey, 1594 West North Temple, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, USA
Received 20 December 2004; received in revised form 7 January 2005; accepted 11 February 2005
Available online 18 April 2005

Abstract

Mercury emissions from US coal-fired power plants will be regulated by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
before the end of the decade. Because of this, the control of Hg in coal is important. Control is fundamentally based on the
knowledge of the amounts of Hg in mined, beneficiated, and as-fired coal. Eastern Kentucky coals, on a reserve district level,
have Hg contents similar to the USA average for coal at mines. Individual coals show greater variation at the bench scale, with
Hg enrichment common in the top bench, often associated with enhanced levels of pyritic sulfur. Some of the variation between
parts of eastern Kentucky is also based on the position relative to major faults. The Pine Mountain thrust fault appears to be
responsible for elemental enrichment, including Hg, in coals on the footwall side of the thrust.
Eastern Kentucky coals shipped to power plants in 1999, the year the USEPA requested coal quality information on coal
deliveries, indicate that coals shipped from the region have 0.09 ppm Hg, compared to 0.10 ppm for all delivered coals in the
USA. On an equal energy basis, and given equal concentrations of Hg, the high volatile bituminous coals from eastern
Kentucky would emit less Hg than lower rank coals from other USA regions.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Mercury; Coal; Emissions; Kentucky; Geochemistry

1. Introduction 2010 (USEPA, 2005). The rules will likely require

Mercury emissions from US coal-fired power
plants will be regulated; final rules were published
in 2005, with enforcement beginning as early as
T Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 859 257 0261.
E-mail address: hower@caer.uky.edu (J.C. Hower).
0166-5162/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.coal.2005.02.008
lower Hg emissions from most, if not all, power
plants. Consequently, the amount and distribution of
Hg in US coal is an obvious concern. The average
Hg content of US coal collected between 1973 and
1989 from mines, outcrops, and drillholes is less
than 0.2 ppm (Toole-O’Neil et al., 1999), whereas
US coal delivered to power plants during 1999
contained about half that amount (Quick et al.,
224 J.C. Hower et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 62 (2005) 223–236
2003). The difference is attributed to preferential
mining of low-Hg coal resources and Hg reductions
associated with washing coal. Technological
approaches to reduce Hg emissions at the power
plant include injecting flue-gas sorbents, enhancing
retention of Hg by wet flue-gas desulphurization
units (which efficiently capture oxidized Hg species),
adding polishing filters, or various combinations of
these and other technologies (Pavlish et al., 2003;
Senior et al., 2000, 2004).
Another possible approach to reduce Hg emis-
sions involves avoiding Hg-rich mineral partings or
coal benches at the mine site to produce a low-Hg
product (Goodarzi and Goodarzi, 2004; Mastalerz et
al., 2004; Mardon and Hower, 2004; Sakulpitakphon
et al., 2004). If the high-Hg lithology is at the top
of the coal bed, as in the latter two examples,
selective mining might be an effective Hg reduction
option. However, in many instances, economic
considerations will likely limit this option unless
markets for the high-Hg parts of the coal bed can be
found.
Mercury can also be removed from the coal
before combustion, either through coal beneficiation
(Finkelman, 1994; Toole-O’Neil et al., 1999) or
through rejection of coarse and/or heavy particles by
pulverizers at the power plant (Sakulpitakphon et al.,
2000; Mardon and Hower, 2004; Hower et al.,
2005a). Although pulverizer rejects, commonly
called bpyritesQ in the power industry, typically
account for less than 1% of the feed coal, the
bpyritesQ can account for over 10% of the Hg in the
coal. Recognition that rejection of bpyritesQ at the
pulverizer can reduce Hg stack emissions is impor-
tant, both as an emission control strategy at the
power plant, and to reconcile Hg mass-balance
calculations. Moreover, Hg-rich pulverizer rejects
are often mixed with the bottom ash and sent to a
waste pond (Hower et al., 1999a, 2005a), which
creates a potential environmental problem.
Recent investigations of coal in Guizhou Province,
China, have clarified where Hg occurs in coal. Feng
and Hong (1999) used sequential extraction to show
that Hg in Guizhou coal was primarily present in
pyrite. Ding et al. (2001), using graphite-furnace
atomic-absorption spectroscopy, found Hg concentra-
tions of up to 45 ppm in a whole coal and up to 4700
ppm in a pyrite analyzed by electron microprobe
analysis; significant variation in Hg between pyrite
grains was noted. Zhang et al. (2002) found that low-
temperature hydrothermal calcite and pyrite contained
more Hg than other minerals, with up to 159 ppm Hg
noted in pyrite. A subsequent study of coal in fault
zones within southwestern Guizhou (Zhang et al.,
2004) showed that the concentration of Hg, As, Se,
and Sb is directly related to the distance from noble
metal ores. In a similar setting, Diehl et al. (2004)
found an association between Hg and hydrothermal
sulfides in coal from the Black Warrior Basin,
Alabama.
Not all Hg in coal occurs in pyrite. For example,
Zhang et al. (2002) found Hg-bearing calcite and
chlorite in Guizhou coal, although the Hg-sulfide
association dominated. In the Pavlovsk brown coal,
notable for containing gold and Pt-group elements,
of the Russian Far East region, Seredin (2004)
found Hg-rich gold. In the Manchester coal bed of
Clay County, Kentucky, Hower and Robertson
(2003) found Hg-bearing clausthalite (PbSe). Coal
from the Central Asturian coal basin contains
hydrothermal cinnabar, metacinnabar, and native
mercury, along with other Hg-bearing minerals
(Piedad-Sánchez et al., 2004). High Hg levels in
Tertiary coal from Washington state were attributed
to both Hg-organic complexes and Hg-rich mineral
associations (Hg-bearing pyrite, cinnabar, kleinite,
and native Hg) (Brownfield et al., 2005). Despite its
varied mode of occurrence, Fe-sulfides appear to be
the primary host of Hg in many coals. For example,
Hg-bearing marcasite has been observed in the
Manchester coal bed (Robertson et al., in prepara-
tion) where Hg concentrations were also observed to
vary widely among pyrite and marcasite grains in
the same coal sample.
In this study, we review the abundance and
distribution of Hg in eastern Kentucky coal. Eastern
Kentucky is part of the Central Appalachian Region,
which produces over 20% of US coal. In 2003, over
91 million tons of bituminous coal were produced
from the Eastern Kentucky coalfield, representing
nearly 17% of US bituminous coal production
(USEIA, 2004). Given this substantial production,
and the impending Hg regulations, the amount of Hg
in eastern Kentucky coal is a likely current concern
for coal producers and utility consumers contemplat-
ing long-term contracts. Clearly, this concern will
 J.C. Hower et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 62 (2005) 223–236
persist as the impending Hg regulations are imple-
mented and enforced.
2. Procedure
Much of the information presented in this study is
from the US Geological Survey’s COALQUAL data-
base (Bragg et al., 1998). Supplemental information
was gathered from Sakulpitakphon et al. (2004),
Mardon and Hower (2004), Hower et al. (2005b),
and from as-yet unpublished studies. Coal assay data
for commercial coal shipments were selected from the
Information Collection Request (ICR) part 2 data
(Maxwell, 2000) using criteria described by Quick et
al. (2004).
Mercury analyses by the US Geological Survey
(USGS) were conducted using cold-vapor atomic
absorption (CVAA). Mercury analyses by the Uni-
versity of Kentucky Center for Applied Energy
Research (CAER) were conducted using a LECO
AMA 254 absorption spectrometer. The ICR Hg
values were determined using various methods, but
the most common was ASTM D 3684 Bomb
Fig. 1. Eastern Kentucky reserve districts.
225
Combustion CVAA. Evans (2004) reviews assay
methods used for the ICR data collection.
3. Results and discussion
Eastern Kentucky is divided into six reserve
districts (Fig. 1). The district boundaries generally
correspond to county lines except for those that
delineate the Upper Cumberland District, where the
Pine Mountain thrust fault forms a natural boundary.
In this discussion, we describe geographic trends and
geochemical associations of coal Hg by reserve
district, included counties, and producing coal bed.
Coal-bed nomenclature in eastern Kentucky is com-
plicated, with names changing between counties and
drainage basins; coal beds examined in this study
include (youngest listed first):
! Coalburg (also known as the Peach Orchard; splits
into the Hazard No. 7 and Hazard No. 8, among
other names),
! Leatherwood (also known as the Hazard, Hazard
No. 5A, Winifrede, among other names),
226 J.C. Hower et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 62 (2005) 223–236

! Fire Clay (also known as the Hazard No. 4, Dean, Table 1

Wallins Creek, among other names), Average mercury by county and by reserve district for coals in
eastern and western Kentucky (after data from Bragg et al., 1998)
! Pond Creek (also known as the Lower Elkhorn,
Eastern Hg Western Hg District Hg
Blue Gem, Imboden, among other names), and
Kentucky Kentucky averages
! Manchester (also known as the Clintwood, River
Bell 0.15 Butler 0.07 Big Sandy 0.14
Gem, Horse Creek, Lily, Zachariah, among other
Boyd 0.33 Christian 0.04 Hazard 0.18
names). Breathitt 0.18 Daviess 0.05 Licking River 0.17
Carter 0.10 Edmonson 0.12 Princess 0.25
Besides Hg, the abundance of As, Se, Cl, and S are Clay 0.27 Hancock 0.03 Southwestern 0.19
also reported. Both As and Se are among elements of Elliott 0.13 Henderson 0.04 Upper 0.14
Cumberland
potential environmental concern and are briefly
Floyd 0.20 Hopkins 0.10
mentioned. Chlorine and sulfur have direct signifi- Greenup 0.26 McLean 0.06 West Kentucky 0.09
cance to this study. Chlorine promotes the formation Harlan 0.12 Muhlenberg 0.10
of more easily captured oxidized Hg species in flue Jackson 0.25 Ohio 0.11 State 0.16
gas. The negative correlation between Hg capture and Johnson 0.11 Union 0.07
Knott 0.30 Webster 0.08
coal sulfur, which is demonstrated in studies by Knox 0.13
Roberson (2002) and SAIC (2003), is possibly caused Laurel 0.17
by flue gas SO2 diminishing Hg capture by fly ash Lawrence 0.24
carbon (Laumb et al., 2004). Lee 0.15
Leslie 0.19
Letcher 0.16
3.1. Comparisons of reserve districts
Magoffin 0.21
Martin 0.16
The average Hg content by mining district (Table McCreary 0.17
1) shows some surprising trends. Western Kentucky, Morgan 0.18
included for comparison, has lower Hg that any of Owlsley 0.18
Perry 0.18
the eastern Kentucky reserve districts, despite being
Pike 0.12
known for high pyritic (and organic) S coal. The Pulaski 0.08
Springfield coal bed, the major producing coal in Rockcastle 0.09
western Kentucky, is under investigation in a Wayne 0.09
separate study (Hower et al., 2004). As noted in Whitley 0.12
Wolfe 0.13
the introduction, Hg in sulfides, or other minerals in
which Hg is a trace constituent, is not uniform
within a single coal sample, much less across an highest average Hg levels (0.19 and 0.18 ppm Hg,
entire coalfield. Further, if other minerals are the respectively, Table 1). Notably, both of these districts
host of Hg, correlations with pyritic sulfur should are on the northwest side of the Pine Mountain thrust
not be expected. Accordingly, correlations between fault. Lower Hg levels are observed for coal in the Big
major elements in coal (typically present at percent Sandy district, which is partly beyond the extent of the
levels) and coal Hg (typically present at sub-ppm fault, and for coal in the Upper Cumberland district,
levels) are unusual, and inherently flawed, predictors which is on the thrust sheet.
of Hg abundance.
Among the eastern Kentucky reserve districts, the 3.2. Coal beds in reserve districts
coal in the Princess Reserve District has the highest
average Hg. Like coal from western Kentucky, coal Table 2 shows average Hg, Cl, As, Se, S,
from the Princess district is known for its high S moisture, ash, and heating values for major produc-
content. The Princess and Licking River districts ing coal beds by district of origin. Not all coal beds
produce much less coal than the southern districts. are equally important throughout the coalfield; the
Among the major producing districts, coals in the number of data records shown in Table 2 approx-
Southwestern and Hazard reserve districts have the imates coal-bed production. The standard deviation
 J.C. Hower et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 62 (2005) 223–236 227

Table 2
Average heating value, moisture, ash, sulfur forms, As, Hg, Se, and Cl for major mined coals by reserve district in eastern Kentucky (after data
from Bragg et al., 1998; supplemented with data from CAER)
Coal District MJ/kg Mois Ash S Ssulf Spy Sorg As Hg Se Cl
Coalburg Big Sandy avg. 28.39 4.45 10.99 1.08 0.03 0.38 0.67 14 0.14 5.26 573.94
std. dev. 2.90 2.54 5.96 0.75 0.03 0.61 0.16 21 0.11 1.71 286.55
no. 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33
Hazard avg. 28.98 3.26 11.97 1.19 0.05 0.49 0.66 16 0.18 5.06 822.63
std. dev. 1.86 0.96 4.50 0.75 0.06 0.51 0.29 26 0.14 1.26 527.81
no. 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38
Licking River avg. 28.55 4.56 10.61 1.79 0.05 1.01 0.74 34 0.19 5.82 400.00
std. dev. 1.72 1.49 5.09 1.18 0.05 1.08 0.21 44 0.12 2.81 254.36
no. 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
Southwestern avg. 31.00 3.07 7.44 1.64 0.03 0.96 0.65 19 0.14 3.47 1366.67
std. dev. 1.43 1.25 3.83 0.98 0.04 0.88 0.13 15 0.09 0.85 335.00
no. 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Leatherwood Hazard avg. 29.87 3.03 9.93 1.34 0.03 0.66 0.65 28 0.20 4.92 1188.80
std. dev. 2.25 1.32 5.37 1.01 0.02 0.92 0.20 59 0.22 1.64 376.23
no. 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 30 30 30 25
Southwestern avg. 28.55 2.77 14.01 1.54 0.04 0.76 0.74 25 0.22 5.00 1488.33
std. dev. 2.32 0.66 5.81 0.41 0.03 0.31 0.17 22 0.17 1.86 583.39
no. 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Fire Clay Big Sandy avg. 29.60 2.81 11.04 1.29 0.06 0.52 0.71 13 0.17 4.54 999.00
std. dev. 1.74 0.88 4.03 1.10 0.10 0.73 0.29 13 0.11 1.47 294.23
no. 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Hazard avg. 29.39 2.47 12.20 1.02 0.02 0.37 0.62 8 0.15 3.12 1151.25
std. dev. 2.34 0.55 5.75 0.50 0.02 0.39 0.19 8 0.12 1.10 520.31
no. 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 16
Southwestern avg. 30.93 2.77 8.27 1.53 0.05 0.79 0.69 23 0.12 3.53 1126.67
std. dev. 1.57 0.86 4.05 0.85 0.05 0.78 0.14 18 0.07 1.32 572.54
no. 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Pond Creek Big Sandy avg. 30.74 2.24 9.57 0.97 0.04 0.29 0.64 12 0.10 4.14 1689.47
std. dev. 1.27 1.04 3.11 0.75 0.07 0.42 0.32 25 0.08 1.21 877.73
no. 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19
Southwestern avg. 31.95 3.73 4.40 1.93 0.05 1.14 0.73 37 0.18 2.54 2313.04
std. dev. 1.23 2.01 2.73 1.28 0.05 1.14 0.27 33 0.17 0.82 446.54
no. 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23
Upper Cumberland avg. 30.77 2.02 10.45 1.74 0.04 0.97 0.73 17 0.09 4.75 260.00
std. dev. 1.65 0.36 4.00 0.51 0.03 0.53 0.05 11 0.05 1.32 106.07
no. 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Manchester Big Sandy avg. 32.22 1.23 8.92 1.48 0.01 0.81 0.66 8 0.09 2.93 1066.67
std. dev. 0.59 0.14 1.48 0.69 0.00 0.51 0.19 2 0.02 0.21 124.72
no. 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Southwestern avg. 30.95 4.29 6.09 1.68 0.03 0.96 0.79 45 0.17 2.02 2661.61
std. dev. 2.19 2.98 2.49 1.44 0.06 1.20 0.43 50 0.14 0.85 969.52
no. 26 26 31 31 26 26 26 31 31 26 31
Upper Cumberland avg. 31.52 2.40 7.98 1.00 0.06 0.26 0.69 8 0.11 2.57 201.88
std. dev. 2.39 0.67 6.23 0.40 0.05 0.31 0.13 4 0.06 0.98 303.31
no. 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

of Hg, As, and Spy values for coal-bed samples
grouped by reserve district is also shown to
approach, and sometimes exceed, the average value
for the sample group; substantial variation is
indicated for these constituents.
3.2.1. Leatherwood coal bed
The Leatherwood coal in both the Hazard and
Southwestern reserve districts has the highest average
Hg content, exceeding 0.20 ppm (whole coal) (Table
2). Initial results from a comprehensive study of the
228 J.C. Hower et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 62 (2005) 223–236
Leatherwood coal (in progress) at sites near the Pine
Mountain thrust fault in Letcher, Perry, and Harlan
counties (Fig. 2) show that many elements exhibit
greater variation within the coal bed than between
sites. Mercury is no exception (Table 3). Despite
uniformly high whole-bed Hg values (Table 2),
partial-bed samples from the Leatherwood are quite
variable (Table 3). Moreover, many of the partial-bed
samples contain less than 0.02 ppm Hg (the CVAA
instrumental detection limit). Table 3 also shows that
Hg values for these partial bed samples are generally
near the detection limit except where Spy exceeds
0.05–0.10%. The highest Hg values are associated
with the highest amounts of Spy: 0.42 ppm Hg and
1.17% Spy, 0.80 ppm and 1.60% Spy. Higher As and
Se values are also associated with the higher Spy coals,
although the correlation is not exact. Nor should we
expect it to be, as demonstrated by Ruppert et al.
(2005) who observed highly variable amounts of As
in individual pyrite grains in the Fire Clay coal.
Both Hg and Spy in the Leatherwood coal show
signs of enrichment at the upper and lower margins,
as observed in other coal beds (see Sections 3.2.2
and 3.2.3, below). In a study of Ge in coal, Yudovich
(2003) noted that such marginal enrichment of trace
Fig. 2. Location of quadrangles discussed for Leatherwood and Fire Clay coal beds.
elements in coal is common. Sample sites in the
Nolansburg and Tilford quadrangles show marginal
enrichment of Hg and Spy at the top of the coal bed;
the enrichment is especially evident for the site in
section 19-G-78. The Nolansburg site shows Hg
enrichment at both the top and bottom of the coal
bed. Three of the Leatherwood coal sections also
show Hg and Spy enrichment in the middle of the coal
bed, perhaps indicative of a slight brackish influence.
3.2.2. Fire Clay coal bed
The Fire Clay coal bed is marked by a distinctive
tonstein parting, which generally occurs in the lower
half of the coal bed (Hower et al., 1999b; Greb et al.,
2002). Coal next to the tonstein, particularly the
underlying coal, is enriched in lanthanide elements
and Zr (Hower et al., 1999a,b; observed in other coals,
for example, Goodarzi, 1988). A more recent inves-
tigation (Ruppert et al., 2005) revealed a strikingly
high-As lithotype (4000 ppm, ash basis) in the Fire
Clay bed. Regrettably, the high-As sample was
consumed in the previous analyses and was not
available for Hg analysis.
Mercury was analyzed for two complete, less the
sample mentioned above, sections of the Fire Clay
 J.C. Hower et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 62 (2005) 223–236 229

Table 3
Thickness, ash, total and pyritic sulfur, As, Hg, Se, and Cl for benches of the Leatherwood coal at sites in the hazard reserve district (study in
progress by CAER and USGS; data from USGS)
Quadrangle CC section Sample ID Lithotype Thickness Ash S Spy As Hg Se Cl
(cm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
Leatherwood 20-G-76 4599 1/9 (top) 16.15 9.53 0.75 0.09 22 b0.02
4600 2/9 5.79 7.66 0.55 0.03 12 b0.02
4601 3/9 18.90 5.44 0.64 0.04 36 b0.02
4602 4/9 23.16 4.59 0.63 0.03 35 b0.02
4603 5/9 17.68 7.99 0.45 0.01 4 0.03
4604 6/9 27.43 3.59 0.57 0.01 14 0.02
4605 7/9 24.08 3.92 0.62 0.01 22 0.02
4606 8/9 14.63 3.06 0.90 0.01 33 0.02
4607 9/9 16.76 4.88 1.21 0.33 296 0.36
Nolansburg 13-F-76 4978 1/9 (top) 16.00 2.40 1.04 0.38 644 0.10
4979 2/9 22.10 2.37 0.62 0.03
4980 3/9 9.91 3.17 0.55 0.02 17 b0.02
4981 4/9 12.19 11.87 0.62 0.03 12 b0.02
4982 5/9 9.65 6.81 0.70 0.04 27 0.02
4983 6/9 16.26 6.69 1.34 0.47 93 0.10
4984 7/9 7.87 4.37 1.95 0.75 264 0.15
4985 8/9 23.88 9.23 0.91 0.09 47 0.06
4986 9/9 8.89 20.84 2.48 1.17 115 0.42
Tilford 15-G-78 41035 1/7 (top) 3.81 53.35 0.27 0.14 4 0.06 9.1
41036 2/7 11.43 6.29 0.69 0.22 55 0.05 4.0 125
41037 3/7 20.32 5.79 0.54 0.12 51 0.05 2.8 139
41038 4/7 21.59 7.13 0.82 0.33 126 0.15 4.8 112
41039 5/7 20.32 11.91 0.38 0.04 7 0.02 4.4 80
41040 6/7 16.51 2.64 0.46 0.02 19 b0.02 2.8 139
41041 7/7 8.89 5.03 0.47 0.02 21 0.02 3.0 107
Tilford 19-G-78 41042 1/7 (top) 11.99 8.36 2.28 1.60 301 0.80 11.6 68
41043 2/7 13.49 3.49 0.59 0.12 54 0.10 3.4 111
41044 3/7 5.99 6.53 0.38 0.01 7 0.02 3.0 47
41045 4/7 12.50 4.46 0.82 0.22 75 0.10 3.2 157
41046 5/7 19.51 6.79 0.62 0.20 116 0.13 4.6 98
41047 6/7 23.50 5.31 0.43 0.02 9 0.04 3.3 156
41048 7/7 18.01 6.74 0.55 0.06 13 b0.02 3.2 72
Tilford 20-G-78 41049 1/6 (top) 13.00 6.26 0.37 0.02 6 b0.02 4.1 36
41050 2/6 11.99 2.09 0.48 0.02 14 b0.02 2.6 125
41051 3/6 18.01 4.42 0.41 0.02 6 b0.02 4.0 73
41052 4/6 14.00 4.83 0.39 0.02 8 b0.02 3.8 112
41053 5/6 18.01 3.57 0.56 0.15 83 0.07 4.3 127
41054 6/6 16.99 4.70 0.65 0.14 21 b0.02 5.2 118
Louellen 4-F-78 41055 1/7 (top) 18.29 3.05 0.56 0.03 37 0.05 3.6 100
41056 2/7 13.72 3.73 0.46 0.02 21 0.03 4.2 53
41057 3/7 18.29 3.24 0.48 0.02 18 0.02 3.3 63
41058 4/7 22.86 3.44 0.50 0.02 22 0.04 3.3 73
41059 5/7 19.20 4.98 0.49 0.02 15 0.02 3.4 95
41060 6/7 21.95 5.09 0.44 0.02 15 0.03 3.6 75
41061 7/7 1.52 4.21 0.52 0.02 17 0.02 3.2 109

coal bed plus one partial section in the Tilford the top and bottom of the full-bed sections. The Fire
quadrangle (Table 4). Like the Leatherwood, enrich- Clay section from the Hyden East quadrangle also
ment of Hg in the Fire Clay coal is also observed at shows Hg enrichment adjacent to the flint clay
230 J.C. Hower et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 62 (2005) 223–236

Table 4
Thickness, ash, total and pyritic sulfur, As, and Hg for benches of the Fire Clay coal bed (after Hower et al., 1999a,b; Hg analyzed at CAER)
Location Sample type Sample Thickness Ash S S(py) As Hg
(cm) (total) (ppm) (ppm)
Hyden East, Leslie Co. 1 of 11 (top) 4754 10.41 3.96 0.88 0.15 750 0.11
2 of 11 4755 10.41 10.46 5.63 5.30 4000
3 of 11 4756 9.91 3.77 0.81 0.05 84 0.01
4 of 11 4757 12.95 13.45 0.85 0.17 30 0.04
5 of 11 4758 9.40 6.74 0.81 0.04 30 0.02
6 of 11 4759 12.70 4.91 1.10 0.26 190 0.04
7 of 11 4760 18.03 10.63 2.33 1.50 420 0.22
flint clay 4761 12.45 86.93 0.04 0.04 4
8 of 11 4762 9.40 10.23 0.92 0.03 6 0.22
9 of 11 4763 11.43 25.69 0.70 0.08 10 0.03
10 of 11 4765 4.06 25.63 1.00 0.25 40 0.07
11 of 11 (base) 4767 7.11 9.92 0.98 0.11 60 0.10
Tilford, Letcher Co. 1 of 7 (top) 4706 20.57 2.28 0.81 0.11 480 0.08
2 of 7 4707 12.45 3.54 0.74 0.06 47 0.02
3 of 7 4708 14.99 4.89 0.84 0.13 71 0.10
4 of 7 4709 7.62 5.88 0.88 0.19 110 0.09
5 of 7 4710 7.87 17.10 0.64 0.04 8 0.03
6 of 7 4711 22.61 9.97 0.79 0.05 10 0.04
flint clay 4712 13.97 85.63 0.07 0.06 10
illitic clay 4713 14.99 92.71 0.15 0.11 9 0.03
7 of 7 (base) 4714 12.45 11.29 1.86 0.80 190 0.22
Tilford, Letcher Co. flint clay 4698 10.41 85.80 0.04 0.04 4
underlying coal 4704 2.54 33.94 2.13 1.17 84 0.35

tonstein. This enrichment might be the result of Hg
associated with the tonstein-forming volcanic ash
migrating into the adjacent coal, or the consequential
concentration of Hg due to greater humification of the
peat caused by the influx of nutrient-rich ash into the
coal-forming mire; both mechanisms have been used
to explain Hg profiles in modern ombrotrophic mires
(Roos-Barraclough et al., 2002; Biester et al., 2003).
Mardon and Hower (2004) investigated the Dean
coal bed, a correlative of the Fire Clay, in southern
Knox County. In this case, the tonstein was missing,
although the geochemical signature remained. Again,
the uppermost bench has the highest Hg content
(Table 5), 0.43 ppm, compared to less than 0.02 ppm
for three benches totaling 56-cm thickness in the
middle of the coal bed. The bottom bench has 0.10
ppm Hg, again indicating enrichment at the bed
margin.
3.2.3. Manchester coal bed
Sakulpitakphon et al. (2000, 2004) investigated the
Manchester coal bed in Clay County, Southwestern
reserve district (Table 6). As in the studies noted
above, they found that the top of the coal bed had
the highest Hg (0.52 ppm) and the highest Spy
(3.36%). Throughout the remainder of the coal bed,
Hg is below 0.01 ppm and Spy does not exceed
0.04%. More than any other coal investigated at this
level of detail, this Hg distribution led to spec-
ulation that selective mining would essentially
eliminate the Hg problem for the utility. Of course,
the coal mine operator could not afford the
economic liability of abandoning a substantial
percentage of the mined coal, or the potential
environmental problem of disposing of a high-S,
high-As, and high-Hg coal. While it can be argued
that the coal is simply being returned to the same
pit where it was mined, the increased surface area
introduced in mining increases the potential for
leaching of environmentally hazardous elements.
3.2.4. Comparisons across the Pine Mountain thrust
fault
Hower et al. (1991) found that the Cl content of
coal on the footwall (northwest side; the southeastern
portions of the Hazard and Southwestern reserve
 J.C. Hower et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 62 (2005) 223–236 231

Table 5
Thickness, ash, sulfur forms, As, Hg, and Se for the Dean coal bed (after Mardon and Hower, 2004)
CAER no. Bench Thickness Ash S Spy Sorg ICPMS Hg Hyd
(cm) Acid As Se
5498 w.c. 112.50 9.83 3.11 1.94 1.10 365 0.24 6.7
5499 1/6 (top) 17.10 19.78 4.94 3.15 1.73 252 0.43 10.3
5500 2/6 19.90 4.55 2.21 1.36 0.82 512 0.12 4.9
5501 3/6 23.00 2.41 0.74 0.08 0.65 59 0.01 1.5
5502 4/6 16.00 5.67 0.73 0.05 0.67 18 0.01 3
5503 5/6 17.00 10.35 0.84 0.09 0.73 15 0.02 4.3
5504 6/6 (bottom) 19.50 11.48 1.04 0.19 0.82 18 0.10 3.3

districts) of the Pine Mountain thrust fault was
significantly higher than in coal on the thrust sheet
(Upper Cumberland reserve district). In addition, the
coal rank, measured as vitrinite maximum reflec-
tance, is slightly higher in the footwall coal. The
difference is subtle, the rank is high volatile A
bituminous in all cases, but measurable. Both Hower
et al. (1991) and Sakulpitakphon et al. (2004)
speculated that the higher Cl and higher vitrinite
reflectance was caused by the movement of thermal
brines through coal on the footwall, activated by the
emplacement of the thrust block along the fault in
the Devonian marine black shales.
Assay data for the Pond Creek and Manchester
coal beds in the Southwestern and Upper Cumberland
and reserve districts are shown in Table 2. Both beds
contain more S, Hg, As, and Cl in the Southwestern
district than in the Upper Cumberland district; the
order-of-magnitude enrichment of Cl in the South-
western district is notable. Numerous elements are
enriched in these footwall coals. Sakulpitakphon et al.
(2004) considered trends in Pb in this area and Collins
(1993) discussed the enrichment in many elements in
this region in his evaluation of eastern Kentucky
COALQUAL data.
It could be argued, particularly for the Manchester
coal bed, that the differences in Spy can account for
the difference in As and Hg, with no need to invoke
tectonic causes. We also acknowledge that the sample
population for the Upper Cumberland reserve district
is smaller than the Southwestern reserve district,
which may complicate and limit our interpretation.
Although evidence for an epigenetic enrichment is
strong, further investigation is needed to better
understand the occurrence and origin of these and
other elements in coal on either side of the Pine
Mountain thrust.
3.2.5. US Environmental Protection Agency’s 1999
Information Collection Request
The USEPA required all US coal-fired power
plants with N25 MW capacity to periodically measure
and report Hg, Cl, S, and heating values for coal
shipments received during 1999 (Maxwell, 2000).
The USEPA used these results, together with power
plant Hg emission data from a related ICR, to support
its decision to regulate Hg emissions from coal-fired
power plants (Browner, 2000).
ICR data for Kentucky coal are summarized in
Table 7. Although the ICR records list the county of

Table 6
Thickness, ash, sulfur forms, As, Hg, and Cl for the Manchester coal bed (after Sakulpitakphon et al., 2004)
Sample Bench Thickness Ash S(t) S(py) S(org) As Hg Cl
(cm) (dry) (dry) (dry) (dry) (ppm, wc)
5472 whole coal 74.00 5.03 1.94 0.90 1.01 124 0.215 210
5473 1/5 19.00 9.28 5.75 3.36 2.28 292 0.515 240
5474 2/5 16.00 4.32 0.58 0.02 0.55 8 0.009 240
5475 3/5 18.00 1.49 0.59 0.02 0.56 0.004 220
5476 4/5 12.00 2.13 0.58 0.02 0.55 12 0.002 190
5477 5/5 9.00 4.65 0.61 0.04 0.56 7 0.005 200
 232
Table 7
County averages of heating value, ash, sulfur, moisture, Hg, and Cl from EPA ICR compilations (after Maxwell, 2000)
County Count Average MJ/kg Average Average Average Average Average Pounds kg Estimated Estimated Estimated Predicted Hg Predicted Hg Predicted Hg
Btu (dry) ash S moisture Hg ppm Cl ppm Hg/trillion Hg/PJ % capture, % capture, % capture, emissions emissions emissions
(dry) (dry) (dry) (estimate) (dry) (dry) Btu cold-side cold-side SDA/FFa cold-side cold-side SDA/FF
ESP ESP/FGD ESP ESP/FGD (kg Hg/PJ)
(kg Hg/PJ) (kg Hg/PJ)
All KY 4543 13,285 30.90 10.65 1.46 7.26 0.09 1104 7.05 3.03 37 66 84 4.5 2.4 1.2

J.C. Hower et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 62 (2005) 223–236

Eastern KY 3707 13,395 31.16 10.24 1.09 6.74 0.09 1122 6.91 2.97 40 66 86 4.1 2.3 1.0
Western KY 836 12,796 29.76 12.46 3.10 9.59 0.10 1025 7.80 3.35 24 62 74 6.0 3.0 2.2

Princess district
Boyd 16 13,284 30.90 11.69 0.93 7.37 0.08 748 6.13 2.64 38 62 76 3.8 2.3 1.5
Lawrence 92 13,334 31.02 10.03 1.07 7.97 0.14 1180 10.83 4.66 42 67 89 6.3 3.5 1.2

Licking River district

Magoffin 40 13,243 30.80 11.23 1.36 7.38 0.10 857 7.54 3.24 35 64 80 4.9 2.2 0.6

Big Sandy district

Floyd 233 13,091 30.45 11.67 1.06 6.85 0.09 1291 7.09 3.05 43 68 91 4.1 2.2 0.6
Johnson 76 13,002 30.24 11.31 1.43 6.88 0.16 1049 11.95 5.14 37 66 85 7.5 4.1 1.7
Martin 266 12,960 30.15 11.72 0.93 6.45 0.11 1011 8.12 3.49 42 66 84 4.7 2.8 1.3
Pike 847 13,535 31.48 9.99 0.90 6.53 0.09 1375 6.49 2.79 45 69 93 3.5 2.0 0.4

Hazard district
Breathitt 200 13,140 30.56 11.18 1.26 8.94 0.10 829 7.81 3.36 36 63 79 5.0 2.9 1.7
Knott 412 13,579 31.59 9.35 1.23 6.60 0.09 1264 6.84 2.94 41 68 91 4.0 2.2 0.6
Leslie 206 13,561 31.54 9.41 1.19 6.79 0.07 1229 5.44 2.34 41 68 90 3.2 1.7 0.5
Letcher 313 13,679 31.82 8.78 1.24 6.22 0.09 1137 6.89 2.96 40 67 88 4.2 2.3 0.8
Perry 542 13,195 30.69 11.17 1.00 6.62 0.07 1024 5.37 2.31 41 66 85 3.2 1.8 0.8

Southwestern district
Jackson 3 13,144 30.57 11.31 1.84 7.42 0.16 1871 12.17 5.23 41 73 98 7.2 3.3 0.2
Estill 5 13,815 32.13 7.92 1.01 7.53 0.05 926 3.85 1.66 40 65 82 2.3 1.4 0.7
Clay 22 13,414 31.20 10.57 1.55 7.57 0.22 2800 16.31 7.01 47 77 98 8.6 3.7 0.3
Laurel 8 12,867 29.93 13.64 1.10 9.17 0.10 1971 7.48 3.22 47 73 98 3.9 2.0 0.1
Owsley 23 13,218 30.74 10.22 1.96 6.38 0.17 1949 12.97 5.58 40 73 98 7.7 2.8 0.3
Pulaski 10 13,407 31.19 10.68 1.35 6.77 0.11 1005 8.12 3.49 37 66 84 5.1 2.8 1.3
Whitley 24 13,191 30.68 10.61 1.34 7.59 0.11 1533 8.48 3.65 42 70 96 4.9 2.5 0.3

Upper Cumberland district

Bell 102 13,444 31.27 9.82 1.40 6.02 0.10 432 7.10 3.06 27 56 60 5.2 3.1 2.8
Harlan 267 13,692 31.85 8.96 1.13 6.42 0.08 435 6.13 2.63 30 56 60 4.3 2.7 2.4
a
Capped at 98% maximum.
 J.C. Hower et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 62 (2005) 223–236
coal origin, the exact location within that county is
uncertain. Consequently, data records for counties that
straddle two reserve districts were assigned to the
district responsible for most of that county’s coal
production. Accordingly, ICR records for Bell and
Harlan counties were assigned to the Upper Cumber-
land district, and ICR records for Letcher County
were assigned to the Hazard district. Differentiation
by coal bed is not possible.
The highest county-average Hg value (0.22 ppm)
is for Clay County, which was the source of the
high-Hg coal studied by Sakulpitakphon et al.
(2000, 2004). In fact, their sample selection at the
mine and power plant was guided by the knowledge
of a high-Hg delivery reported by the power plant.
Commercial coal from Clay County also had the
highest average Cl content in the state (2800 ppm).
As noted above (Section 3.2.4), high Cl is known in
coal on the footwall of the Pine Mountain thrust fault
(Hower et al., 1991). As might be expected from the
above argument, the lowest Cl content observed in
Eastern Kentucky is observed for coal on the thrust
sheet, (~430 ppm Cl for coal shipped from Bell and
Harlan counties). The Hg levels in coal from Bell and
Harlan counties are similar to the state and coalfield
averages.
Coal shipped to power plants from eastern
Kentucky mines during 1999 averaged 0.09 ppm
Hg, less than the corresponding USA average of
0.10 ppm (Quick et al., 2003). Although compar-
isons based on ppm Hg are useful for geological
investigations, expressing Hg content on an energy
basis (kg Hg/PJ, or lb Hg/1012 Btu [1 lb Hg/1012
Btu = 0.43 kg Hg/PJ]) is more useful to evaluate
regulatory impacts on coal markets. The most
stringent proposed rule (USEPA, 2005) uses an
energy basis to specify the Hg emission limit
(maximum 0.86 kg Hg/PJ for bituminous coal); an
alternative, less rigorous bcap and tradeQ rule
corresponds to a nominal 1.12 kg Hg/PJ limit for
bituminous coal (Boettcher, 2004). Expression of the
Hg content on an energy basis is also useful
because it is directly related to Hg concentrations
in flue gas using the F factor (106 Btu [1.055 GJ]
in bituminous coal = 9820 dry, standard ft3 [278 m3]
flue gas; Stultz and Kitto, 1992).
On an energy basis, eastern Kentucky coal
averages 3.0 kg Hg /PJ, (6.9 lbs Hg/106 Btu). Note
233
that eastern Kentucky coal contains 15% less Hg than
the US average (3.5 kg Hg /PJ) if expressed on an
energy basis, but only 6% less Hg if expressed on a
mass (ppm) basis. This difference is due to the
comparatively high heating value of eastern Kentucky
coal. Also note that these comparisons are based on
numeric averages calculated using ICR data records;
values weighted by production tonnage would be
more accurate. Nonetheless, considering both the
observed Hg content, and the proposed USEPA
(2005) emission limits, the impending rules will
probably require at least 60–70% Hg capture by
power plants burning eastern Kentucky coal.
Using Cl and S values listed in Table 7, and
technology-specific equations derived by Roberson
(2002), it is possible to estimate Hg capture for
existing power plants that burn eastern Kentucky coal.
These calculations show an average 40% Hg capture
for existing plants with cold-side electrostatic precip-
itator (cESP) technology, 66% capture for those with
cESP+ flue gas desulphurization (cESP/FGD) tech-
nology, and 86% capture for those with spray dry
adsorption + fabric filter (SDA/FF) technology.
County-specific values showing both estimated
percent capture Hg capture and predicted mercury
emissions for existing plants equipped with SDA/FF,
cESP/FGD, or cESP emission controls are shown in
Table 7. Plants equipped with SDA/FF technology
should easily meet the proposed Hg regulations
when burning eastern Kentucky coal. Eastern
Kentucky coal from counties on the footwall side
of the Pine Mountain thrust should likewise meet,
or approach, proposed 2–2.6 lb Hg/1012 Btu limits
if burned in plants equipped with cESP/FGD
controls. However, plants equipped solely with
cESP controls will likely have difficulty meeting
the proposed Hg emission limits when burning
eastern Kentucky coal. The addition of catalytic
NOx reduction technology, which enhances oxida-
tion of flue gas Hg, to these plants should improve
Hg capture for high-Cl coals (Meij and Te Winkel,
2003). Increasing carbon in the cESP fly ash may
also be effective. Mardon and Hower (2004)
observed 85% Hg capture at an eastern Kentucky
power plant equipped with a combined venturi and
cESP particulate-collection system. Abundant carbon
in the cESP fly ash (~9%) likely contributed to the
excellent Hg capture.
234 J.C. Hower et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 62 (2005) 223–236
4. Conclusions
Because Hg emissions from coal-fired power
plants in the United States will be regulated before
the end of the decade, the level of Hg in mined coals
is of interest. Knowledge of the nature of occurrence
of Hg is the first line in the control of Hg emissions, if
Hg can be reduced in the mining process, there will be
less Hg for the utility to eliminate.
Eastern Kentucky, part of the Central Appala-
chians, continues to be a major producer of bitumi-
nous steam coal. It is known that at least some of the
Hg occurs in pyrite and marcasite (Robertson et al., in
preparation), and, in general, it appears as if high Hg
occurs in coals with reasonably high Spy. There is no
particular reason, however, to expect a good correla-
tion between Spy and Hg. We know from studies in
eastern Kentucky (Robertson et al., in preparation;
Ruppert et al., 2005) and China (Zhang et al., 2002)
that Hg and other trace elements are not evenly
distributed in sulfides and, in fact, may be present in
other trace minerals, such as clausthalite (Hower and
Robertson, 2003) or Hg-bearing sulfides and sulfates,
as reported in other coalfields (Piedad-Sánchez et al.,
2004; Brownfield et al., 2005).
At the coalfield or reserve district level, none of the
eastern Kentucky coals differ greatly from the overall
national averages compiled by Toole-O’Neil et al.
(1999). Individual coals show greater variation, but on
a reserve district level, the variations are still mini-
mized. When multiple benches of single seam sections
are analyzed, however, considerable vertical variation
emerges. All three coals examined showed enrichment
in Hg near the upper and lower bed margins.
Relatively high-Hg levels occurred within some
sections of the Leatherwood coal bed and adjacent to
the tonstein in the Fire Clay coal bed.
Some of the regional variation in Hg content
appears to be related to location relative to the Pine
Mountain thrust fault. The southeast to northwest
movement along the fault plane, based in the Devon-
ian marine black shale, resulted in the flow of thermal
brines through the footwall coals, raising coal rank, Cl
content, and the content of trace metals. The higher
Hg and Cl in the footwall coals shows up both in the
analyses of mine samples of the Pond Creek and
Manchester coals, but also in the comparison of
USEPA ICR data for the Southwestern (footwall;
particularly Clay County) and Upper Cumberland
(thrust sheet) reserve districts. While high Hg is not
desired, the association of Hg and Cl is favorable
because combustion of high-Cl coals leads to greater
oxidation of Hg in the flue gas, in turn leading to
greater efficiency of Hg capture by existing pollution
control systems (electrostatic precipitators, fabric
filters (baghouses), flue gas desulfurization).
The USEPA ICR data for coal shipped to US
utilities shows that, overall, commercial coal from
eastern Kentucky has average Hg contents. As noted
above, the highest, county-average Hg content is 0.22
ppm Hg for coal from Clay County. This compares to
0.09 ppm for eastern Kentucky and 0.10 ppm for the
USA. The most important mining centers, represented
by the largest number of samples, are within 0.02 ppm
of the national and state averages. Based on these
numbers, it can be concluded that the Hg content of
Kentucky coal delivered to the power plant is typical
of US coal and lower than many low-rank coals when
expressed on an energy basis.
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