ELECTRIC VEHICLE ARCHITECTURE

Pravat Kumar Behera

FormerlyTechnical Specialist-Controls, Cummins Technologies India Pvt Ltd

B.E(Electronics & Telecommunication),U.C.E,Burla(INDIA)
Pbehera1998@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Cost of fossil fuel is increasing day by day. Running a electric car is far cheaper only
a few pence per mile.No pollution from the car and although some CO2 will be
produced for the coal based electric power required to charge battery but this is still
much lower than the amount of CO2 produced by using a car. It is possible to use
renewable power or a green energy to charge battery in the electric car. Electric car
help to reduce noise pollution as they are much quieter.You are normally limited by
range and speed. Although this is improving with newer cars.The biggest challenge
is recharging point.A normal recharge time is between 6-8 hours, not as quick as
filing up at a petrol station. Although fast chargers are now being installed for newer
cars. Batteries will need replacing anything from 3 to 10 years, this depends on
battery type and amount of driving.Electric cars more expensive to buy than their
equivalent petrol vehicle, although this amount could be saved by using an electric
car in a few years or less.

Figure 1. Tata Tigor Electric car

1 INTRODUCTION
Electric cars function by plugging into a charge point and taking electricity from the
grid. They store the electricity in rechargeable batteries that power an electric motor,
which turns the wheels. Electric cars accelerate faster than vehicles with traditional
fossil fuel engines. The major component of Electric vehicle as follows.

2 SUBSYSTEMS
Electric Engine/Motor - Provides power to rotate the wheels. It can be DC/AC type,
however, AC motors are more common.
Inverter - Converts the electric current in the form of Direct Current (DC) into
Alternating Current (AC)
Drivetrain - EVs have a single-speed transmission which sends power from the
motor to the wheels.

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Batteries - Store the electricity required to run an EV. The higher the kW of the
battery, the higher the milage.
Charging - Plug into an outlet or EV charging point to charge your battery.

Figure 2. Inner parts of Electric vehicle

2.1 ELECTRIC MOTOR

The selection of motors for electric vehicles is a major task. However electric motors
like DC motors, brushless DC motors, permanent magnet synchronous motors and
switched reluctance motors are suitable for the application.The selection of electric
traction motors is based on the following factors.
Torque under low speed
Torque to weight ratio
Reliability
Cost effectiveness
Efficiency
Cost of Controller

MOTOR TYPE
2.1.1 DC Brushed Motor:
In DC brushed motor, brushes along with commutators provide a nexus between
external supply circuit and armature of the motor. Brushes can be made up of
carbon, copper, carbon graphite, metal graphite and are mostly rectangular in
shape.Wearing of commutators due to continuous cutting with brushes is one of
the main drawbacks of DC brushed motors. Also, friction between brushes and
commutators, limits the maximum motor speed.

Figure 3.Brush and Commutators arrangement in DC Motor

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DC brushed motors have the ability to achieve high torque at low speeds, which
makes them suitable for traction system.
2.1.2 DC Brushless Motor:
DC brushless motor provides certain advantages over DC brushed motor, like no
brushes and higher efficiency. BLDC having electronic commutation.

Figure 4. Basic arrangement of rotor and sensor elements in BLDC motor

According to National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA), BLDC motor

is defined as rotating self-synchronous machine with a permanent magnet rotor
and known rotor shaft positions for electronic commutation. BLDC motor provides
higher torque at the peak values of current and voltage as compared to other
motors.
2.1.3 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM):
In synchronous motors, rotor rotates at synchronous speed. The principle of
operation of a synchronous motor is based on the interaction of the rotating
magnetic field of the stator and the constant magnetic field of the
rotor.Permanent magnets located on the rotor of the PMSM create a constant
magnetic field.The stator structure with windings constructed to produce a
sinusoidal flux density in the airgap of the machine.
2.1.4 Three phase Induction Motor:
The stator of the motor consists of overlapping winding offset by an electrical
angle of 120 degree.When we connect the primary winding, or the stator to a 3
phase AC source, it establishes rotating magnetic field which rotates at the
synchronous speed.The rotor circuit is shorted and current flows in
the rotor conductors.The action of the stator rotating flux and the rotor current
produces a force that generates a torque that rotate the rotor shaft.

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Figure 5. Stator of Induction Motor and connection

The stator is a tubular iron frame that consists of a laminated and slotted stator
core. In the case of a three-phase induction motor, the stator holds symmetrically
distributed three-phase winding in its slots.

Figure 6. Rotor of Induction Motor and construction

Motor comparison:
Feature Brushed DC BLDCM PMSM Induction
Motor Motor
Mechanical Field magnets Field magnets Consists of Both stator and
structure on stator are on stator are conventional rotor have
made of made of three phase winding and AC
electromagnet electromagnet windings in the lines are
and that of rotor and that of rotor stator and connected to
are made of are made of permanent stator
permanent permanent magnets in the
magnet magnet rotor.Rotor is
shaped to a
sinusoidal flux
profile
Maintenance Periodic Low or no Low Low
Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance

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Speed torque Loss in torque Flat operation at Flat operation at Non linear but
charecteristics at high speed all speed with all speed with can be
due to brushes rated load rated load maintained by
V/F control
Efficiency Modorate due High High High
to losses in
brushes

Noise High due to Low Low Low

brushes
System cost Low High High Low
Control No Controller Controller Controller No Controller
requirement required for required required required for fixed
fixed speed speed
Table 1: Motor Comparison

2.2 BATTERY
The energy storage system in electric cars comes in the form of a battery. Battery
type can vary depending on if the vehicle is all-electric (AEV) or plug-in hybrid
electric (PHEV). Current battery technology is designed for extended life (typically
about 8 years or 100,000 miles). Some batteries can last for 12 to 15 years in
moderate climates, or eight to 12 years in extreme climates. There are four main
kinds of batteries used in electric cars: lithium-ion, nickel-metal hydride, lead-
acid, and ultracapacitors.
An electric vehicle battery is often composed of many hundreds of small,
individual cells arranged in a series/parallel configuration to achieve the desired
voltage and capacity in the final pack. A common pack is composed of blocks of
18-30 parallel cells in series to achieve a desired voltage. For example, a 400V
nominal pack will often have around 96 series blocks.

Battery comparison:
Specification Lead NiCd NiMH Li-ion
Acid Cobalt Manganese Phosphate
Specific 30-50 45-80 60- 150-250 100-150 90-120
energy(Wh/Kg) 120
Internal Resistance Very Very Low Low Moderate Low Very Low
Low
Cycle Life (80% Depth 200-300 1000 300- 500- 500-1000 1000-2000
of Discharge) 500 1000
Charge time 8-16Hr 1-2Hr 2-4Hr 2-4Hr 1-2Hr 1-2Hr
Overcharge tolerance High Moderate Low Low Low Low
Self 5% 20% 30% <5% <5% <5%
discharge/month(room
Temp)
Cell voltage (Nominal) 2V 1.2V 1.2V 3.6V 3.7V 3.2-3.3V

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Charge cutoff 2.4V and Full Cgarge 4.2V typically 3.6V
voltage(V/Cell) Float Protection by
2.25V Voltage signature
Discharge cutoff 1.75V 1V 2.5-3.0V 2.5V
voltage(V/Cell)
Charge temperature -20°C ~ -0°C ~ 45°C -0°C ~ 45°C
50°C
Discharge -20°C ~ -20°C ~ 65°C -20°C ~ 60°C
temperature 50°C
Maintenance 3 ~6 Full charge every Maintenance free
Requirement Month 90 days
Safety Requirement Thermally Thermally stable Protection circuit mandantory
stable and fuse
protection
Toxicity High High Low
Table 2: Battery Comparison

2.3 MAIN INVERTER

The main inverter, a critical component in the electrified drive-train, has a direct
influence on the driving experience, the battery life,milage and the overall safety
of the vehicle. The purpose of the inverter is to convert the DC current from the
electric vehicle’s battery to AC current to be used in the electric motor to drive the
vehicle’s propulsion system. It plays a significant role in capturing energy from
regenerative braking and feeding it back to the battery.
The newly developed high-power-density inverter should have the following
features.
(1) Use of power modules(IGBT) with low thermal resistance, with low losses
and high performance.
(2) Design with a low-inductance main circuit and optimized DC capacitance
(3) Heat sink with liquid cooling for driver circuit to avoid thermal inrush.
(4) Motor control circuit board designed for functional safety
(5) Compact package design with small size and light weight

Electrical powertrain performances of more than 12 kW are now reserved for the
high- voltage range, whereby the voltage level required is based on the currents
to be transmitted of approx. 250 A.
Statistical Data:
E-mobility performance class overview for passenger vehicles
EV Unit
Small Medium Sports
Car Car Car
Max Power Motor 60 100 180 KW
DC Voltage Generator based 400 400 450/800 V
Motor Based 300 300 300/600 V

Table 3: E-mobility performance class overview

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Inverter Block Diagram:

Figure 7. Inverter block diagram

Speed and Torque Control of BLDC by Back EMF Method:

A brushless DC electric motor also known as electronically commutated motor.
Motor’s electronic commutator sequentially energizes the combination of two
stator coils based on rotor position generating a rotating electric field that ‘drags’
the rotor around with it. Position of rotor can be detected with help of Hall sensor
or with sensorless method like back emf of the stator winding.Benefits of the
sensorless solution are elimination of the position sensors and its connections
between the control unit and the motor. The sensorless rotor position technique
detects the zero crossing points of Back-EMF induced in the motor stator
windings.For a given motor of fixed magnetic flux and number of windings, the
magnitude of the back EMF is proportional to the angular velocity of the rotor.

Figure.8. BLDC commutation

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The system has 6 PWM drive signal from Microcontroller drive the Gate driver
circuit of IGBT or MOSFET. There are different feedback signals such as back
emf of each winding, Speed signal,current drawn by Motor and battery voltage.

Figure.9. Back emf and zero cross detector

The back EMF rises and falls as the energizing sequence for Motor phase is
implemented and help to detect Motor position.
The Back-EMF sensing technique is based on the fact that only two phases of a
DC Brushless motor are connected at a time , so the third phase can be used to
sense the Back-EMF voltage.For three-phase BLDC motor, typically, it is driven
with six-step 120 degree conducting mode. At one time instant, only two out of
three phases are conducting current.
For example, when phase A and phase B conduct current, phase C is floating.
This conducting interval lasts 60 electrical degrees, which is called one step.
A transition from one step to another different step is called commutation.

Speed and Torque Control of PMSM by Field Oriented Control Method:

Permanent Magnet Synchronous motors is a Brushless Motors with Sinusoidal
Back emf. In a synchronous motor, the supplied voltages have the same
frequency as the mechanical motor speed.The sinusoidal voltage wave form
applied to this motor is created by using the space vector modulation technique.
The minimum amount of torque ripple appears when driving this sinusoidal BEMF
motor with sinusoidal currents.

There are two main components in a PMSM motor: Permanent magnet in rotor
and stator windings.

Permanent magnets are rigidly fixed to the rotating axis to create a constant rotor
flux.This rotor flux usually has a constant magnitude.When the stator energize,
windings and create a rotating electromagnetic field. To control the rotating
magnetic field,it is necessary to control the stator currents.

The actual structure of the rotor varies depending on the power range and rated
speed of the machine.Permanent magnets rotors are suitable for synchronous

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machines ranging up-to a few Kilowatts.For higher power ratings,the rotor usually
consists of windings in which a dc current circulates.The mechanical structure of
the rotor is designed for the number of desired poles,and the desired flux
gradients.

The angle between the rotor magnetic field and the stator field must be carefully
controlled to produce maximum torque and achieve high electro-mechanical
conversion efficiency. For this purpose a fine tuning is needed after closing the
speed loop using the sensorless algorithm in order to draw the minimum amount
of current under the same speed and torque conditions.

The angle between the rotor field and the stator field must be equa to 90º to
obtain the highest mutual torque production.This synchronization requires
knowing the rotor position,

Figure 10. Excitation of PMSM

During commutation all the three phases may be active. One positive and other
two negative battery voltage.However phase sequencing based on rotor position.

The FOC consists of controlling the stator currents represented by a vector.As

FOC is simply based on projections,the control structure handle sinstantaneous
electrical quantities.This makes the control accurate in every working
operation(steady state and transient) and independent of the limited bandwidth
mathematical model.

In DC motors, the flux and torque producing currents are orthogonal and can be
controlled independently. The magneto motive forces, developed by these
currents are also held orthogonal.
The torque developed is given by the equation
Te = Ka φ(If) Ia
Where
φ(If) – flux
Ia - armature current
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Hence the flux is only dependent on the field winding current. If the flux is held
constant, then the torque can be controlled by the armature current.

Field Oriented Control is the technique used to achieve the decoupled control of
torque and flux by transforming the stator current quantities (phase currents) from
stationary reference frame to torque and flux producing currents components in
rotating reference frame.

Speed and Torque Control of 3 Phase Induction Motor by V/F Control Method:
The AC induction motor comprises two electromagnetic parts:1)Stationary part
called the stator 2)Rotating part called the rotor.

Figure.11. Exploded view of Induction Motor

1.Fan cover, 2. Cooling fan, 3. End bell, 4. Lifting eye, 5. Nameplate, 6. Stator
coils, 7. Bearing seal, 8. Ball bearing, 9. Squirrel-cage rotor, 10. Cast-iron frame,
11. Wiring box (Courtesy: Baldor Electric Company)

The stator is a tubular iron frame that consists of a laminated and slotted stator
core. In the case of a three-phase induction motor, the stator holds symmetrically
distributed three-phase winding in its slots.

Figure.12. Stator and it’s connection

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Induction motor rotor is of two types:1)Squirrel Cage Rotor 2)Wound Type Rotor
or Slip Ring Type Rotor

Figure.13. Rotor type in Induction Motor

The stator of the motor consists of overlapping winding offset by an electrical

angle of 120°. When we connect the primary winding, or the stator to a 3 phase
AC source, it establishes rotating magnetic field which rotates at the synchronous
speed.The rotor circuit is shorted and current flows in the rotor conductors.The
action of the stator rotating flux and the rotor current produces a force that
generates a torque that rotate the rotor shaft.

The torque developed by the induction motor is directly proportional to the ratio of
the applied voltage and the frequency of supply. By varying the voltage and the
frequency, but keeping their ratio constant, the torque developed can be kept
constant throughout the speed range. The curve linear within rated frequency and
voltage.The acceleration and deceleration of the motor can be controlled by
controlling the change of the supply frequency to the motor with respect to time.

Figure.14. Frequency verses Voltage to keep torque constant

The 3-phase induction motor is connected to a 3-phase inverter bridge as shown

in Figure .The power inverter has 6 switches that are controlled in order to
generate 3-phase AC output from the DC bus. PWM signals, generated from the

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microcontroller, control these 6 switches.The amplitude of phase voltage is
determined by the duty cycle of the PWM signals.
While the motor is running, three out of six switches will be on at any given time;
either one upper and two lower switches or one lower and two upper switches.

Figure.15. Driving circuit Induction Motor

2.4 BATTERY CHARGER

International organizations, such as the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), are making
an important effort in the development of different standards which regulate the
connection of EVs to the power grids. Some of the most important standards are:

IEC 61851-1 [22]. This standard defines the charging levels and refers to the
characteristics and operating conditions of the supply device and the connection
to the vehicle.
IEC 62196-1 [23]. It mainly defines plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors and
inlets for EV/PHEVs.
IEC 61980-1 [24]. It is applied to the equipment for the wireless power transfer
from the supply network to electric road vehicles.
SAE J1772 [25]. It covers the general requirements to facilitate conductive
charging of EV/PHEVs in North America.

Four different EV charging modes are defined in IEC 61851-1 [22]. A residual
current device is required for all charging modes.

Mode 1. It is the most basic charging mode. It can be employed in single-

phase or three-phase power systems of maximum 250 VRMS and 480
VRMS respectively. The maximum allowed RMS current is 16 A and no
specific connector for the EV is required. This mode is not allowed in
United States (US).

Mode 2. It can be employed in single-phase or three-phase power systems

of maximum 250 VRMS and 480 VRMS respectively. The maximum
allowed RMS current is 32 A and no specific connector for the EV is
required. It requires an inline control box.

Mode 3. The EV is connected to the power grid by means of a specific

electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) and the inline control box is

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 extended to the employed EVSE. The connection can be single-phase or
three-phase and the rated maximum RMScurrent ranges from 32 A to 250
A.

Mode 4. The EV is connected to the power grid by means of an off-board

battery charger through a DC connection. The maximum rated current is
400 A.
Both modes 1 and 2 are considered slow charging modes and they are expected
to take place in residential areas through common household outlets overnight
and allow reaching battery full capacity before morning.
Charging mode 3 is considered a semi-slow charging mode and, although it can
be implemented in most of the environments, it is likely to be installed in parking
lots, shopping-centres, hotels, etc., for client service .
Finally, mode 4 is meant to allow a full recharge of the batteries in few minutes
and it is likely to be used in roads and rest areas of highways.

Those battery chargers that are placed inside of the vehicle are called on-board
battery chargers whereas the off-board battery chargers are placed outside.

On-board battery chargers are more power limited because of their weight and
volume constrains, so that they can be used for battery charging modes 1 and 2.

In contrast, off-board battery chargers are mainly designed for battery charging
modes 3 and 4 since they are not subjected to weight and size limitations.

Battery chargers can also be classified into conductive and inductive. Conductive
battery chargers are defined as those charging systems that use a direct physical
contact between the connector and the charge inlet .

On the contrary, inductive chargers are those that transfer the power
magnetically. Although some works deal with moving chargers, inductive
chargers are mainly considered for stationary slow charging applications.

Nowadays there are different types of connectors for electric vehicles. This
diversity may be confusing. In the following paragraphs, there is short description
of each type, so that there is no doubt.

Connector Type 1 (SAE J1772)

This is the standard Japanese connector for electric vehicle charging in

alternating current (also adopted by the north American countries, and accepted
by the EU). It is mounted on EV models such as, Opel Ampera, Nissan Leaf,
Nissan ENV200, Mitsubishi Outlander, Mitsubishi iMiev, Peugeot iON, Citröen C-
Zero, Renault Kangoo ZE (type 1), Ford Focus electric, Toyota Prius Plug in and
KIA SOUL EV.
It is designed for single-phase current connection: phase, neutral and ground. It
also has two pins for communication with the vehicle and and extra protection to
lock the connector in order to avoid to be disconnected by a third party.

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The maximum current at which it can operate is 32A (single-phase). Which allows
a maximum operating power of 7.4kW.

Figure.16. Connector Type-1

Connector type 2 (IEC 62196-2)

This type of connector is commonly known as the “Mennekes”, which is the name
of the first brand that commercialised them. This type of connector is approved as
the European standard.
Its an alternating current connector that is mounted on electric vehicle models
such as BMW i3, i8, BYD E6, Renault Zoe, Tesla Model S, Volvo V60 plug-in
hybrid, VW Golf plug-in hybrid, VW E-up, Audi A3 E-tron, Mercedes S500 plug-in,
Porsche Panamera and Renault Kangoo ZE.
Type 2 connectors allow single-phase charges up to 16 A and three-phase
charges up to 63 A, which result in a power of 3.5 kW and 44 kW respectively.
Its pin distribution is similar to type 1, but in this case, two more pins are
incorporated that correspond to the two extra phases needed for three-phase
charging.

Figure.17. Connector Type-2

Connector type 3

This type of connector was created in 2010 by the EV Plug Alliance association,
whose members include Scame, Schneider Electric and Legrand. However, this
type of connector has lost the battle with respect to the previous model (Type 2),
and it is currently in disuse.
Within this model, one can distinguish two variants:
· 3A prepared to withstand single-phase charges at 16 A (phase, neutral,
ground and control pin)
· 3C allows single- and three-phase charges at 32 A (3 phases, neutral, and
control pin and presence)
The maximum power allowed for this connector is 22 kW.

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Figure.18. Connector Type-3

CHAdeMO connector

This type was developed by a Japanese association formed by Tokyo Electric

Power Company (TEPCO), Nissan, Mitsubishi, Fuji Heavy Industries (Subaru)
and Toyota.
It is designed for fast charges in direct current that can supply up to 50 kW of
power with an current that can reach 125 A.
It is equipped in electric vehicles such as Nissan Leaf, Nissan ENV200,
Mitsubishi Outlander, Mitsubishi iMiev, Peugeot iON, Citröen C-Zero and KIA
SOUL EV.

Figure.19. Connector CHAdeMO

Combo 2 connector (IEC-62196-3)

This model is the European adopted version for direct current charging. As its
name suggests, it is a combined connector formed by a type 2 AC connector and
a two pin DC connector. This offers the possibility to charge in modes 2, 3 and 4
through a single output. The maximum power at which it can operate in AC is 43
kW and in some cases up to 100 kW. Nowadays, in DC mode, it can operate at
50 kW.
Manufacturers such as Audi, BMW, Porsche and Volkswagen incorporate this
type of connector.

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Figure.20. Connector Combo 2

3. MOTOR POWER RATING CALCULATION

For deciding the power rating of a vehicle, the vehicle dynamics like rolling
resistance, gradient resistance, aerodynamic drag, etc. has to be considered. For
illustration procedure for selecting motor rating for an electric car of gross weight
1100 kg is considered.
Ftotal=Frolling+Fgradient+Faerodynamic drag
Where, Ftotal=Total force
Frolling= force due to Rolling Resistance
Fgradient resistance= force due to Gradient Resistance
Faerodynamic drag=force due to aerodynamic drag
Ftotal is the total tractive force that the output of motor must overcome, in order to
move the vehicle

ROLLING RES ISTANCE

Rolling resistance is the resistance offered to the vehicle due to the contact of
tires with road. The formula for calculat ing force due to rolling resistance is given
by equation
Frolling=Crr*M*g
Where, Crr= coefficient of rolling resistance
M = mass in kgg = accele ration due to gravity= 9.81 m/s²
For the application considered, Crr=0.01
M= 1100 kg
Therefore,
Frolling= 0.01*1100* 9.81=107.8 N
Prolling= Frolling*V/3600= 107.8*160*/3600= 4.79 kW (assumed vehicle maximum
speed 160 kmph)
Where, V=velocity in kmph
GRADIENT RES ISTANCE
Gradient resistance of the vehicle is the resistance offered to the vehicle while
climb ing a hill or flyover or while travelling in adownward slope. The angle
between the ground and slope of the path is represented as α, which is shown in
Figure-21

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Figure 21. Angle betwee nthe gr ound and slope of a path

The formula for ca lculating the gradient resistance is given byequation

Fgradient resistance=+M*g*sin α
In this illustration, let us consider the electric car runs on a flat road.
Therefore, the angle α =0.
Fgradient= 1100*9.81*sin 0= 0 N.
In this case, the power required to overcome gradient resistance is also zero.
AERODYNAMIC DRAG
Aerodynamic drag is the resistive force offered due to viscous force acting on the
vehicle. It is largely determined by the shape of the vehicle.
The formula for calculating the aerodynamic drag is given by equation
Faerodynamic drag= 0.5* CA*Af*ρ*(V)²
CA = coefficient of drag =0.35 (typical Car), 0.9(heavy truck)
Af = Front surface Area of vehicle =2.7 m² Typically for medium car
V = Speed of the vehicle = 160kmph =160x1000/3600m/s=44m/s
ρ = Density of Fluid /air =1.21 Kg/m³
Faerodynamic drag = 0.5 x 0.35 x 2.7 m² x 1.21 Kg/m³ x (44m/s)² =1106N
Power required to overcome drag resistance = Faerodynamic drag x V = 48.6KW
These are the three main forces which act on the vehicle when it travels at
constant speed.
Therefore, the total tractive power required to move the vehicle is Ptotal= 4.79
kW+ 48.6 kW= 54.3 kW.
Therefore , the mechanica power output (Mtractive) required to drive the vehicle
is given by equation Mtractive = Ptotal/ η =54.3 kW/0.8 =66.7kW

4. BATTERY PACK ENERGY

Battery pack energy in KWh= Vehicle range in Km x Average energy
consumption in [KWh/Km ]
An average electric car consumes approximately 0.20 kWh/km
For 200Km range Battery pack total energy for medium car= 0.20 kWh/km x
200Km =40KWh
Reference : Battery capacity in Kona Electric Car: 39.2 KWh

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Statistical Data:
Vehicle Year EPA Rated EPA Rated City EPA Rated Highway
Combined fuel economy fuel economy
fuel economy

Hyundai 136 mpg-e 150 mpg-e 122 mpg-e

Ioniq 2017 (25 kW·h/100 mi (22 kW·h/100 mi (28 kW·h/100 mi
Electric[2][8]
15.7 kW⋅h/100 km) 14 kW⋅h/100 km) 17.5 kW⋅h/100 km)
119 mpg-e 128 mpg-e 109 mpg-e
Chevrolet
2014/15/16 (28 kW·h/100 mi (26 kW·h/100 mi (31 kW·h/100 mi
Spark EV[13]
18.0 kW⋅h/100 km) 16.7 kW⋅h/100 km) 19.6 kW⋅h/100 km)
118 mpg-e 129 mpg-e 106 mpg-e
BMW
2017 (29 kW·h/100 mi (16.6 kW⋅h/100 km) (20.2 kW⋅h/100 km)
i3 (94 A·h)[9]
18.1 kW⋅h/100 km)

Table 4: Statistical data for fuel economy

5. REFERENCE

1) http://ijesc.org/upload/b79d326cd131af0568540ae045c6c49a.Selection%2
0of%20Power%20Rating%20of%20an%20Electric%20Motor%20for%20El
ectric%20Vehicles.pdf

2) https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291333491_Design_and_control
_of_a_battery_charger_for_electric_vehicles

3) https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224400819_Selection_of_eLECT
RIC_mOTOR_dRIVES_for_electric_vehicles/link/571104b508aeebe07c02
3c7f/download

4) https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved
=2ahUKEwiN_O7i0_fqAhVWX30KHQW9Bn0QFjAAegQIAhAB&url=http%
3A%2F%2Fwww.ehcar.net%2Flibrary%2Fthese%2Fthese049.pdf&usg=A
OvVaw145N1iY_hcKebSQE1Qmfl5

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