THE FLOUR TREATMENT AGENT AND FORTIFICANT THAT MAY COMPROMISE THE HALALAN

Syafiqullah bin Lukman (1180869) Group 3

INSTRUCTOR: Assoc. Prof Dr Alina Abdul Rahim Faculty of Science & Technology
Abstract
The widespread fortification of flour with the flour treatment agents is not a new issue worldwide. The flour is
fortified with 90 mg/kg of L-cysteine that acts as a dough conditioner to reduce the mixing time and resulting in a
dough with improved pan flow while 50 mg/kg of benzoyl peroxide is used to whiten the yellowish flour as
demanded by the consumers. Enrichment and fortification of the nutrients will be conducted to compensate the
nutritional loss of the flour after the milling processes. Even though these additives are used to maintain the
desirable characteristics of the flour, the halal status and the wholesomeness of the flour are still doubtful since the
source of these additives may derived from unknown sources and can cause health problems to the consumers.
Therefore, this article offers the understanding of flour treatment agents in terms of its properties, characteristics,
usage and benefits. This paper also included future explanation on the Halal status and wholesomeness of flour
usage in food in Islam.

Keywords: Flour treatment agents, Flour, L-Cysteine, Benzoyl peroxide, Halal, Wholesome (toyyib)

INTRODUCTION This study employed library research study that is

Flour production involves grinding and refining cereal
grains by a processed called milling. The main
objective of this process is to produce comparatively
fine powder consisting some portion of the grain
depending on the specific product desired. In order to
make a whole wheat flour, most of the bran and shorts
are retained. In contrast, at least 25% of the bran and
shorts (layer just inside the outer bran layer) are
removed to make a refined flour. This will result to
the nutritional loss, but the shelf-life is prolonged[1].
The differences between whole wheat and refined
flour is summarized in figure 1.
Flour treatment agents are applied to the flour in order
to improve its qualities and baking properties. L-
Cysteine is used as an oxidizing agent that will
contribute to the extensibility of the resulting
dough[2]. While the benzoyl peroxide is used as a
bleaching agent to decolourize the flour. The freshly
milled flour has a yellowish tint. The flour will be
either bleached to make it appear whiter thus
developing the gluten or remain unchanged for the
making of whole wheat flour[3].
proven effective in answering numerous research
questions in fulfilment of the research objective. The
search engine used for this study is Google Patents
that provides the users with reliable sources from
books, articles, journal and scientific research. Google
Patents also gives the user an option to blow up the
figures of a search result if at all the user wishes to
focus on the figures of the different patents[4].
The researcher also uses ResearchGate database to
gather the information from authoritative source. The
ResearchGate profiles incorporate photographs,
keywords of professional interest, links to published
articles, and other scholarly items[5]. This ensure fast,
comprehensive and unbiased results.

Apart from the halal status, the wholesomeness

(Thoyyib) of flour may be deprived since a lot of
nutrients will be eliminated during the milling and the
bleaching process.. The addition of food additives
must be controlled and compatible with the human
needs. The flour also must be free from toxicity as
consuming lawful and wholesome foods is obligatory
for all humankind especially the Muslims.
Figure 1: Differences between whole wheat & refined
METHODOLOGY
flour [1].
 FLOUR TREATMENT AGENT: L-Cysteine
Source of L-Cysteine
Cysteine can be found abundantly in strong fibre
strands. Cysteine is necessary for the formation
disulfide bridge which will lead to the stability of
protein in the fibre like hair, wool and feathers. It is
commercially being extracted from these raw
materials by the manufacturers as they have large
amount of cysteine[6].
However, cysteine also could be found in vegetables
and fruits. In the previous study. showed that different
biological thiols are present in certain vegetables at a
different concentration. The biological thiols include
cysteine derivatives, is detected by using high
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). In
vegetables, the cysteine concentrations ranged
between 4 – 349 nanomolar/g (nM/g) wet weight. The
lowest concentration is obtained from avocado and the
highest is red pepper while no cysteine was detected
in carrot, potato and broccoli. Furthermore, the levels
of cysteine present in fruits were less compared in
vegetables. The highest level of cysteine was 58 nM/g
wet weight in papaya and the lowest level was 7 nM/g
wet weight in lemon [7].
Figure 2: sources of cysteine [7] [8]
The production of L-cysteine
There are several different methods in order to
produce cysteine. This includes the extraction of
cysteine from keratin hydrolysate, enzymatic
bioconversion and fermentation. The comparison
between them is summarized in Table 1.
2.1. Keratin Hydrolysate
L-cysteine is commonly produced via the chemical
synthesis. it is being produced from the keratins
through protein hydrolysate [9]. The main source of
keratin is from the fibre strand of human and animal
like hair, feathers, hooves and bristles. These raw
materials are being put into the dissolving tank with
the addition of 4% hydrochloric acid and allowed to
dissolve. The mixture is then pumped into the
electrolytic cell for electrolysis where a titanium alloy
plate and silver plate are used as electrodes. After the
mixture has been electrolyzed, it will be transferred to
the decolourizing tank containing activated charcoal
for decolourization. Next the decolourized mixture
will be passed through a microporous sand core to
eliminate the impurities. Then the filtrate will be
delivered to the concentrating tank for concentration.
The solution allowed to crystallize at a normal
temperature. The final product will be obtained in the
form of L-cysteine hydrochloride after centrifugation.
[10].
Figure 3: Schematic diagram of the apparatus for
electrolysis (1) Transparent electrolysis tank, 35 cm x 2
1 cm x 24 cm (2) anion exchange membrane (3) anode,
(4) cathode, lead; (5) anolyte (6) catholyte: mixture of
cysteine and HCl (7) power source, 5 V [11].
2.2. Enzymatic Bioconversion
Cysteine could be produced from the enzymatic
bioconversion of D,L-2-Amino-Δ 2-Thiazoline-4-
Carboxylic Acid (DL-ATC) to L-cysteine by the
pseudomonas sp. ON-4a. The conversion of DL-ATC
L-cysteine will involve three successive steps: (i)
enzymatic reclamation of D-ATC to L-ATC; (ii) a
ring-opening reaction of L-ATC to Ncarbamyl-L-
cysteine (L-NCC) as intermediate; and (iii) hydrolysis
of L-NCC to L-cysteine. The enzymes that are used
are enzymes; ATC racemase, L-ATC hydrolase and
Scarbamyl-L-cysteine hydrolase [12]. the enzymes are
reusable and there will be no chemical waste.
2.3. Fermentation
The L-cysteine also could be produced in large
amount from the fermentation of glucose an inorganic
salt. The cysteine production strains have to be
synthesized in order to initiate the process. The
microorganisms that usually used is the wild type
strains Escherichia coli and Pasteurella anatis. After
the cysteine producing bacterial strain is obtained at
the end of the modification of the plasmid, it will be
cultured in culture solution containing glucose and
thiosulfate feed. Even though the cysteine may
degrade when it is being produced, the L-Cysteine
yield can be increased by weakening the gene coding
for L-Cysteine-degrading enzymes[13]. This approach
has been reported to minimize the cost of production
and has potential commercial exploitation.
THE HUKUM OF USING L-CYSTEINE IN
FLOUR
Since the flour is made up by natural sources, its Halal
status still has to be certified because the flour could
be fortified with unknown substances. It could be also
be contaminated by other sources due to the
environment. In general, the halal issue concerning
the use of L-cysteine in food processing can be
divided into three. Firstly, in terms of resources of
extracted L-cysteine. For L-cysteine which is
extracted from animal feather or hair, the next issue
that may arise is whether this animal come from the
lawful group of animals or not. As aforementioned,
some L-cysteine are extracted from swine feathers and
there are certainly Haram and forbidden for
consumption by Muslims. Allah mentioned in the Al-
Quran:
“He has forbidden you only carrion, and blood, and
swine flesh, and that which hath been immolated to
(the name of) any other than Allah. But he who is
driven by necessity, neither craving nor transgressing,
it is no sin for him. Lo! Allah is Forgiving, Merciful”
(Al-Quran. Al-Baqarah 2:173).
Although it is mentioned on its flesh only, it also
applied to every part of the body including the
feathers. A product of that contains L-cysteine which
is derived from pigs should be avoided by the
Muslims as it is haram and forbidden.
Imam Ibn Taymiyyah (may Allah have mercy on him)
said:
All hair, feathers and wool are pure, whether they are
from an animal that may be eaten or the skin of an
animal that may not be eaten, and whether they were
taken from an animal that was alive or dead. This is
the most likely to be correct of the scholarly opinions.
(Majmu’ al-Fatawa, 21:38).
However, if the animals are from the lawful group for
consumption by Muslims, the relevant question in this
case is whether the animal was slaughtered according
Islamic rule of Shariah. If the animal was slaughtered
as required by the Islamic rule of Shariah, so there is
no further question as to the issue of Halal for L-
cysteine.
The second issue of Halal is in the case of L-cysteine
derived from the genetic manipulation and cloning.
Several aspects should be considered to enable the
production of L-cysteine being Halal to be eaten.
Firstly, the genetic resources which would like to be
cloned or transformed into a host microorganism need
to be ensured. If the genetic resources originate from
lawful or legitimate sources such as Halal animal,
plants, fish, etc. then there is no doubt of Halal at this
stage in respect of L-cysteine. It is surely Halal to be
consumed. But if the genetic resources derived from
the unlawful animal, then the L-cysteine should be
avoided as the Halal status is very doubtful and
arguable. Based on The Special Conference of the
National Fatwa Committee (Malaysia) on the 12 th July
1999 on the Food and Drink Biotechnology, it is
decided that product, food and drink processed
through pig DNA biotechnology is contradictory to
Islamic law and it is forbidden as there is still other
alternative available and food manufacturing does not
reach the level of darura (necessity)[14].
After successfully cloned, microorganisms which has
been modified will be breeded and reproduced via the
process of fermentation on a large scale to produce L-
cysteine. The growth or culture medium that was used
in the fermentation process must be equipped with
Halal resources only. If non halal medium was used,
the resulting L-cysteine would be Haram to consume.
This happened in Indonesia 2001 in which seven
employees of P.T Ajinamoto were arrested for using
soy peptone that was manufactured by using porcine
enzyme in the growth media[15].
There is a product from the Puratos company that sold
flour and distributed it to other bakery industry despite
the fact that this product contains pig’s DNA. Jabatan
Kemajuan Islam Malaysia (JAKIM) has clarified that
the application for Halal Certificate for their product
are unsuccessful due to this incident[16].
The third issue that may arise is the impurity of the L-
cysteine. There are some people that complaint and
doubt about the usage of L-cysteine from animal’s
hair due to its impurities, it is still acceptable is Islam.
L-cysteine which has been extracted from the sheep
wool is no longer have the same nature as the impure
wool taken directly from the sheep. It has been
processed into different substance and become lawful
through the process of Istihalah which means
transformation process. Hence, it is acceptable to
consume food containing L-cysteine which is derived
from the lawful animal. Based on The 90th of vitamin B, 50% of calcium, 70% of phosphorus,
Conference of the National Fatwa Committee 80% of iron, and 90% of magnesium[21]. The
(Malaysia) on the 1st March 2010, it has been decided wholesomeness of the flour may deprive since it is no
that the use of the D3 vitamin processed from the hair longer considered healthy and nutritious food
of lawful animals to be consumed is permitted
ingredients.
whether it is taken while the animal is alive or after its
slaughter according to the shariah compliant[13]. This
decision could also be applied in the use of L-cysteine
processed from the hair of animal. The characteristics
of the L-cysteine will be transformed through a series
of chemical reaction and the impurities have been
eliminated. Thus, it is Mabuh (Harus) to consume this
L-cysteine.

Currently, there are several processes to purify

cysteine from complex mixture (keratin hydrolysate)
or fermenter broth. The processes to purify cysteine
are summarized in Table 2[17]. The invention relates
to a process for purifying L-cysteine from an L-
cysteine-containing fermenter broth.
Figure 4: The difference of nutritional value between
Lastly, all materials used as solvent, preservatives and wholemeal and white flour [22].
the like as briefly discussed must be lawful according
This inconvenience scenario was supported by the
to Islamic law. The use of non-halal ingredients in
Food Fortification Initiative Network that states wheat
turn will result to the formation of non-halal L-
cysteine. and maize lose much of their essential nutrients such
as Thiamin, Riboflavin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Iron, and
Niacin in the milling process.
FLOUR TREATMET AGENTS: Benzoyl peroxide

Benzoyl peroxide as Bleaching Agent The by-product of bleaching process: Alloxan

Benzoyl peroxide has a long history of use in food
industry as bleaching agent added for flour. A premix
of 32% benzoyl peroxide and 68% cornstarch is used
in bleaching flour. The maximum amount used as
flour bleaching agent is 50 mg/kg of the flour[18].
This bleaching agent has the advantage over gaseous
agent that only a simple feeder is required, and storage
of chemicals present no hazard. The treated flour
contains traces of benzoic acid, but objection has not
been raised[19].
The bleaching process using benzoyl peroxide does
not affect the baking process to any marked degree.
However, it has the disadvantage that the reagent used
(benzoyl peroxide) is mixed with the flour in such
minute amount that even distribution throughout the
flour mass is difficult to obtain[20].
Most fast product are made from white flour that may
contains deadly toxic chemicals. The health official
has been warning the general public about the dangers
that will take place due to the consumption of white
flour products.
The by-product of bleaching process which is alloxan
may cause potential diabetes to the consumers who
consume white flour product regularly. Upon the
intake of alloxan, the free radicals will be generated in
the body and destroy the Beta cell of the pancrease.
As a result, the Beta cell cannot operate normally and
fail to produce insulin. This will then cause the
consumers to be affected with insulin-dependent
diabetes[23]. Unfortunately, the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) still allows companies to use it
in the foods we eat.

Benzoyl peroxide is also used in New South Wales,

Queensland, the U.S.A, Canada, Netherlands, New
Zealand (up to 40 mg/kg, for pastry flour only) and
Japan (up to 300 mg/kg)[19].

Nutritive value of bleached flour

As with any refined foods, a lot of nutrients are lost in

the process. This will lead to the elimination of the
natural antioxidant namely vitamin E tocopherol, 50%

Figure 5 : Alloxan molecule [23].
THE HUKUM OF USING BENZOYL PEROXIDE
IN FLOUR
The usage of benzoyl peroxide in the flour can also be
haram if the amount of benzoyl peroxide exceeds 50
mg/kg of the flour. It is said in the Food Regulation
1985 in Part VIII Standards And Particular Labelling
Requirements For Food, flour may contain not more
than 50 mg/kg of benzoic acid derived from the
benzoyl peroxide calculated on a water-free basis[24].
This statement also supported by the JAKIM as the
amount of benzoyl peroxide exceeding 50 mg/kg of
flour will become toxic and not safe for consumption.
Thus, it is Haram to use flour that contains benzoyl
peroxide that exceeds 50 mg/kg of flour.
In other occasion, people might want to be aware that
the concentration of benzoyl peroxide varies with
other countries. As mention above, the concentration
of benzoyl peroxide in Japan is 300 mg/kg which
exceeds the permitted amount (50 mg/kg). The flour
used in Japan might become toxic as the benzoyl
peroxide concentration is very high and may lead to
the toxicity of flour. We must be careful in choosing
our flour that is free from toxic, wholesome and
considered safe for consumption.
There is a lot of white flour that is produced in
Malaysia namely Tepung Cap Sauh, Tepung Cap
Wau, Tepung Cap Bunga Cempaka, Tepung Cap Lily,
and Tepung Cap Blue Key. All these flours had been
declared Haram by the consumers. They claimed that
the flour is toxic due to the presence of benzoyl
peroxide which bleaching agent and can cause cancer.
After that, JAKIM explained and declared on their
official website and Hab Halal Facebook on 14 th
January 2017 that all the flour are safe for
consumption as the benzoyl peroxide content does not
exceed 50 kg/mg and could not lead to toxicity in the
flour[25]. Therefore, all the flours mentioned above
are Halal as it safe for consumption.
THE RECOMMENDATIONS TO IMPROVE
WHOLESOMENESS (THOYYIB) OF FLOUR
Another aspect of Halal is the wholesomeness
(thoyyib) considerations. The food prepared and
processed today should have more nutrition and less
risk of contaminants that compatible with the thoyyib
requirements. The humankind not only should seek
for Halal food but also consume the foods that are
healthy and nutritious. Allah mentioned to all
humankind in Al-Quran:
“O humankind eat of what is on earth, lawful and
good and do not follow the steps of the devil” (Al-
Quran. Baqarah 2:168)
This verse explains to us that consuming Halal and
thoyyib food is obligatory to all humankind including
the Non-Muslims. Thus, the food that we eat must be
well-processed and contains no hazardous chemicals.
As mentioned above, the flour might contain toxic
substance which is alloxan that could harm the
consumers. However, the amount of alloxan released
during the bleaching process could be reduced
provided the bleaching agent used is in a diluted form.
The amount of nutrients destroyed by during the
bleaching processed also could be reduced.
The risk of affliction with a serious disease like
diabetes also could be minimized when the flour is
being fortified with a lot of Vitamin E that could act
as antioxidant. The fortification of flour with Vitamin
E will not only extend the shelf-life of the flour but
also serve as a healthy food ingredient to the
consumers[23].
The flour also has to be fortified with iron since it is
eliminated during the milling and bleaching process.
The iron used in the fortification should be derived
from appropriate source. The source of iron may be
derived from encapsulated iron salt, Iron EDTA and
elemental iron powder. Each of these iron source will
show different bioavailability or the degree to which
the body can absorb and utilize a particular mineral
source[26]. The sources of iron for flour fortification
is summarized in Table 3.
CONC LUSION
As a Muslims, we not only seek for Halal food but
also thoyyib food which is wholesome. Flour
treatment agent is considered safe and lawful provided
that it is derived from lawful sources and free from
toxic. The flour is made up from natural resources but
still the Halal status has to be verified. Halal
certification tells Muslims that the ingredients and
production method of a product has been tested and
declared permissible by a certification body [27].
Cysteine could be derived from various sources.it has
been used as a food additive as dough improver as
 Table 1: COMPARISON OF CYSTEINE PRODUCTION BY VARIOUS METHODS

METHOD OF RAW MATERIAL DETAILS PROCEDURE CHALLENGES REMARKS REFERENCES

PRODUCTION

Extraction from Human hair and -Extraction of cysteine via -Low yield -Commercially [9], [10]
protein hydrolysate animal feather electrolysis from keratin used in food
-unpleasant odour industry especially
-Decolourizing of mixture in China
with activated charcoal -waste treatment is
necessary -May impose
-Filtration and Halal issue
concentrating the filtrate

-Crystallization at proper
temperature

Enzymatic Asymmetrical -Pseudomonas exhibit -Unstable L- -Industrially used [12]

bioconversion by hydrolysis of DL-2- activities involved in cysteine producing by Ajinomoto Co.
Pseudomonas amino-2-thiazoline- asymmetrical hydrolysis of enzyme that is
4carboxylic acid DL-2-amino-2-thiazoline- formed in - The enzymes
(chemically 4carboxylic acid (D-ATC) Pseudomonas, used are reusable
synthesiszed) to L-cysteine. -limited production
of L-cysteine due - No chemical
Steps involved: Enzymatic to product waste
racemization of -D-ATC to inhibition
L-ATC A ring-opening
reaction of LATC to N-
carbomonyl-L-cysteine (L-
NCC) as intermediate
-Hydrolysis of L-NCC to
L-cysteine

Fermentation of Direct fermentation There have been two Cysteine -SAT that is less [12]
glucose from glucose approaches to obtaining an degradation in sensitive to
SAT that is less sensitive to media feedback
feedback inhibition: The inhibition is used
engineering of SAT from E. in this study
coli through site directed or
random. The use of the -May also impose
natural SAT, which is halal issue if the
desentisized from higher culture medium
plants contains enzyme
from unlawful
animal.

.
 TABLE 2: Isolation and Purification Process of Cysteine. Adapted from Boehm [17]
Process/Method Detail procedure Drawback/weakness
Isolation of soluble cystine in purified L-cysteine is reduced from complex Complicated and cysteine must
form mixture or appropriate fermenter be prepared in two- stage
broth to give L-cysteine via electrolysis process via intermediate cystine

Direct isolation of cysteine from a -Cystine and inorganic salt are Limited to the solution that
solution containing cysteine, cystine, crystallized at 20°C by adding hydrogen contained serine, cysteine,
serine and inorganic salt chloride and removed by filtration. cystine and inorganic salt.
-Remaining solution contains cysteine Low yield and low purity

Ion exchange chromatography -Fermenter broth comprises of an Simple, cost effective and
oxidizing agent, cysteine binding to an applicable for industrial
ion exchanger and form ion exchange application
as an eluent

Source of iron Features Advantages Disadvantages Flour status

fortificant

Encapsulated iron -There are coated -Have fat coating -The product may have Thoyyib
salts forms of ferrous that protect them large particle size
sulfate and from chemically causing them to be
ferrous fumarate reacting with removed from flour
available unsaturated fat. during the final sifting.

- The fat coating will -The product is fairly

be degraded in gut to expensive.
enable the absorption
of iron.

Iron EDTA -The iron is -Prevents the iron -High tendency to Thoyyib
chelated with from being bound to cause colour change in
EDTA phytic acid and food.
maximize the
absorption of iron. -More expensive
compared to other
-Does not promote source of iron
lipid oxidation. fortificant.

Elemental Iron -Most common -Low cost -May damage the flour Less thoyyib
powders used as source of due to the presence of
iron fortificant. tramp iron

-Can be detected
by magnets and
metal detector

Table 3: the source of iron fortificant[26]

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