Heat Laboratory

Report

Student Name: ‫فلوباتير سمير بدرى‬

Student Number: 278
Section number: 7

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 A. Heat exchanger
Introduction
Heat exchangers are used to transfer heat from one fluid to another. One fluid will be
heated and the other is cooled. One way of classifying heat exchangers is with regard to the
types of fluids involved. For example an air to air heat exchanger transfers heat between
two air streams. Another type is an air to water heat exchanger, like a car radiator. The
water (with antifreeze in it) is cooled and the air passing through the radiator is heated. In
general heat exchangers can be liquid to liquid, liquid to gas or gas to gas. The gas is often
air, but a heat exchanger may be used to heat or cool other gases also.

I. Radiator Type Water/Air Heat Exchanger

The Flow Arrangement and Theory of Operation

Radiator type heat exchangers (plate and fin type) use fans to circulate air and cool the
fluid inside the tubes of the exchanger.
Since the cooling medium is air, these exchangers can be used without restriction.
No water is used in the cooling process, so there is no need for plumbing. This also means
that there is no danger of the fluid in the tubes being mixed with water.
The device has very few component parts, and this makes maintenance very easy.
The fans used have very low operating noise.
The radiator is made from aluminum alloy, making it light and compact.
And, the use of a standardized frame means it can be used with a variety of standards of
motors.
Advantages & disadvantages
Advantages:
 Less equipment involved.
 Easy mechanism.
 Low maintenance.
 Reliability.
Disadvantages:
 Not much heat transfer takes place compared to liquid cooling.
 Not suitable for massive engines.
 Needs Ventilation.

Applications
Used in rolling machines, forming machinery, machine tools, construction equipment,
chemical plants, shipping, power generation, food processing machinery, medical
appliances, semiconductor manufacturing equipment, co-generation, etc.

II. Tube Nest Water/Water Exchanger (Shell and Tube)

The Flow Arrangement and Theory of Operation

The most common type of heat exchangers, shell and tube heat exchangers are constructed
of a series of parallel tubes (i.e., tube bundle) enclosed within a sealed, cylindrical pressure
vessel (i.e., shell). The design of these devices is such that one fluid flows through the
smaller tubes, and the other fluid flows around their outsides and between them within the
sealed shell. Other design characteristics available for this type of heat exchanger include
finned tubes, single- or two-phase heat transfer, countercurrent flow, cocurrent flow, or
cross flow arrangements, and single, two, or multiple pass configurations.

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Advantages & disadvantages
Advantages:
 They can be designed and manufactured to bear very high pressures.
 They have extremely flexible and steady design.
 Can be designed and manufactured to bear very high and very low temperatures.
 They are resistant to thermal shocks.
 Capability of providing a larger surface area for heat transfer to take place while
having a shorter length overall due to presence of multiple tubes.
Disadvantages:
 Initial cost is high.
 Dismantling and assembling is very time consuming.
 Joints may run down because of the working conditions.
 Cleaning of tubes is difficult and fouling is always an issue, Cleaning tubes may be
more difficult if the pitch is triangular.
 Requires more space.

Applications
The simple design of a shell and tube heat exchanger makes it an ideal cooling solution for
a wide variety of applications. One of the most common applications is the cooling of
hydraulic fluid and oil in engines, transmissions and hydraulic power packs. With the right
choice of materials they can also be used to cool or heat other mediums, such as swimming
pool water or charge air. One of the big advantages of using a shell and tube heat
exchanger is that they are often easy to service, particularly with models where a floating
tube bundle (where the tube plates are not welded to the outer shell) is available.

III. Concentric Tube Water/Water Exchanger (Double Pipe)

The Flow Arrangement and Theory of Operation

A form of shell and tube heat exchanger, double pipe heat exchangers employ the simplest
heat exchanger design and configuration which consists of two concentric cylindrical pipes
or tubes (one larger tube and one smaller tube). As per the design of all shell and tube heat
exchangers, one fluid flows through the smaller tube, and the other fluid flows around the
larger tube.
The design requirements of double pipe heat exchangers include characteristics from the
recuperative and indirect contact types mentioned previously as the fluids remain separated
and flow through their own channels throughout the heat transfer process. However, there
is some flexibility in the design of double pipe heat exchangers, as they can be designed
with cocurrent or countercurrent flow arrangements and to be used modularly in series,
parallel, or series-parallel configurations within a system. For example, Figure below,
depicts the transfer of heat within an isolated double pipe heat exchanger with a cocurrent
flow configuration.

Advantages & disadvantages

Advantages:
 Simplest type of heat exchangers.
 Can be easily assembled.
 Relatively low cost.
 Easy to maintain and repair.
Disadvantages:
 Become expensive for large duties.
 Small surface area of heat transfer/pipe.
 Leakages are very common.

Applications

The double pipe heat exchanger, as seen above, is perhaps the simplest heat exchanger in
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industry. As a result, there are many, many options to choose from to buy, or they can be
made custom to fit the specific needs of the project. They are most useful for small-
capacity applications where the total heat transfer surface area is < 500 square feet, as it is
more cost-effective per unit-surface-area to use another design past this amount.
Since double pipe heat exchangers are simple, they are used to teach heat exchanger design
basics to students as the fundamental rules for all heat exchangers are the same.

IV. Plate Type Heat Exchanger

The Flow Arrangement and Theory of Operation

A plate heat exchanger is a type of heat exchanger that uses metal plates to transfer heat
between two fluids. This has a major advantage over a conventional heat exchanger in that
the fluids are exposed to a much larger surface area because the fluids are spread out over
the plates. This facilitates the transfer of heat, and greatly increases the speed of the
temperature change. Plate heat exchangers are now common and very small brazed
versions are used in the hot-water sections of millions of combination boilers. The high
heat transfer efficiency for such a small physical size has increased the domestic hot water
(DHW) flow rate of combination boilers. The small plate heat exchanger has made a great
impact in domestic heating and hot-water. Larger commercial versions use gaskets between
the plates, whereas smaller versions tend to be brazed.
Plate heat exchangers are constructed of several thin, corrugated plates bundled together.
Each pair of plates creates a channel through which one fluid can flow, and the pairs are
stacked and attached—via bolting, brazing, or welding—such that a second passage is
created between pairs through which the other fluid can flow.
The standard plate design is also available with some variations, such as in plate fin or
pillow plate heat exchangers. Plate fin exchangers employ fins or spacers between plates
and allow for multiple flow configurations and more than two fluid streams to pass through
the device. Pillow plate exchangers apply pressure to the plates to increase the heat transfer
efficiency across the surface of the plate. Some of the other types available include plate
and frame, plate and shell, and spiral plate heat exchangers.
Advantages & disadvantages
Advantages:
 Simple and compact in size.
 Can be easily clean.
 No extra space is required for dismantling.
 Capacity can be increased by introducing plates in pairs.
 Leaking plates can be removed in pairs, if necessary without replacement.
 Turbulent flow helps to reduce deposits which would interfere with heat transfer.
Disadvantages:
 Finding leakage is difficult since pressure test is not as easy as tube coolers.
 Bonding material between plates limits operating temperature of the cooler.
 Over tightening of the clamping bolts result in increased pressure drop across the
cooler.
 Joints may be deteriorated according to the operating conditions.
 Plate exchangers are limited when high pressures, high temperatures, or aggressive
fluids are present.
 Because of this problem these types of heat exchangers have only been used in
small, low pressure applications such as on oil coolers for engines.

Applications

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 Power plants.
 Process industries.
 Chemical & food industries.
 Air Conditioning & Refrigeration.
 Waste heat recovery.
 Space applications.

B. The Fire-Tube Boiler

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Water Level Indicator
Boiler Corrosion

Corrosion is the reversion of a metal to its ore form. Iron, for example, reverts to iron oxide
as the result of corrosion. The process. However, is a complex electro chemical reaction
and it takes many forms. Corrosion may produce general attach over a large metal surface
or it may result in pinpoint penetration of metal. Corrosion is a relevant problem caused by
water in boilers. Corrosion can be of widely varying origin and nature due to the action of
dissolved oxygen, to corrosion currents set up as a result of heterogeneities on metal
surfaces, or to the iron being directly attacked by the water.
While basic corrosion in boilers may be primarily due to reaction of the metal with oxygen,
other factors such as stresses, acid conditions, and specific chemical corrodents may have
an important influence and produce different forms of attack. It is necessary to consider the
quantity of the various harmful substances that can be allowed in the boiler water without
risk of damage to the boiler. Corrosion may occur in the feed-water system as a result of
low pH water and the presence of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Starting from these figures, and allowing the amount that can be blown down, the
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permitted concentration in the make-up water is thus defined.
Corrosion is caused principally by complex oxide-slag with low melting points. High
temperature corrosion can proceed only if the corroding deposit is in the liquid phase and
the liquid is in direct contact with the metal. Deposits also promote the transport of oxygen
to the metal surface. Corrosion in the boiler proper generally occurs when the boiler water
alkalinity is low or when the metal is exposed to oxygen bearing water either during
operation or idle periods. High temperatures and stresses in the boiler metal tend to
accelerate the corrosive mechanisms. In the steam and condensate system corrosion is
generally the result of contamination with carbon dioxide and oxygen. Specific
contaminants such as ammonia or sulphur bearing gases may increase attack on copper
alloys in the system. Corrosion is caused by the combination of oxide layer fluxing and
continuous oxidation by transported oxygen.

Cracking in boiler metal may occur by two different mechanisms. In the first mechanism,
cyclic stresses are created by rapid heating and cooling and are concentrated at points
where corrosion has roughened or pitted the metal surface. This is usually associated with
improper corrosion prevention. The second type of corrosion fatigue cracking occurs in
boilers with properly treated water. In these cases corrosion fatigue is probably a
misnomer. These cracks often originate where a dense protective oxide film covers the
metal surfaces and cracking occurs from the action of applied cyclic stresses. Corrosion
fatigue cracks are usually thick, blunt and cross the metal grains. They usually start at
internal tube surfaces and are most often circumferential on the tube.
Corrosion control techniques vary according to the type of corrosion encountered. Major
methods include maintenance of the proper pH, control of oxygen, control of deposits, and
reduction of stresses trough design and operational practices.
Deaeration and recently the use of membrane contractors are the best and most diffused
ways to avoid corrosion removing the dissolved gasses (mainly O2 and CO2).

Causes of Boiler Corrosion

  Improper and unscheduled maintenance.
 Exposure of boiler metal to dissolved gases present in boiler water.
 Oxygen present in boiler water.
 Carbon Dioxide present in boiler water.
 Unbalanced pH of boiler water.
 Improper and unscheduled maintenance.
 Exposure of metal to the dissolved gases i.e. oxygen and carbon dioxide present in
boiler feed water.

Types of Boiler Corrosion

 High-temperature Corrosion
This is usually takes place in parts which usually come in the contact of hot gas containing
certain contaminants like:
 Vanadium Compounds.
 Sulphate Compounds.
These compounds can form compounds during combustion having a low melting point.
These liquid melted salts are strong corrosive for stainless steel and other alloys normally
inert against the corrosion and high temperatures.

 Oil Ash Corrosion

All fossil fuels, with the possible exception of natural gas, contain constituents that will
promote corrosion on the fireside of boiler components.
The fly-ash and soot-blower are not by themselves corrosive, but both remove the
protective iron-oxide layer.
The cleaned steel is then exposed to the high temperature flue-gas environment, and an
oxide film reforms.

 Fatigue Corrosion
Corrosion fatigue is fatigue in a corrosive environment. It is the mechanical degradation of
a material under the joint action of corrosion and cyclic loading.
More highly stressed parts of tubes (Such as bends, or at other areas close to supports) May
be the most vulnerable.
Additional thermal stress could be imposed on the end tubes from the boiler frames.

 Low-Temperature Corrosion
During the process of combustion of fuels such as oil, gas, or coal containing sulfur or
hydrogen sulfide, SO2 is formed. Some of it (1%–3%) is converted to SO3, which can
combine with water vapor to form sulfuric acid. The amount of SO2 converted to SO3
depends on the presence of catalysts such as vanadium and ferric oxide commonly found
on tube surfaces in oil-fired boilers due to the ash present in the fuel or on oxidized alloy
steel superheater tubes. Excess air available in the flue gas plays a role in increasing the
formation of SO3, which in turn increases the acid dew point temperature. The corrosion

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rate increases as the tube wall temperature decreases, and again as the wall temperature
approaches the water dew point range, it again increases. Studies conducted by Land
Combustion have shown similar trends. The amount of water vapor in the flue gas also
increases the acid dew point. Economizers and air heaters are prone to this corrosion
attack.
There are two ways of handling corrosion problems. Allow acid condensation to happen by
using a low-temperature water or heat sink while protecting the equipment using corrosion-
resistant materials. The second method is to avoid condensation of acid vapor by increasing
the lowest surface or tube wall temperature.

Prevention of Corrosion
 Feed Water Treatment
 Aeration.
 Deaeration.
 Ion Exchange.
 Chemical Treatment
 Protective Layers in Boilers

Boiler Erosion

Soot-blower Erosion
As the term soot-blower erosion implies, damage occurs near or in the direct path of soot-
blower discharge. Superheater tubing is usually attacked. Common damage locations
include tubes along the path of retractable soot blowers, and particularly those tubes
nearest wall entrances of retractable blowers. Other damage locations include furnace
corners opposite wall blowers. Platens in the convection section are often targets, as are
any tubes near malfunctioning soot blowers. Perhaps the most common cause of erosion in
boilers is soot-blower attack. Usually a misdirected blower allows a high-velocity jet of
steam or air carrying condensed water droplets to impinge directly upon tube surfaces,
rather than to be directed between tubes. Physical abrasion and accelerated oxidation cause
metal loss. Damage can be accelerated by fly ash entrained in the high-velocity jet stream
directed against the tube surface. Erosive thinning often leads to tube rupture.
Coal-Particle Erosion
Water-cooled tubes that line the cylindrical combustion chamber of cyclone- type coal
burners are common attack sites. Incompletely burned coal particles can also accelerate
fly-ash erosion in superheaters and wall tubing. Attack is common in utility boilers.
In general, attack occurs in tubes lining the cyclone burner. Erosion becomes pronounced
when the refractory covering the tubes or the wear liners is damaged or worn out, exposing
unprotected tubes. The high-velocity coal particles, moving at speeds up to 300 ft/s (9.0
m/s) (in utility service), impinge on tube walls and cause rapid wear. Attack is similar in
appearance to fly-ash erosion.

Falling-Slag Erosion
This damage is rare and usually is confined to slanted tube walls near the bottom of large
boilers, which direct ash into the ash hopper. Most damage occurs near side walls, where
greater amounts of slag tend to accumulate
since slag from side walls is more likely to strike these areas.
Erosion is caused by slag particles that fall from above. The particles strike the slanted
walls and cause wastage. If large slag particles fall, they can dent and bend tubes.

C. Refrigeration Teaching Unit

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Expansion Devices in Vapor Compression Cycles

i. Turbines
A refrigeration system utilizes a compressor, a turbo-expander and an electric motor.
Refrigerant vapor is compressed to a higher pressure, resulting in a higher temperature as
well. The hot, compressed vapor is then condensed into a liquid. The condenser is where
heat is expelled from the circulating refrigerant and is carried away by whatever cooling
medium is used in the condenser (air, water, etc.).
The refrigerant liquid flows through the turbo-expander, where it is vaporized, and the
vapor undergoes an isentropic expansion, which results in a low-temperature mixture of
vapor and liquid. The vapor–liquid mixture is then routed through the evaporator, where it
is vaporized by heat absorbed from the space being cooled. The vaporized refrigerant flows
to the compressor inlet to complete the cycle.

Disadvantages:
It's very expensive to manufacture and add the required complexity to properly control
pressure differential with a turbine.
A turbine creating more noise, which is a major concern in today’s home refrigerator units,
plus vibrations.
Maintenance constraints also play a major part, The equipment has to be compact,
expansion valve is very small compared to a turbine, turbine having moving parts will be
prone to wear and tear, maintenance and also some unforeseen leakages of refrigerants
which is not desired.

ii. Thermal Expansion Valves

A thermal expansion valve or thermostatic expansion valve (often abbreviated as TEV,
TXV, or TX valve) is a component in refrigeration and air conditioning systems that
controls the amount of refrigerant released into the evaporator thereby keeping superheat,
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that is, the difference between the current refrigerant temperature at the evaporator outlet
and its saturation temperature at the current pressure, at a stable value, ensuring that the
only phase in which the refrigerant leaves the evaporator is vapor, and, at the same time,
supplying the evaporator's coils with the optimal amount of liquid refrigerant to achieve the
optimal heat exchange rate allowed by that evaporator. In addition, some thermal
expansion valves are also specifically designed to ensure that a certain minimum flow of
refrigerant can always flow through the system. Thermal expansion valves are often
referred to generically as "metering devices" although this may also refer to any other
device that releases liquid refrigerant into the low-pressure section but does not react to
temperature such as a capillary tube or a pressure-controlled valve.

Types:
There are two main types of thermal expansion valves: internally or externally equalized.
The difference between externally and internally equalized valves is how the evaporator
pressure affects the position of the needle. In internally equalized valves, the evaporator
pressure against the diaphragm is the pressure at the inlet of the evaporator, whereas in
externally equalized valves, the evaporator pressure against the diaphragm is the pressure
at the outlet of the evaporator. Externally equalized thermostatic expansion valves
compensate for any pressure drop through the evaporator.
Internally equalized valves can be used on single circuit evaporator coils having low-
pressure drop. Externally equalized valves must be used on multi-circuited evaporators
with refrigerant distributors. Externally equalized TXVs can be used on all applications;
however, an externally equalized TXV cannot be replaced with an internally equalized
TXV. A type of externally equalized thermal expansion valve, known as the block type
valve, which features an internal sensing bulb (often the valve's metal body, particularly
when a stable and hunting-free refrigerant flow control is required), located inside the
suction line connection and in constant contact with the refrigerant that flows out of the
evaporator's outlet, is nowadays often used on automotive evaporators.
Although the bulb/diaphragm type is used in most systems that control the refrigerant
superheat, electronic expansion valves are becoming more common in larger systems or
systems with multiple evaporators to allow them to be adjusted independently. Although
electronic valves can provide greater control range and flexibility that bulb/diaphragm
types cannot provide, they add complexity and points of failure to a system as they require
additional temperature & pressure sensors and an electronic control circuit. Most electronic
valves use a stepper motor hermetically sealed inside the valve to actuate a needle valve
with a screw mechanism, on some units only the stepper rotor is within the hermetic body
and is driven through the valve body by stator coils on the outside of the device.

iii. Manual Expansion Valve

Manual valve expansion illustrates the main means by which the refrigerant is measured
through all adjustable devices of the account. The speed of the refrigerant flow through the
valve is determined by three things: The size of the valve orifice or opening, pressure
difference through the hole, and as far valve is open. Zoom in on any of these three factors,
the increase in the flow, while the decline in any will reduce the flow.

iv. Capillary Tubes

Capillary tubes are widely used as expansion devices in small vapor compression
refrigeration systems, such as household refrigerators, room air conditioners, and small
package air conditioning units.
In these systems, the capillary tube is wound into coils for direct expansion.

Advantages:
 The capillary tube is more reliable and high accessibility.
 The capillary tube has high resistance to friction.
 It is easy to manufacture.
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  Less expensive to use.
 highly accurate in the working place.
 does not have any moving parts hence it does not require maintenance.
 Ideal for hermetic compressor based systems, which are critically charged and
factory assembled.

Disadvantages:
 Capillary tube device is not useful at variable load.
 High cleaning is required.
 During off-cycle liquid refrigerant flows to evaporator because of pressure
difference between condenser and evaporator. The evaporator may get flooded and
the liquid refrigerant may flow to compressor and damage it when it starts.
Therefore critical charge is used in capillary tube based systems. Further, it is used
only with hermetically sealed compressors where refrigerant does not leak so that
critical charge can be used. Normally an accumulator is provided after the
evaporator to prevent slugging of compressor.

v. Electronic Expansion Valves

The electronic expansion valve (EEV) operates with a much more sophisticated design.
EEVs control the flow of refrigerant entering a direct expansion evaporator. They do this in
response to signals sent to them by an electronic controller. A small motor is used to open
and close the valve port. The motor is called a step or stepper motor. Step motors do not
rotate continuously. They are controlled by an electronic controller and rotate a fraction of
a revolution for each signal sent to them by the electronic controller. The step motor is
driven by a gear train, which positions a pin in a port in which refrigerant flows.

Advantages:
 Extremely reliable.
 Optimizes overheating in the evaporator.
 Performs well at low Δp when working at low condensing pressures.
  Improves compressor performance.
 Can be attached to a controller that centralizes the control of all components of
the refrigerant circuit and optimizes the operation of the entire system.
 Flexibility to adapt to different types of fluid by changing parameters.
 Better evaporator efficiency due to better superheat control.

Disadvantages:
 Higher cost than conventional expansion valve.

Cooling Systems

i. Vapor-Compression Refrigeration System

Vapor-compression refrigeration system (VCRS), in which the refrigerant undergoes phase
changes, is one of the many refrigeration cycles and is the most widely used method for
air-conditioning of buildings and automobiles. It is also used in domestic and commercial
refrigerators, large-scale warehouses for chilled or frozen storage of foods and meats,
refrigerated trucks and railroad cars, and a host of other commercial and industrial services.
Oil refineries, petrochemical and chemical processing plants, and natural gas processing
plants are among the many types of industrial plants that often utilize large vapor-
compression refrigeration systems.
Vapor-compression uses a circulating liquid refrigerant as the medium which absorbs and
removes heat from the space to be cooled and subsequently rejects that heat elsewhere.
A Single-stage vapor-compression system, All such systems have four components: a
compressor, a condenser, a thermal expansion valve (also called a throttle valve or
metering device), and an evaporator. Circulating refrigerant enters the compressor in the
thermodynamic state known as a saturated vapor and is compressed to a higher pressure,
resulting in a higher temperature as well. The hot, compressed vapor is then in the
thermodynamic state known as a superheated vapor and it is at a temperature and pressure
at which it can be condensed with either cooling water or cooling air flowing across the
coil or tubes. This is where the circulating refrigerant rejects heat from the system and the
rejected heat is carried away by either the water or the air (whichever may be the case).

Applications
 Domestic Refrigeration.
 Commercial Refrigeration..
 Food Processing and Cold Storage.
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  Industrial Refrigeration.
 Transport Refrigeration.
 Electronic Cooling.
 Medical Refrigeration.
 Cryogenic Refrigeration.

Advantages:
 Very mature technology.
 Relatively inexpensive.
 Can be driven directly using mechanical energy (water, car or truck motor) or with
electrical energy.
 Efficient up to 60% of Carnot's theoretical limit.

Disadvantages:
Many systems still use HCFC refrigerants, which contribute to depletion of the Earth's
ozone layer. In countries adhering to the Montreal Protocol, HCFCs are due to be phased
out and are largely being replaced by ozone-friendly HFCs. However, systems using HFC
refrigerants tend to be slightly less efficient than systems using HCFCs. HFCs also have an
extremely large global warming potential, because they remain in the atmosphere for many
years and trap heat more effectively than carbon dioxide.
The prevention of leakage of refrigerant is the major problem in vapor-compression
refrigeration system.

ii. Absorption Refrigeration System

An absorption refrigerator is a refrigerator that uses a heat source (e.g., solar energy, a
fossil-fueled flame, waste heat from factories, or district heating systems) to provide the
energy needed to drive the cooling process. The system uses two coolants, the first of
which performs evaporative cooling and is then absorbed into the second coolant; heat is
needed to reset the two coolants to their initial states. The principle can also be used to air-
condition buildings using the waste heat from a gas turbine or water heater. Using waste
heat from a gas turbine makes the turbine very efficient because it first produces electricity,
then hot water, and finally, air-conditioning-cogeneration. Absorption refrigerators are
commonly used in recreational vehicles (RVs), campers, and caravans because they can be
powered with propane fuel, rather than electricity. Unlike more common vapor-
compression refrigeration systems, an absorption refrigerator can be produced with no
moving parts other than the coolants.

Common absorption refrigerators use a refrigerant with a very low boiling point (less than
−18 °C (0 °F)) just like compressor refrigerators. Compression refrigerators typically use
an HCFC or HFC, while absorption refrigerators typically use ammonia or water and need
at least a second fluid able to absorb the coolant, the absorbent, respectively water (for
ammonia) or brine (for water). Both types use evaporative cooling, when the refrigerant
evaporates (boils), it takes some heat away with it, providing the cooling effect. The main
difference between the two systems is the way the refrigerant is changed from a gas back
into a liquid so that the cycle can repeat. An absorption refrigerator changes the gas back
into a liquid using a method that needs only heat, and has no moving parts other than the
fluids.

Applications
 VCRS is usually applied in small applications like home refrigerators and Small
capacity AC's but VARS has to be applied for bigger tonnage plants.
 Petroleum and Chemical.
 Printing industry.
 Pulp Mills.
 Palm Oil Production.

Advantages:
 Uses low grade energy.
 Less moving parts.
 Smooth operation.
 Very efficient for high load conditions.

Disadvantages:
 Efficiency is low.
 Takes long time to produce cooling effect.
 Higher cost initially.
iii. Steam Jet Refrigeration System
Steam jet cooling uses a high-pressure jet of steam to cool water or other fluid media.
Typical uses include industrial sites, where a suitable steam supply already exists for other
purposes or, historically, for air conditioning on passenger trains which use steam for
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heating. Steam jet cooling experienced a wave of popularity during the early 1930s for air
conditioning large buildings. Steam ejector refrigeration cycles were later supplanted by
systems using mechanical compressors.
Steam is passed through a vacuum ejector of high efficiency to exhaust a separate, closed
vessel which forms part of a cooling water circuit. The partial vacuum in the vessel causes
some of the water to evaporate, thus giving up heat through evaporative cooling. The
chilled water is pumped through the circuit to air coolers, while the evaporated water from
the ejector is recovered in separate condensers and returned to the cooling circuit.

Applications
 Food processing plant.
 Gas plants.
 Breweries.
 Rubber and vulcanizing industries.
 Paper and pulp industries.
 Paints and Dyes Industries.
 Pharmaceutical Industries.
 Chemical Industries.
 Edible Oil Refineries.

Advantages:
 Negligible maintenance required
 Plant can be fabricated in any suitable material of construction.
 Steam jet refrigeration system used where there is no electricity.
  Mostly used where steam is highly available like Industrial areas, power plants etc.
 Less maintenance.
 Have no vibrations.
 Construction of this system is easy.
 Cost of running is less.

Disadvantages:
 Required high vacuum in the evaporator.
 Low Coefficient of pressure.
 Air leakage may occur into the system.
 Cannot be worked under 0 degrees C.

iv. Thermoelectric Refrigeration System

Thermoelectric cooling uses the Peltier effect to create a heat flux at the junction of two
different types of materials. A Peltier cooler, heater, or thermoelectric heat pump is a solid-
state active heat pump which transfers heat from one side of the device to the other, with
consumption of electrical energy, depending on the direction of the current. Such an
instrument is also called a Peltier device, Peltier heat pump, solid state refrigerator, or
thermoelectric cooler (TEC). It can be used either for heating or for cooling, although in
practice the main application is cooling. It can also be used as a temperature controller that
either heats or cools.
Thermoelectric coolers operate by the Peltier effect (which also goes by the more general
name thermoelectric effect). The device has two sides, and when a DC electric current
flows through the device, it brings heat from one side to the other, so that one side gets
cooler while the other gets hotter. The "hot" side is attached to a heat sink so that it remains
at ambient temperature, while the cool side goes below room temperature. In special
applications, multiple coolers can be cascaded together for lower temperature, but overall
efficiency drops significantly.

Applications
Thermoelectric coolers are used for applications that require heat removal ranging from
milliwatts to several thousand watts. They can be made for applications as small as a
beverage cooler or as large as a submarine or railroad car. TEC elements have limited life
1
time. Their health strength can be measured by the change of their AC resistance (ACR).
When a cooler element gets "old" or worn out, the ACR will increase.

Peltier elements are commonly used in consumer products. For example, they are used in
camping, portable coolers, cooling electronic components and small instruments. They can
also be used to extract water from the air in dehumidifiers. A camping/car type electric
cooler can typically reduce the temperature by up to 20 °C (36 °F) below the ambient
temperature. Climate-controlled jackets are beginning to use Peltier elements.
Thermoelectric coolers are used to augment heat sinks for microprocessors.

Thermoelectric coolers are used in many fields of industrial manufacturing and require a
thorough performance analysis as they face the test of running thousands of cycles before
these industrial products are launched to the market. Some of the applications include laser
equipment, thermoelectric air conditioners or coolers, industrial electronics and
telecommunications, automotive, mini refrigerators or incubators, military cabinets, IT
enclosures, and more.

Peltier elements are used in scientific devices. They are a common component in thermal
cyclers, used for the synthesis of DNA by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a common
molecular biological technique, which requires the rapid heating and cooling of the
reaction mixture for denaturation primer annealing and enzymatic synthesis cycles.
With feedback circuitry, Peltier elements can be used to implement highly stable
temperature controllers that keep desired temperature within ±0.01 °C. Such stability may
be used in precise laser applications to avoid laser wavelength drifting as environment
temperature changes.

Advantages:
A significant benefit of TEC systems is that they have no moving parts. This lack of
mechanical wear and reduced instances of failure due to fatigue and fracture from
mechanical vibration and stress increases the lifespan of the system and lowers the
maintenance requirements. Current technologies show the mean time between failures
(MTBF) to exceed 100,000 hours at ambient temperatures.

Another benefit of TEC is that it does not use refrigerants in its operation. Prior to their
phase-out some early refrigerants, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), contributed
significantly to ozone depletion. Many refrigerants used today also have significant
environmental impact with global warming potential or carry other safety risks with them.

The fact that TEC systems are current-controlled leads to another series of benefits.
Because the flow of heat is directly proportional to the applied DC current, heat may be
added or removed with accurate control of the direction and amount of electrical current. In
contrast to methods that use resistive heating or cooling methods that involve gasses, TEC
allows for an equal degree of control over the flow of heat (both in and out of a system
under control). Because of this precise bidirectional heat flow control, temperatures of
controlled systems can be precise to fractions of a degree, often reaching precision of milli
Kelvin (mK) in laboratory settings. TEC devices are also more flexible in shape than their
more traditional counterparts. They can be used in environments with less space or more
severe conditions than a conventional refrigerator. The ability to tailor their geometry
allows for the delivery of precise cooling to very small areas. These factors make them a
common choice in scientific and engineering applications with demanding requirements
where cost and absolute energy efficiency are not primary concerns.

Disadvantages:
TEC systems have a number of notable disadvantages. Foremost is their limited energy
efficiency compared to conventional vapor-compression systems and the constraints on the
total heat flux (heat flow) that they are able to generate per unit area.

D. The Turbine
Introduction
A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and uses it
to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was invented
1
by Charles Parsons in 1884.
The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives much of its improvement in
thermodynamic efficiency from the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam,
which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible expansion process. Because the
turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical
generator.

Isentropic efficiency
To measure how well a turbine is performing we can look at its isentropic efficiency. This
compares the actual performance of the turbine with the performance that would be
achieved by an ideal, isentropic, turbine. When calculating this efficiency, heat lost to the
surroundings is assumed to be zero. Steam's starting pressure and temperature is the same
for both the actual and the ideal turbines, but at turbine exit, steam's energy content
('specific enthalpy') for the actual turbine is greater than that for the ideal turbine because
of irreversibility in the actual turbine. The specific enthalpy is evaluated at the same steam
pressure for the actual and ideal turbines in order to give a good comparison between the
two.
The isentropic efficiency is found by dividing the actual work by the ideal work.

Where
 h3 is the specific enthalpy at state three
 h4 is the specific enthalpy at state 4 for the actual turbine
 h4s is the specific enthalpy at state 4s for the isentropic turbine

There are several types of steam turbines shown schematically in Figure 1. In a condensing
turbine (Figure 1a) the steam is expanded down to the deep vacuum (pt ≈ 4-3 kPa) reached
in the condenser. These turbines are designed with uncontrolled steam bleed used for feed
water regenerative heating. The uncontrolled bleed is characterized by unsteady pressure of
the extracted steam. The steam is bled through a special manifold in the bottom part of the
turbine casing.

Figure 1b is a schematic of a turbine with condensation and with one controlled steam
bleed for process and domestic heat demands. In these turbines, a portion of steam is bled
from intermediate stages to be used by consumers. The remaining portion of the steam
passes the subsequent turbine stages and after that passes to the condenser. The bleed
pressure is kept steady regardless of the turbine load, a special regulator device being used
for this purpose. In the turbine shown in Figure 1c, there are two controlled steam
extractions at different pressures.

Figure 1d is the schematic of a turbine with two pressures. This turbine uses not only fresh
steam from the boiler, but also exhaust steam from hammers, presses, pump, air blower and
compressor drives.

A backpressure turbine is shown in Figure 1e. There is no condenser in such a turbine unit.
The steam at the required pressure is fed from the turbine and used for processes and for
domestic needs.

Steam turbine design is influenced by the turbine capacity, initial steam parameters (sub-
and supercritical), its operation conditions within the power generation system (base-load,
peak-load, semi-peak load), final steam moisture content, technological characteristics and
other factors. Low capacity turbines (up to 50 mW) are as a rule of one-cylinder type.

The disadvantages of high capacity condensing turbines are connected with the limited
flow rates of the final stages. To overcome this difficulty, these turbines are constructed
with division of the main steam flow (before it enters the final stages) into several parallel
flows. Each part of these turbines is designed for the maximum steam flow rate Qm
(Figure 2.)

These parts are referred to as a high pressure cylinder, an intermediate pressure cylinder
and a low pressure cylinder.

Steam turbine rotors may be disk-type or drum-type (Figure 3), Disk-type rotors are used
in impulse turbines (see Turbines), drum-type rotors are used in reaction turbines.
Steam turbines are used as parts of stationary and transport (marine) steam turbine power
units. Besides turbines these power units also include boilers (steam-generators), steam
condensers and other devices. Steam turbines constructed for combined operation with gas
turbine units are also used as parts of combined steam-gas plants (see Gas Turbines) with
applications in both stationary and transport (marine) power units.

The real cycle (Figure 4) of the simplest steam turbine unit includes the ap process of
increasing pressure of the water in the pump, the pb process of heating water at constant
pressure to the boiling temperature, and bb' process of evaporation at constant temperature.
The b'h process corresponds to water superheating, the ht process corresponds to the
expansion of steam in the turbine. The ta process which is the closing process of the cycle
1
corresponds to heat removal in the condenser.
1
This real cycle of the steam-turbine unit differs from the ideal thermodynamic cycle
ap'bb'h't'a because of irreversible losses in the pump, steam pipe, turbine and condenser.
These losses are denoted by I, II, III and IV areas (Tx is the temperature of water used for
cooling the condensate).

The specific work of the real cycle le = lt — lp, where lp = ih — it is the actual turbine work
(where ih and it are the steam enthalpy at the beginning and at the end of the expansion
process in the turbine); lp = ip — ia is the specific work of the pump in the real cycle (where
ip and ia are the enthalpy of water at the corresponding points of the cycle). The ideal cycle
thermal efficiency is ηt = (h' — it')/(h' — ia) ; the effective efficiency of the steam-turbine unit
is ηe = ηtηTηm , where ηT and ηm are the efficiency of the turbine itself and the efficiency
taking into account the mechanical losses in the turbine.

When determining the efficiency ηt of a steam turbine it is necessary to take into account
the moisture of the steam which is typical for the last stages of steam condensing turbines
and for many stages of turbines using saturated and slightly superheated steam (these
turbines are used, for instance, at nuclear power stations). When such steam is used the
efficiency of the stages decreases. In this case relative losses ζw may be rather large (for
example, in the last 3 stages of a turbine of 800 mW capacity and with initial steam
pressure 24 MPa ζw = 0.012 to 0.081; still greater losses due to moisture are typical for
turbines without intermediate heating). Besides that the first stages εof steam turbines are
often with partial admission ( ≈ 0.15), and ventilation losses occur in them.
In intermediate stages of heavy-duty steam-turbines using superheated steam, the
maximum blading efficiency ηb = 0.905 to 0.903.

Reaction ratio at the middle diameter in the high pressure and intermediate pressure
cylinders of steam turbines increases with the number of stages from 0.2 to 0.4, and in the
low pressure cylinder from 0.3 to 0.7.

A variety of techniques are used for increasing the efficiency of steam-turbine units. One
of the methods is increasing initial parameters of the steam. For example, when pressure ph
is increased, the saturation temperature increases. The result is an increase of the average
temperature at which heat is supplied; thus the thermal efficiency ηt of the ideal cycle
increases too. However, in practice an increase of pressure to the value more than 9-10
MPa does not result in the increase of the theoretical work and does not significantly affect
the unit efficiency. Also, steam moisture content at the end of the expansion process
increases with the increase of pressure and results in greater losses in the course of the
steam expansion and also in the turbine blade erosion. Therefore, the general tendency is to
limit the moisture content to 13-15 per cent.
Simultaneous increase of the values of ph and Th may considerably increase the steam-
turbine unit efficiency. For this purpose many present-day steam-turbine units have
intermediate (repeated) superheating of the steam after expansion in the first group of
stages. In this case the theoretical work of the turbine, the cycle work and thus the cycle
effiency increase, the moisture of the steam at the end of the expansion process decreases,
and the amount of heat transfered in the condenser increases. The temperature of
superheating as well as the initial temperature is limited by the thermal characteristics of
the flow passage metal parts.

A decrease of the steam pressure pt in the condenser causes a decrease of the steam
condensation temperature and consequently increases the temperature difference in the
cycle.

The efficiency of steam-turbine units increases when regenerative extraction of steam from
the turbine is used. Regenerative extraction is uncontrolled bleed of the steam from the
stages with the aim of increasing the feed water temperature in the unit. In this cycle the
feed water is heated by the heat released in the process of the steam cooling and
condensation.

Condensing steam turbines have an efficiency in the range ηe = 36 to 42%. From this it
follows that only a small portion of heat released in the process of fuel combustion is
transformed into effective work. Turbine units for power and steam generation have higher
overall efficiency. In these units the heat from the fuel is used for power generation and for
obtaining heat at some prescribed temperature level. .The theoretical work of the unit with
the steam turbine for power and heat generation is less than that of the steam turbine unit
with condensing steam turbine. The useful work of the cycle of the steam turbine unit for
power and heat generation is also lower than that of the condensing turbine. However, the
steam turbine unit for combined power and heat generation makes effective use of the heat
of condensation and therefore its overall efficiency is higher than that of a condensing
steam turbine unit.

1
References
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Chemical Engineering Progress, 1948.
 Century Brass Products, Heat Exchanger Manual, Waterbury, CT, 1950.
 V. Ganapathy, Avoid heat transfer equipment vibration, Hydrocarbon Processing,
June 1987.
 Kearton, W. J. (1951) Steam Turbine Theory and Practice, 6th edn., Pitman.
 F.J. Moody, Maximum two-phase vessel blowdown from pipes, Transactions of
ASME, Journal of Heat transfer, August 1966.
 Donatello Annaratone , Steam Generators: Description and Design 2008
 Dipak K. Sarkar, Thermal Power Plant: Design and Operation, 2015
 Kostyuk, A. and Frolov, V. (1988) Steam and Gas Turbines, Moscow, Mir.