Observation for Audio Amplifier

Input signal=200mVp-p frequency =1 KHz

Vo(p-p) Vin(p-p) Av Pout

Gain=Vout/Vin=

Poutput=Vrms/R

Where speaker=8ohm

Pinput=Vin*Iin

n=Pout/Pinput
 INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
PULCHOWK, LALITPUR

A LAB REPORT ON
Audio Amplifier

SUBMITTED BY: SUBMITTED TO:

Name: Rupak Mandal Department Of
Roll no: 072BEL331 Electronics and computer
Engineering
Submission date: 2073/11/12

Contents
1. Introduction

2. Objective

3. Theory

4. Application of the audio amplifier

5. Chemical Etching

6. Test of the circuit in the proteus

7. Test of the circuit in the bread board

8. Introduction to the PCB design process

9. PCB Top Layout

10. PCB Back Layout

11. Components List

12. Components Working

13. Description of the circuit

14. About Power Amplifier

15.Different types of the configuration

16. Detailed Process of making in the Hardware

17. Applications

18. Trouble Shooting

19. Reference

20. Discussion

21. Conclusion

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This lab experiment was based on to design, fabricate, analyze and to test an original power
amplifier. This project was very informative and showed how things work theoretically and
physically. From this lab I learned about PCB design from PCB wizard, learned about the
etching process and about soldering. By doing all the above things I was finall able to complete
by project in hardware.The theory which I learned while making the hardware is about different
classes of amplifier like class A class B ,class AB and learned about the different configuration
like common emitter ,common base and common collector .

First of all I am very thankful to my lab teacher Suresh sir who encourages me to do this project
named IC audio amplifier. I also want to give thank to my class teacher Dinesh Baniya Kshatri
sir who help me to do this work successfully and his concept and guidance that are given class
are very helpful for this project. I would like to thank my lab teachers for their supervision,
professional guidance, support and encouragement from beginning to the end. I would also like
to thank my seniors for his help to solve various problems that I encountered during the pcb
designing and fabrication process. Lastly I would like to offer regards to all of those authors
whose books have been followed as reference in this report.

Rupak Mandal

072/BEL/331
Objective
The main objective of this work is to design and construct an audio power amplifier that will
deliver appreciable power to the load. Audio Power amplifiers may be called upon to supply
power ranging from a few watts in an audio amplifier to 8 watts to a load (speaker) .
Audio Power amplifiers may be called upon to supply power ranging from a few watts in an
audio amplifier to 30 watts to a load (speaker).Low voltage audio power amplifier LM386 is
used for this purpose. Any amplifier that is designed for this entire band of frequencies or any
band of frequencies contained in the audio range is considered to be an audio amplifier.

Introduction

This work is titled the design and construction of audio power amplifier. Audio power amplifier
is a device for increasing the audio power of a signal by use of an external energy source. It is
design to meet up with the amplification demand in homes, offices, industries and especially in
music industries. Audio power amplifier amplifies low-power audio signals (signals composed
primarily of frequencies between 20Hz – 20kHz, the human range of hearing) to a level suitable
for driving loudspeakers and is the final stage in a typical audio playback chain, While the input
signal to an audio amplifier may measure only a few hundred microwatts, its output may be tens,
hundreds, or thousands of watts.
This device is designed to deliver appreciable power to the load. Audio Power amplifiers may be
called upon to supply power ranging from a few watts in an audio amplifier to many thousands
of watts to a load (speaker). In audio amplifiers the load is usually the dynamic impedance
presented to the amplifier by a loudspeaker, and the function is to maximize the power delivered
to the load over a wide range of frequencies.
Components Required

Potentiometer 1k

It is used to give variable resistance to input signal. By increasing or decreasing the resistance by variable

resistor we can control the amount of input signal in such a way that output signal controlled automatically. I

also used as a gain controller.

1. Potentiometer

A potentiometer is a manually adjustable variable resistor with 3 terminals. Two terminals are
connected to both ends of a resistive element, and the third terminal connects to a sliding contact,
called a wiper, moving over the resistive element. The position of the wiper determines the
output voltage of the potentiometer. The potentiometer essentially functions as a variable voltage
divider. The resistive element can be seen as two resistors in series(potentiometer resistance),
where the wiper position determines the resistance ratio of the first resistor to the second resistor.

A potentiometer is also commonly known as a potmeter or pot. The most common form of

potmeter is the single turn rotary potmeter. This type of pot is often used in audio volume control
(logarithmic taper) as well as many other applications. Different materials are used to construct
potentiometers, including carbon composition, cermet, wirewound, conductive plastic or metal
film.

Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio
equipment. Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as position transducers, for
example, in a joystick. Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant power (more
than a watt), since the power dissipated in the potentiometer would be comparable to the power
in the controlled load.
Multiturn potentiometers are also operated by rotating a shaft, but by several turns rather than
less than a full turn. Some multiturn potentiometers have a linear resistive element with a sliding
contact moved by a lead screw; others have a helical resistive element and a wiper that turns
through 10, 20, or more complete revolutions, moving along the helix as it rotates. Multiturn
potentiometers, both user-accessible and preset, allow finer adjustments; rotation through the
same angle changes the setting by typically a tenth as much as for a simple rotary potentiometer.

Types of potentiometers

A wide variety of potentiometers exist. Manually adjustable potentiometers can be divided in

rotary or linear movement types. The tables below list the available types and their applications.
Besides manually adjustable pots, electronically controlled potentiometers (called digital
potentiometers) also exist.

Rotary potentiometers

It is the most common type of potentiometer where the wiper moves along a circular path. It can
further be of following types:

a) Single-turn pot

b) Multi-turn pot

c) Dual gang pot

d) Concentric pot

e) Servo pot

Linear potentiometers

Potentiometers where the wiper moves along a linear path. Also known as slider, slide pot or
fader. It can further be of following types:

a) Slide pot

b) Dual-slide pot

c) Multi-turn slide

d) Motorized fader

Digital potentiometers

Digital potentiometers are potentiometers which are controlled electronically. In most cases they
exist of an array of small resistive components in series. Every resistive element is equiped with
a switch which can serve as the tap-off point or virtual wiper position. A digital potmeter can be
controlled by for example up/down signals or protocols like SPI.

.Resistor (1k and 10k)

It stores the charge. It also used as a filter and reduces the ripple of DC. ln Amplifier it is also
used to reduce the noise of sounds. In the experiment electrolytic capacitor was used rather than
the ceramic capacitor.

LM386: The LM386 is an audio power amplifier that is designed for use in low voltage
applications. The gain for this amplifier is usually 20 but can go up to 200 by introducing
components like resistor and capacitors at appropriate pins [3]. Since the gain can be adjusted
anywhere from 20 to 200 using external circuitry, this audio power amplifier becomes an ideal
choice for most of the applications. It has applications in AM-FM radio amplifiers, ultrasonic
drivers, power converters etc., the pin diagram of an LM386 power amplifier is shown below
 Pin Diagram of LM386

PIN 1 and 8: These are the gain control PINs, internally the gain is set to 20 but it can be
increased up to 200 by using a capacitor between PIN 1 and 8. We have used 10uF capacitor to
get the highest gain i.e. 200. Gain can be adjusted to any value between 20 to 200 by using
proper capacitor.
Pin 2 and 3: These are the input PINs for sound signals. Pin 2 is the negative input terminal,
connected to the ground. Pin 3 is the positive input terminal, in which sound signal is fed to be
amplified. In our circuit it is connected to the positive terminal of the condenser mic with a 1k
potentiometer.Potentiometer acts as volume control knob.
A capacitor has also been used along with potentiometer, to remove the DC component of
input signal and only allow audio (AC component) to be fed into LM386.

Pin 4 and 6: These are the power supply Pins of IC, Pin 6 for is +Vcc and Pin 4 is Ground. The
circuit can be powered with voltage between 5-12v.

Pin 5: This is the output PIN, from which we get the amplified sound signal. The output signal
has both AC and DC component, and DC component is undesirable and can’t be fed to Speaker.
So to remove this DC component, a capacitor of 220uF has been used. This has the same
function as Capacitor at input side.

Pin 7: This is the bypass terminal. It can be left open or can be grounded using a capacitor for
stability.

PCB Board
Speaker is a type of transducer which converts one form of energy to the other form. It is a
device that converts electrical energy into the acoustical energy (sound energy). It converts the
amplified electrical signal from the amplifier to the sound energy.

Audio Jack Female Connector

Audio jack Female connector or is used to give or receive the input or output signal.

PCB Board:
It is used to made traces for components. We connect the components with the help of traces on
this bord.
The surface is made of copper. So by chemical etching only traces are left on PCB.

Heat Sink:
It is used to cool down the IC. It takes heat from ICS and leaves it in environment. ln this way
ICS become safe from damaging due to heat.But it is not used in my circuit.
Jumper wire

Jumper wire are used to connect the PCB to those Components in Which are placed in casing such as

transformers,switch, speaker and LEDs.

Matrix Board

Battery
It is used to give 9V DC voltage. This is the input voltage that is fed to the circuit.

PCB Board

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects electronic
components using conductive tracks, pads and other features etched from copper sheets
laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. Components – capacitors, resistors or active devices
are generally soldered on the PCB. Advanced PCBs may contain components embedded in the
substrate.
PCBs can be single sided (one copper layer), double sided (two copper layers) or multi-
layer(outer and inner layers). Conductors on different layers are connected with vias. Multi-layer
PCBs allow for much higher component density. Printed circuit boards are used in all but the
simplest electronic products. Alternatives to
PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction. PCBs require the additional design
effort to lay out the circuit, but manufacturing and assembly can be automated.

Theory
Audio power amplifier is an electronic amplifier that amplifies low-power audio signals (signals
composed primarily of frequencies between 20 – 200k Hz, the human range of hearing) to a level
suitable for driving loudspeakers. It is the final electronic stage in a typical audio playback chain.
Power Amplifier (also known as a large signal amplifier), is to deliver power to the load, and as
we know from above, is the product of the voltage and current applied to the load with the output
signal power being greater than the input signal power. In other words, a power amplifier
amplifies the power of the input signal which is why these types of amplifier circuits are used in
audio amplifier output stages to drive loudspeakers.
The power amplifier works on the basic principle of converting the DC power drawn from the
power supply into an AC voltage signal delivered to the load. Although the amplification is high
the efficiency of the conversion from the DC power supply input to the AC voltage signal output
is usually poor.
The preceding stages in such a chain are low power audio amplifiers which perform tasks like
pre-amplification (this is particularly associated with record turntable signals), equalization, tone
controls, mixing/effects, or audio sources like record players, CD players, and cassette players.
Most audio power amplifiers require these low-level inputs to adhere to line levels.
While the input signal to an audio power amplifier may measure only a few hundred microwatts,
its output may be tens or hundreds of watts for a home system or thousands or tens of thousands
of watts for a concert sound reinforcement system.
An audio power amplifier (or power amp) is an electronic amplifier that strengthens very low-
power, inaudible electronic audio signals, such as the signal from radio receiver or electric
guitar pickup to a level that is strong enough for driving (or powering) loudspeakers and being
heard by listeners or the performer (with instrument amplifiers. Power amplifiers make the
signal--whether it is recorded music, a live speech, singing, an electric guitar or the mixed audio
of an entire band through a sound reinforcement system--audible to listeners. It is the final
electronic stage in a typical audio playback chain before the signal is sent to the loudspeakers
and speaker enclosures.
The preceding stages in such a chain are low power audio amplifiers which perform tasks
like pre-amplification of the signal (this is particularly associated with record
turntable signals, microphone signals and electric instrument signals from pickups, such as the
electric guitar and electric bass), equalization (e.g., adjusting the bass and treble), tone
controls, mixing different input signals or adding electronic effects such as reverb. The inputs
can also be any number of audio sources like record players, CD players, digital audio
players and cassette players. Most audio power amplifiers require these low-level inputs which
are line level.
While the input signal to an audio power amplifier, such as the signal from an electric guitar,
may measure only a few hundred microwatts, its output may be a few watts for small consumer
electronics devices, such as clock radios, tens or hundreds of watts for a home stereo system,
several thousand watts for a nightclub's sound system or tens of thousands of watts for a large
rock concert sound reinforcement system. While power amplifiers are available in standalone
units, typically aimed at the hi-fi audiophile market and sound reinforcement
system professionals, most consumer electronics sound products, such as clock radios, boom
boxes and televisions have relatively small power amplifiers that are integrated inside the chassis
of the main product.

History
Three rack-mounted audio power amplifiers used in a sound reinforcement system.
The audio amplifier was invented in 1909 by Lee De Forest when he invented the triode vacuum
tube (or "valve" in British English). The triode was a three terminal device with a control grid
that can modulate the flow of electrons from the filament to the plate. The triode vacuum
amplifier was used to make the first AM radio.[2]
Early audio power amplifiers were based on vacuum tubes and some of these achieved notably
high audio quality (e.g., the Williamson amplifier of 1947-9). Most modern audio amplifiers are
based on solid state devices (transistors such as BJTs, FETs and MOSFETs), but there are still
some audio enthusiasts, musicians and music producers who prefer tube-based amplifiers, and
the tube sound. Audio power amplifiers based on transistors became practical with the wide
availability of inexpensive transistors in the late 1960s.

Applications
Important applications include public address systems, theatrical and concert sound
reinforcement systems, and domestic systems such as a stereo or home-theatre
system. Instrument amplifiers including guitar amplifiers and electric keyboard amplifiers also
use audio power amplifiers. In some cases, the power amplifier for an instrument amplifier is
integrated into a single amplifier "head" which contains a preamplifier, tone controls, and
electronic effects. These components may be mounted in a wooden speaker cabinet to create a
"combo amplifier". Musicians with unique performance needs and/or a need for very powerful
amplification may create a custom setup with separate rackmount preamplifiers, equalizers, and a
power amplifier mounted in a 19" road case.
Power amplifiers are available in standalone units, which are used by hi-fi audio enthusiasts and
designers of public address systems (PA systems) and sound reinforcement systems. A hi-fi user
of power amplifiers may have a stereo power amplifier to drive left and right speakers and a
"monoblock" single channel power amplifier to drive a subwoofer. The number of power
amplifiers used in a sound reinforcement setting depends on the size of the venue. A
small coffeehouse may have a single power amp driving two PA speakers. A nightclub may have
several power amps for the main speakers, one or more power amps for the monitor
speakers (pointing towards the band) and an additional power amp for the subwoofer. A stadium
concert may have a large number of power amps mounted in racks. Most consumer
electronics sound products, such as TVs, boom boxes, home cinema sound systems, electronic
keyboards, "combo" guitar amps and car stereos have power amplifiers integrated inside the
chassis of the main product.

The application of the audio amplifer is given below:

- Portable consumer products like toys, games, etc.

- Used as a AM/FM amplifiers- Used as a Dc power supply of 9 v.
Chemical etching
Chemical etching is usually done with ammonium persulfate or ferric chloride. For PTH
(plated-through holes), additional steps of electroless deposition are done after the holes are
drilled, then copper is electroplated to build up the thickness, the boards are screened, and plated
with tin/lead. The tin/lead becomes the resist leaving the bare copper to be etched away.The
simplest method, used for small-scale production and often by hobbyists, is immersion etching,
in which the board is submerged in etching solution such as ferric chloride. Compared with
methods used for mass production, the etching time is long. Heat and agitation can be applied to
the bath to speed the etching rate. In bubble etching, air is passed through the etchant bath to
agitate the solution and speed up etching. Splash etching uses a motor-driven paddle to splash
boards with etchant; the process has become commercially obsolete since it is not as fast as spray
etching. In spray etching, the etchant solution is distributed over the boards by nozzles, and
recirculated by pumps. Adjustment of the nozzle pattern, flow rate, temperature, and etchant
composition gives predictable control of etching rates and high production rates. As more copper
is consumed from the boards, the etchant becomes saturated and less effective; different etchants
have different capacities for copper, with some as high as 150 grams of copper per litre of
solution. In commercial use, etchants can be regenerated to restore their activity, and the
dissolved copper recovered and sold. Small-scale etching requires attention to disposal of used
etchant, which is corrosive and toxic due to its metal content.

Chemical etching is usually done with ammonium persulfate or ferric chloride. For PTH(plated-
through holes), additional steps of electroless deposition are done after the holes are drilled, then
copper is electroplated to build up the thickness, the boards are screened, and plated with
tin/lead. The tin/lead becomes the resist leaving the bare copper to be etched away.
The simplest method, used for small-scale production and often by hobbyists, is immersion
etching, in which the board is submerged in etching solution such as ferric chloride. Compared
with methods used for mass production, the etching time is long. Heat and agitation can be
applied to the bath to speed the etching rate. In bubble etching, air is passed through the etchant
bath to agitate the solution and speed up etching. Splash etching uses a motor-driven paddle to
splash boards with etchant; the process has become commercially obsolete since it is not as fast
as spray etching. In spray etching, the etchant solution is distributed over the boards by nozzles,
and recirculated by pumps. Adjustment of the nozzle pattern, flow rate, temperature, and etchant
composition gives predictable control of etching rates and high production rates.
Introduction to PCB Design
A Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) is a rugged, copper and non-conductive substrate based structure
to connect electrical components (for example the green board inside a common electrical
appliance is a PCB). The PCB is the back bone of the electrical devices, allowing you to connect
passive (resistor, inductor, capacitors etc….), active (operational amplifier etc…) and embedded
devices together, into specific form factors to fit the design need. Connections between the
components are made through copper connections (routes) which become passageways for
electrical signals.
PCBs were first developed by an Austrian Engineer named Paul Eisler. Born in Vienna, and
educated at the Vienna University, he made his way to the United Kingdom in the 1936. He
began developing the circuit manufacturing process during the Second World War where he
earned a number of patens dealing with the etching process, to define the various routes and
electrical conduits on your board.

Fig.:- PCB Example

PCB Design flow
The PCB design flow consists of four distinct stages.
There is the part research and selection stage, schematic capture and simulation, board layout,
and finally board verification.
. A schematic capture tool allows you to place symbols for electronic components and wire them
together. Each of these symbols (for the amplifier, resistor etc…) are linked to a symbol that
represents the dimensions and shape of an actual device used on a PCB.So a resistor symbol is
associated with a real-world resistor footprint or landpattern. This landpattern is what we use on
our board layout in order to define our final PCB.
Understanding the Make-Up of aPCB Design
A PCB typically consists of multiple layers of copper which are used to conduct a signal, with
various layers of dielectric for insulation. The green color that one finds on most PCBs comes
from a solder mask. A solder mask however can be found in either blue or red.

Board Outline
The board outline of aPCB can be cut into any shape for a form factor that meets a specific
design. When working with small devices, the need for specific shape (round,rectangular,zigzag
etc…) is important to finalizing a product. As such number of method are used to define the
shape of your board outline, including importing DXF files ( a format used by mechanical CAD
tools) to help to define a specific shape for the design,

Creating copper routes

Copper routes Printed Circuit Board (PCB) are responsible for conducting the electrical signal
throughout the board,to various components and connector. The copper is created either by
layering copper on the completed board surface (s) and etching away excess copper to create the
copper pathways. These etchings are created by placing a temporary mask over areas of copper
routes, and then removing all unwanted copper.
Drilling Holes
In order to create pathways of signals to various layer on aboard, or to create region to attach
components on a board, you do need to drill holes on aboard.A plated throughhole (PTH) in a
Printed Circuit Board (PCB) is called a via and allows to provide electrical connection between
a copper route on one layer of a PCB, to copper on another layer. There are various types of
vias.A blind via starts on one outer layer of a PCB , but ends at the inner layer(i.e it does not
completely pass through a board ).A buried via connects copper on two inner layers of aboard
(i.e it does not connect at the surface level of the board).Holes for vias are drilled using either
afine drill bit, or in the case of very small microvias with a LASER.
Components on A PCB design
Components on PCB are the semiconductor devices that together allow to perform specific
design actions (filtering, amplification etc…). Components are either through-hole technology
(THT) components or surface mount devices (SMD).
SMD parts became more widely used. THT have longer pins that are basically inserted into
drilled holes and soldered one-by-one onto the PCB.
SMD parts are (generally) much smaller in size and allow you to solder much smaller to the
surface of a PCB. By having the SMD parts soldered to the surface of aPCB. Engineers can
attach parts to the either surface (top or bottom) of a PCB. Rather than having to soldering
through hole parts.
Gerber File
AGerber File is a file format used for PCB manufacturing. Fabrication machine can use for these
files to layout electrical connections such as traces and pads. The files also contains information
for drilling, and milling the completed circuit board.

Etching Process of PCB with Ferric Chloride

An old favorite, also very good at staining figures, clothing, etch brown. Etching rate can be very
high but is independent on solution movement over the surface of the board and temperature. At
700c using spray etching because copper is removed in alittle under a minute, normal etching
temperature is more likely to be 45 0c. When etching circuit if up to 5% of HCl is added, it
increases etching rate, helps to stop staining, and reduces the risk of the solution sludging. Ferric
especially with extra HCl makes a very good stainless steel etchant.
When Ferric crystal are mixed with water some free HCl produced through hydrolysis.
FeCl3 + 3H2O → Fe(OH)3 + 3HCl
The basic etching reaction takes place in 3 stages. First the ferric ion oxidizes copper to cuprous
chloride, which is then further oxidized to cupric chloride.
FeCl3 + Cu → FeCl2 + CuCl
FeCl3 + CuCl → FeCl2 + CuCl2
As the cupric chloride builds up at further reaction takes place.
CuCl2 + Cu → 2CuCl

Fig:- Etching

PCB Layout
The PCB layout is a mirrored positive one - black on white. Mirrored as viewed from the
silkscreen top (component) side. The PCB layout is printed 1:1 on paper by means of a laser
printer or copier machine. The laser printer or copier toner will not run out when it gets wet or
oily. The ink of an inkjet paper print does run out and inkjet printers are therefore useless with
the described method.
These printers work fine. It might be possible that the toner texture on the layout prints from
your used laser printer is not dense enough and passes too much light. However, results might be
improved by setting the toner density to maximum. Generally printer driver properties allow to
set the toner density.
PCB Preparation
The PCB layout paper is drenched with sunflower-seed oil. Sunflower-seed oil is common
available from your local grocery or wall market. Superfluous oil should be removed carefully
with tissue paper. The sunflower-seed oil is used to make the white part of the layout paper
transparent for light.
The layout paper should be carefully dried on forehand as much as possible with tissue paper.
Sunflower-seed oil is a `drying' oil. Exposed to the air over a number of hours, the layout paper
becomes rigid again. A kind of polymerization takes place. You will get a lot less or no greasy
fingers anymore afterwards.
Other mineral or vegetable oils might work as well to obtain light transparency. However, they
might not be `drying' oils. When I started experimenting, sunflower-seed oil was the first oil I
used and it worked fine. So I didn't try any other oils. Using water does not work. The layout
paper crumples up a bit.

Fig:-Drench layout with sunflower-seed oil

PCB UV Exposure
The protective plastic layer is removed - peeled back - from the photosensitive PCB. The toner
side of the greased layout is placed on the copper of the PCB. Captured air-bubbles are gently
pressed away from underneath the layout. The PCB with the layout is now covered with an
appropriate sized windowpane and placed on a piece of plain polished tile or marble. The tile or
marble absorbs the heat coming from the UV bulb, which is significant. Three to four minutes
300W bulb UV exposure from a distance of 30-40 cm will do the photo process. Take care when
finished and removing the PCB, it gets hot!

Fig:-PCB with partly peeled back protective plastic layer and `dried' layout
 Fig:-Place layout with toner side on copper of the PCB

Fig:-Cover PCB and layout with window-pane

PCB Development
The PCB is developed with a 1% solution of sodium hydroxide NaOH. You can make this
solvent by adding 10 gram ofsodium hydroxide pellets to 1 liter of water and mix it until
everything is dissolved. Use a brush to speed up the developing and clean the PCB during this
process if the PCB is still greasy due to the applied sunflower-seed oil. The developing process
takes about 1 minute. It is sometimes difficult to guess when the developing is finished. The
traces should become clear and the exposed photosensitive layer has dissolved (during the
brushing you see darker `cloud' coming off the PCB surface).

Fig:-Gently brush the PCB

Fig:-Almost developed, some traces are not clear yet

PCB Etching
The developed PCB is etched with a 220 g/l solution of ammonium peroxydisulfate
(NH4)2S2O8 a.k.a. ammonium persulfate, 220 gram added to 1 liter of water and mix it until
everything is dissolved. Theoretically it should be possible to etch slightly more than 60 grams of
copper with 1 liter etching solution. Assume an 50% efficiency, about 30 grams of copper. With
a thickness of 35 µm copper on your PCB this covers a copper area of about 1000 cm2.
Unfortunately the efficiency of the etching solution degrades, dissolved ammonium
peroxydisulfate decomposes slowly. You better make just enough etching solution you need to
etch. For an etching tray of about 20 x 25 cm a minimum practical amount is 200-250 ml
solution. So you dissolve about 44 grams ammonium peroxydisulfate into 200 ml or 55 grams
into 250 ml water.
Etching at ambient temperature might take over an hour, it is better to heat up the etching solvent
to about 35-45 degrees Celcius. The etching solution heating up could be done in a magnetron,
this takes about 40 to 60 seconds in a 850W magnetron depending on the initial temperature of
the etching solution (hint: first try this with just water to determine the timer setting of the
magnetron). The etching - rocking the etching tray - takes about 15-30 minutes at this
temperature. If you have a heated, air-bubble circulated etching fluid tank available, this is
probably the fastest way to etch. At higher temperatures the etching performance decreases. The
etching process is an exothermic reaction, it generates heat. Take care, cool your etching tray
when necessary! You should minimize the amount of copper to etch by creating copper area in
your PCB layout as much as possible. When starting the etching process and little to etch it is
difficult to keep the etching solution at 35-45 degrees Celcius. It helps to fill for example the
kitchen sink with warm water and rock the etching tray in the filled kitchen sink.
When the ammonium peroxydisulfate is dissolved it is a clear liquid. After an etching procedure
it gradually becomes blue and more deeper blue - the chemical reaction creates dissolved copper
sulfate CuSO4. Compared to other etching chemicals like hydrated iron (III) chloride
FeCl3.6H2O a.k.a. ferric chloride or the combination of hydrochloric acidHCL and hydrogen
peroxide H2O2, using ammonium peroxydisulfate is a clean and safe method. Did you ever
spilled dissolved iron chloride on your clothes or your assumed stainless steel kitchen sink? Do
you really want to keep concentrated hydrochloric acid and hydrogen peroxide at home? So,
without doubt ammonium peroxydisulfate is the best choice for etching at home. However,
copper sulfate is a poisonous substance and should be treated as chemical waste.
 Fig:-Rock the etching tray

Fig:-The epoxy of the PCB becomes visible

 Fig:-Almost finished

Fig:-The etching solution colors slighty blue

Trouble shooting
The above mentioned exposure timing should be determined experimentally. But even when the
exposure timing is correct PCB etching failures could happen because of low quality or too old
photosensitive PCB, the photosensitive layer has aged despite the protective plastic layer. Other
possible causes are too high concentration of development solution causing the photosensitive
part not exposed to light to be dissolved by the sodium hydroxide solution as well. When
developing too short not all of the copper of the PCB will be etched. Developing might take
some experimenting to get used to it and know what to expect. Furthermore set the toner density
of your laser printer driver always to maximum.
Example:
 Fig:- Exposure

Fig:- Development

Fig:- Etching
 Fig:- Finished

Solders

Fig:-Desoldering a contact from a wire

Soldering filler materials are available in many different alloys for differing applications. In

electronics assembly, the eutectic alloy of 63% tin and 37% lead (or 60/40, which is almost
identical in melting point) has been the alloy of choice. Other alloys are used for plumbing,
mechanical assembly, and other applications. Some examples of soft-solder are tin-lead for
general purposes, tin-zinc for joining aluminium, lead-silver for strength at higher than room
temperature, cadmium-silver for strength at high temperatures, zinc-aluminium for aluminium
and corrosion resistance, and tin-silver and tin-bismuth for electronics.
A eutectic formulation has advantages when applied to soldering:
the liquidus and solidus temperatures are the same, so there is no plastic phase, and it has the
lowest possible melting point. Having the lowest possible melting point minimizes heat stress on
electronic components during soldering. And, having no plastic phase allows for quicker wetting
as the solder heats up, and quicker setup as the solder cools. A non-eutectic formulation must
remain still as the temperature drops through the liquidus and solidus temperatures. Any
movement during the plastic phase may result in cracks, resulting in an unreliable joint.
Common solder formulations based on tin and lead are listed below. The fraction represent
percentage of tin first, then lead, totaling 100%:

 63/37: melts at 183 °C (361 °F) (eutectic: the only mixture that melts at a point, instead
of over a range)
 60/40: melts between 183–190 °C (361–374 °F)
 50/50: melts between 183–215 °C (361–419 °F)
For environmental reasons (and the introduction of regulations such as the European RoHS
(Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive)), lead-free solders are becoming more widely
used. They are also suggested anywhere young children may come into contact with (since
young children are likely to place things into their mouths), or for outdoor where rain and other
precipitation may wash the lead into the groundwater. Unfortunately, most lead-free solders are
not eutectic formulations, melting at around 250 °C (482 °F), making it more difficult to create
reliable joints with them.
Other common solders include low-temperature formulations (often containing bismuth), which
are often used to join previously-soldered assemblies without un-soldering earlier connections,
and high-temperature formulations (usually containing silver) which are used for high-
temperature operation or for first assembly of items which must not become unsoldered during
subsequent operations. Alloying silver with other metals changes the melting point, adhesion and
wetting characteristics, and tensile strength. Of all the brazing alloys, silver solders have the
greatest strength and the broadest applications. Specialty alloys are available with properties
such as higher strength, the ability to solder aluminum, better electrical conductivity, and higher
corrosion resistance.
Flux
The purpose of flux is to facilitate the soldering process. One of the obstacles to a successful
solder joint is an impurity at the site of the joint, for example, dirt, oil or oxidation. The
impurities can be removed by mechanical cleaning or by chemical means, but the elevated
temperatures required to melt the filler metal (the solder) encourages the work piece (and the
solder) to re-oxidize. This effect is accelerated as the soldering temperatures increase and can
completely prevent the solder from joining to the workpiece. One of the earliest forms of flux
was charcoal, which acts as a reducing agent and helps prevent oxidation during the soldering
process. Some fluxes go beyond the simple prevention of oxidation and also provide some form
of chemical cleaning (corrosion).
For many years, the most common type of flux used in electronics (soft soldering) was rosin-
based, using the rosin from selected pine trees. It was ideal in that it was non-corrosive and non-
conductive at normal temperatures but became mildly reactive (corrosive) at the elevated
soldering temperatures. Plumbing and automotive applications, among others, typically use an
acid-based (hydrochloric acid) flux which provides cleaning of the joint. These fluxes cannot be
used in electronics because they are conductive and because they will eventually dissolve the
small diameter wires. Many fluxes also act as a wetting agent in the soldering process, reducing
the surface tension of the molten solder and causing it to flow and wet the workpieces more
easily.
Fluxes for soft solder are currently available in three basic formulations:

1. Water-soluble fluxes - higher activity fluxes designed to be removed with water after
soldering (no VOCs required for removal).
2. No-clean fluxes - mild enough to not "require" removal due to their non-conductive and
non-corrosive residue. These fluxes are called "no-clean" because the residue left after
the solder operation is non-conductive and won't cause electrical shorts; nevertheless
they leave a plainly visible white residue that resembles diluted bird-droppings. No-clean
flux residue is acceptable on all 3 classes of PCBs as defined by IPC-610 provided it
does not inhibit visual inspection, access to test points, or have a wet, tacky or excessive
residue that may spread onto other areas. Connector mating surfaces must also be free of
flux residue. Fingerprints in no-clean residue are a class 3 defect
3. Traditional rosin fluxes - available in non-activated (R), mildly activated (RMA) and
activated (RA) formulations. RA and RMA fluxes contain rosin combined with an
activating agent, typically an acid, which increases the wettability of metals to which it is
applied by removing existing oxides. The residue resulting from the use of RA flux
iscorrosive and must be cleaned. RMA flux is formulated to result in a residue which is
not significantly corrosive, with cleaning being preferred but optional.
Flux performance needs to be carefully evaluated; a very mild 'no-clean' flux might be perfectly
acceptable for production equipment, but not give adequate performance for a poorly controlled
hand-soldering operation.

Processes
There are three forms of soldering, each requiring progressively higher temperatures and
producing an increasingly stronger joint strength:

1. soft soldering, which originally used a tin-lead alloy as the filler metal

2. silver soldering, which uses an alloy containing silver
3. brazing which uses a brass alloy for the filler

The alloy of the filler metal for each type of soldering can be adjusted to modify the melting
temperature of the filler. Soldering differs from gluing significantly in that the filler metals alloy
with the workpiece at the junction to form a gas- and liquid-tight bond.
Soft soldering is characterized by having a melting point of the filler metal below approximately
400 °C (752 °F), whereas silver soldering and brazing use higher temperatures, typically
requiring a flame or carbon arc torch to achieve the melting of the filler. Soft solder filler metals
are typically alloys (often containing lead) that have liquidus temperatures below 350 °C.
In this soldering process, heat is applied to the parts to be joined, causing the solder to melt and
to bond to the workpieces in an alloying process called wetting. In stranded wire, the solder is
drawn up into the wire by capillary action in a process called 'wicking'. Capillary action also
takes place when the workpieces are very close together or touching. The joint's tensile strengthis
dependent on the filler metal used. Soldering produces electrically-conductive, water- and gas-
tight joints.
Each type of solder offers advantages and disadvantages. Soft solder is so called because of the
soft lead that is its primary ingredient. Soft soldering uses the lowest temperatures but does not
make a strong joint and is unsuitable for mechanical load-bearing applications. It is also
unsuitable for high-temperature applications as it softens and melts. Silver soldering, as used by
jewelers, machinists and in some plumbing applications, requires the use of a torch or other high-
temperature source, and is much stronger than soft soldering. Brazing provides the strongest joint
but also requires the hottest temperatures to melt the filler metal, requiring a torch or other high
temperature source and darkened goggles to protect the eyes from the bright light produced by
the white-hot work. It is often used to repair cast-iron objects, wrought-iron furniture, etc.
Soldering operations can be performed with hand tools, one joint at a time, or en masse on a
production line. Hand soldering is typically performed with a soldering iron, soldering gun, or a
torch, or occasionally a hot-air pencil. Sheetmetal work was traditionally done with "soldering
coppers" directly heated by a flame, with sufficient stored heat in the mass of the soldering
copper to complete a joint; torches or electrically-heated soldering irons are more convenient. All
soldered joints require the same elements of cleaning of the metal parts to be joined, fitting up
the joint, heating the parts, applying flux, applying the filler, removing heat and holding the
assembly still until the filler metal has completely solidified. Depending on the nature of flux
material used, cleaning of the joints may be required after they have cooled.
Each alloy has characteristics that work best for certain applications, notably strength and
conductivity, and each type of solder and alloy has different melting temperatures. The
term silver solder likewise denotes the type of solder that is used. Some soft solders are "silver-
bearing" alloys used to solder silver-plated items. Lead-based solders should not be used on
precious metals because the lead dissolves the metal and disfigures it.

Soldering and brazing

The distinction between soldering and brazing is based on the melting temperature of the filler
alloy. A temperature of 450 °C is usually used as a practical delineating point between soldering
and brazing . Soft soldering can be done with a heated iron whereas the other methods require a
higher temperature torch or furnace to melt the filler metal.
Different equipment is usually required since a soldering iron cannot achieve high enough
temperatures for hard soldering or brazing. Brazing filler metal is stronger than silver solder,
which is stronger than lead-based soft solder. Brazing solders are formulated primarily for
strength, silver solder is used by jewelers to protect the precious metal and by machinists and
refrigeration technicians for its tensile strength but lower melting temperature than brazing, and
the primary benefit of soft solder is the low temperature used (to prevent heat damage to
electronic components and insulation).
Since the joint is produced using a metal with a lower melting temperature than the workpiece,
the joint will weaken as the ambient temperature approaches the melting point of the filler metal.
For that reason, the higher temperature processes produce joints which are effective at higher
temperatures. Brazed connections can be as strong or nearly as strong as the parts they
connect, even at elevated temperatures.
Silver soldering
"Hard soldering" or "silver soldering" is used to join precious and semi-precious metals such as
gold, silver, brass, and copper. The solder is usually referred to as easy, medium, or hard. This
refers to its melting temperature, not the strength of the joint. Extra-easy solder contains 56%
silver and has a melting point of 1,145 °F (618 °C). Extra-hard solder has 80% silver and melts
at 1,370 °F (740 °C). If multiple joints are needed, then the jeweler will start with hard or extra-
hard solder and switch to lower-temperature solders for later joints.
Silver solder is absorbed by the surrounding metal, resulting in a joint that is actually stronger
than the metal being joined. The metal being joined must be perfectly flush, as silver solder
cannot normally be used as a filler and any gaps will remain.
Another difference between brazing and soldering is how the solder is applied. In brazing, one
generally uses rods that are touched to the joint while being heated. With silver soldering, small
pieces of solder wire are placed onto the metal prior to heating. A flux, often made of boric acid
and denatured alcohol, is used to keep the metal and solder clean and to prevent the solder from
moving before it melts.
When silver solder melts, it tends to flow towards the area of greatest heat. Jewelers can
somewhat control the direction the solder moves by leading it with a torch; it will even run
straight up along a seam.
Induction soldering
Induction soldering uses induction heating by high-frequency AC current in a surrounding
copper coil. This induces currents in the part being soldered, which generates heat because of the
higher resistance of a joint versus its surrounding metal (resistive heating). These copper coils
can be shaped to fit the joint more precisely. A filler metal (solder) is placed between the facing
surfaces, and this solder melts at a fairly low temperature. Fluxes are commonly used in
induction soldering. This technique is particularly suited to continuously soldering, in which case
these coils wrap around a cylinder or a pipe that needs to be soldered.
Some metals are easier to solder than others. Copper, silver, and gold are easy. Iron, mild
steel and nickel are next in difficulty. Because of their thin, strong oxide films, stainless steel and
aluminium are even more difficult to solder. Titanium, magnesium, cast irons, some high-
carbon steels, ceramics, and graphite can be soldered but it involves a process similar to joining
carbides: they are first plated with a suitable metallic element that induces interfacial bonding.
Soldered copper pipes

Solder
Lead-free solder
Copper pipe, or 'tube', is commonly joined by soldering. When applied in a plumbing trade
context in the United States, soldering is often referred to as sweating, and a tubing connection
so made is referred to as a sweated joint.
Copper tubing conducts heat away much faster than a conventional hand-held soldering iron or
gun can provide, so a propane torch is most commonly used to deliver the necessary power; for
large tubing sizes and fittings a MAPP-fueled, acetylene-fueled, or propylene-fueled torch is
used with atmospheric air as the oxidizer; MAPP/oxygen or acetylene/oxygen are rarely used
because the flame temperature is much higher than the melting point of copper. Too much heat
destroys the temper of hard-tempered copper tubing, and can burn the flux out of a joint before
the solder is added, resulting in a faulty joint. For larger tubing sizes, a torch fitted with various
sizes of interchangeable swirl tipsis employed to deliver the needed heating power. Most
experienced plumbers seldom use propane fuel.[citation needed] In the hands of a
skilledtradesman, the hotter flame of acetylene, MAPP, or propylene allows more joints to be
completed per hour.
However, it is possible to use an electrical tool to solder joints in copper pipe sized from 8mm to
22mm. For example, the AntexPipemaster is recommended for use in tight spaces, when open
flames are hazardous, or by do-it-yourself users. The pliers-like tool uses heated fitted jaws that
completely encircle the pipe, allowing a joint to be melted in as little as 10 seconds.[18]
Solder fittings, also known as capillary fittings, are short sections of smooth pipe designed to
slide over the outside of the mating tube, are usually used for copper joints. Commonly used
fittings include for straight connectors, reducers, bends, and tees. There are two types of solder
fittings: end feed fittings which contain no solder, and solder ring fittings (also known as
Yorkshire fittings), in which there is a ring of solder in a small circular recess inside the fitting.
As with all solder joints, all parts to be joined must be clean and oxide free. Internal and external
wire brushes are available for the common pipe and fitting sizes; emery cloth and wire-wool are
frequently used as well, although metal wool products are discouraged, as they can contain oil,
which would contaminate the joint.
Because of the size of the parts involved, and the high activity and contaminating tendency of the
flame, plumbing fluxes are typically much more chemically active, and more acidic, than
electronic fluxes. Because plumbing joints may be done at any angle, even upside down,
plumbing fluxes are generally formulated as pastes which stay in place better than liquids. Flux
should be applied to all surfaces of the joint, inside and out. Flux residues should be removed
after the joint is complete or they can, eventually, erode through the copper substrates and cause
failure of the joint.
Many plumbing solder formulations are available, with different characteristics, such as higher
or lower melting temperature, depending on the specific requirements of the job. Building codes
currently almost universally require the use of lead-free solder for potable water piping, though
traditional tin-lead solder is still available. Studies have shown that lead-soldered plumbing pipes
can result in elevated levels of lead in drinking water.
Since copper pipe quickly conducts heat away from a joint, great care must be taken to ensure
that the joint is properly heated through to obtain a good bond. After the joint is properly
cleaned, fluxed and fitted, the torch flame is applied to the thickest part of the joint, typically the
fitting with the pipe inside it, with the solder applied at the gap between the tube and the fitting.
When all the parts are heated through, the solder will melt and flow into the joint by capillary
action. The torch may need to be moved around the joint to ensure all areas are wetted out.
However, the installer must take care to not overheat the areas being soldered. If the tube begins
to discolor it means that the tube has been over-heated and is beginning to oxidize, stopping the
flow of the solder and causing the soldered joint not to seal properly. Before oxidation the
molten solder will follow the heat of the torch around the joint. When the joint is properly wetted
out, the solder and then the heat are removed, and while the joint is still very hot, it is usually
wiped with a dry rag. This removes excess solder as well as flux residue before it cools down
and hardens. With a solder ring joint, the joint is heated until a ring of molten solder is visible
around the edge of the fitting and allowed to cool.
Of the three methods of connecting copper tubing, solder connections require the most skill, but
soldering copper is a very reliable process, provided some basic conditions are provided:
• The tubing and fittings must be cleaned to bare metal with no tarnish
• Any pressure which is formed by heating of the tubing must have an outlet
• The joint must be dry (which can be challenging when repairing water pipes)
Copper is only one material that is joined in this manner. Brass fittings are often used for valves
or as a connection fitting between copper and other metals. Brass piping is soldered in this
manner in the making of brass instruments and some woodwind (saxophone and flute) musical
instruments
Mechanical and aluminium soldering
A number of solder materials, primarily zinc alloys, are used for soldering aluminium metal and
alloys and to some lesser extent steel and zinc. This mechanical soldering is similar to a low
temperature brazing operation, in that the mechanical characteristics of the joint are reasonably
good and it can be used for structural repairs of those materials.
The American welding society defines brazing as using filler metals with melting points over
450 °C (842 °F) — or, by the traditional definition in the United States, above 800 °F (427 °C).
Aluminium soldering alloys generally have melting temperatures around 730 °F (388 °C). This
soldering / brazing operation can use a propane torch heat source
These materials are often advertised as "aluminium welding", but the process does not involve
melting the base metal, and therefore is not properly a weld.
Resistance soldering is soldering in which the heat required to flow the solder is created by
passing an electric current through the solder. When current is conducted through a resistive
material a certain level of heat is generated. By regulating the amount of current conducted and
the level of resistance encountered, the amount of heat produced can be predetermined and
controlled.
Electrical resistance (usually described as a material's opposition to the flow of an electric
current) is used to convert electric energy into thermal energy as an electric current (I) conducted
through a material with resistance (R) releases power (P) equal to: P = I² R, where P is the power
measured in watts, I is the current measured in amps and R is the resistance measured in ohms.
Resistance soldering
Resistance soldering is unlike using a conduction iron, where heat is produced within an element
and then passed through a thermally conductive tip into the joint area. A cold soldering iron
requires time to reach working temperature and must be kept hot between solder joints. Thermal
transfer may be inhibited if the tip is not kept properly wetted during use. With resistance
soldering an intense heat can be rapidly developed directly within the joint area and in a tightly
controlled manner. This allows a faster ramp up to the required solder melt temperature and
minimizes thermal travel away from the solder joint, which helps to minimize the potential for
thermal damage to materials or components in the surrounding area. Heat is only produced while
each joint is being made, making resistance soldering more energy efficient. Resistance soldering
equipment, unlike conduction irons, can be used for difficult soldering and brazing applications
where significantly higher temperatures may be required. This makes resistance comparable to
flame soldering in some situations. When the required temperature can be achieved by either
flame or resistance methods the resistance heat is more localized because of direct contact,
whereas the flame will spread thus heating a potentially larger area.

Tools
In principle any type of soldering tool can carry out any work using solder at temperatures it can
generate. In practice different tools are more suitable for different applications.
Hand-soldering tools widely used for electronics work include the electric soldering iron, which
can be fitted with a variety of tips ranging from blunt to very fine, to chisel heads for hot-cutting
plastics rather than soldering. The simplest irons do not have temperature regulation; small irons
rapidly cool when used to solder to, say, a metal chassis, while large irons have tips too
cumbersome for working on PCBs and similar fine work. Temperature-controlled irons have a
reserve of power and can maintain temperature over a wide range of work. The soldering
gun heats faster but has a larger and heavier body. Gas-powered irons using a catalytic tip to heat
a bit, without flame, are used for portable applications. Hot-air guns and pencils allow rework of
component packages which cannot easily be performed with electric irons and guns.
For non-electronic applications soldering torches use a flame rather than a soldering tip to heat
solder. Soldering torches are often powered by butane and are available in sizes ranging from
very small butane/oxygen units suitable for very fine but high-temperature jewelry work, to full-
size oxy-fuel torches suitable for much larger work such as copper piping. Common
multipurpose propane torches, the same kind used for heat-stripping paint and thawing pipes, can
be used for soldering pipes and other fairly large objects either with or without a soldering tip
attachment; pipes are generally soldered with a torch by directly applying the open flame.
A soldering copper is a tool with a large copper head and a long handle which is heated in
a blacksmith's forge fire and used to apply heat to sheet metal for soldering. Typical soldering
coppers have heads weighing between one and four pounds. The head provides a large thermal
mass to store enough heat for soldering large areas before needing re-heating in the fire; the
larger the head, the longer the working time. Historically, soldering coppers were standard tools
used in auto bodywork, although body solder has been mostly superseded by spot welding for
mechanical connection, and non-metallic fillers for contouring.
Toaster ovens and hand held infrared lights have been used by hobbyists to replicate production
soldering processes on a much smaller scale.
Bristle brushes are usually used to apply plumbing paste flux. For electronic work, flux-core
solder is generally used, but additional flux may be used from a flux pen or dispensed from a
small bottle with a syringe-like needle.
Wire brush, wire wool and emery cloth are commonly used to prepare plumbing joints for
connection. Electronic joints are usually made between surfaces that have been tinned and rarely
require mechanical cleaning, though tarnished component leads and copper traces with a dark
layer of oxide passivation (due to aging), as on a new prototyping board that has been on the
shelf for about a year or more, may need to be mechanically cleaned.
Some fluxes for electronics are designed to be stable and inactive when cool and do not need to
be cleaned off, though they still can be if desired, while other fluxes are acidic and must be
removed after soldering to prevent corrosion of the circuits. For PCB assembly and rework,
either an alcohol or acetone is commonly used with cotton swabs or bristle brushes to remove
flux residue after soldering. A heavy rag is usually used to remove flux from a plumbing joint
before it cools and hardens. A fiberglass brush can also be used.
A heat sink, such as a crocodile clip, can be used to prevent damaging heat-sensitive components
while hand-soldering. The heat sink limits the temperature of the component body by absorbing
and dissipating heat (reducing the thermal resistance between the component and the air), while
the thermal resistance of the leads maintains the temperature difference between the part of the
leads being soldered and the component body so that the leads become hot enough to melt the
solder while the component body remains cooler.

PCB Wizard

PCB Wizard  is a powerful package for designing single-sided and double-sided printed
circuit boards (PCBs).
It provides a comprehensive range of tools covering all the traditional steps in PCB
production, including schematic drawing, schematic capture, component placement,
automatic routing, Bill of Materials reporting and file generation for manufacturing. In
addition, PCB Wizard offers a wealth of clever new features that do away with the steep
learning curve normally associated with PCB packages.
 
Livewire® software allows the user to design circuits using individual components rather
than modular building blocks as seen in Control Studio®. Although this is more difficult
than using the modular approach, simple circuits as well as complex ones can be built
and simulated. Livewire can be used by beginners as well as electronics experts.

Circuits can be tested through the simulation option. When this option is selected the circuit
operates on the screen as it operates as a real, soldered circuit. This means that mistakes can be
corrected without the need to spend time and money building the circuit with real components
and soldering them onto a Printed Circuit Board.
When the circuit has been rigorously tested it can be convert to a Printed Circuit Board layout by
selecting the convert option from the TOOLS menu. A variety of options can be selected after
which the circuit is converted to a PCB layout, using PCB Wizard® software.
Please Note: PCB Wizard® software must be running alongside Livewire® software when
attempting the convert a circuit to PCB.
Amplifier Configuration:-
Common Base Configuration

In this configuration we use base as common terminal for both input and output signals. The
configuration name itself indicates the common terminal. Here the input is applied between the
base and emitter terminals and the corresponding output signal is taken between the base and
collector terminals with the base terminal grounded. Here the input parameters are V EB and IE and
the output parameters are VCB and IC. The input current flowing into the emitter terminal must be
higher than the base current and collector current to operate the transistor, therefore the output
collector current is less than the input emitter current.

The current gain is generally equal or less than to unity for this type of configuration. The input
and output signals are in-phase in this configuration. The amplifier circuit configuration of this
type is called as non-inverting amplifier circuit. The construction of this configuration circuit is
difficult because this type has high voltage gain values.

The input characteristics of this configuration are looks like characteristics of illuminated photo
diode while the output characteristics represents a forward biased diode. This transistor
configuration has high output impedance and low input impedance. This type of configuration
has high resistance gain i.e. ratio of output resistance to input resistance is high. The voltage gain
for this configuration of circuit is given below.

AV = Vout/Vin = (IC*RL) / (IE*Rin)

Current gain in common base configuration is given as

α = Output current/Input current

α = IC/IE

The common base circuit is mainly used in single stage amplifier circuits, such as microphone
pre amplifier or radio frequency amplifiers because of their high frequency response. The
common base transistor circuit is given below.

Input Charateristics

Input characteristics are obtained between input current and input voltage with constant output
voltage. First keep the output voltage V CB constant and vary the input voltage VEB for different
points then at each point record the input current IE value. Repeat the same process at different
output voltage levels. Now with these values we need to plot the graph between I Eand
VEB parameters. The below figure show the input characteristics of common base configuration.
The equation to calculate the input resistance Rin value is given below.

Rin = VEB / IE (when VCB is constant)

Output Charateristics

The output characteristics of common base configuration are obtained between output current
and output voltage with constant input current. First keep the emitter current constant and vary
the VCB value for different points, now record the I C values at each point. Repeat the same
process at different IE values. Finally we need to draw the plot between V CB and IC at constant
IE. The below figure show the output characteristics of common base configuration. The equation
to calculate the output resistance value is given below.

Rout = VCB / IC (when IE is constant)

Common Collector Configuration

In this configuration we use collector terminal as common for both input and output signals. This
configuration is also known as emitter follower configuration because the emitter voltage follows
the base voltage. This configuration is mostly used as a buffer. These configurations are widely
used in impedance matching applications because of their high input impedance.

In this configuration the input signal is applied between the base-collector region and the output
is taken from the emitter-collector region. Here the input parameters are VBC and IB and the
output parameters are VEC and IE. The common collector configuration has high input
impedance and low output impedance. The input and output signals are in phase. Here also the
emitter current is equal to the sum of collector current and the base current. Now let us calculate
the current gain for this configuration.

Current gain,

Ai = output current/Input current

Ai = IE/IB

Ai = (IC + IB)/IB

Ai = (IC/IB) + 1

Ai = β + 1

The common collector transistor circuit is shown above. This common collector configuration is
a non-inverting amplifier circuit. The voltage gain for this circuit is less than unity but it has
large current gain because the load resistor in this circuit receives both the collector and base
currents.

Input Charateristics
The input characteristics of a common collector configuration are quite different from the
common base and common emitter configurations because the input voltage V BC is largely
determined by VEC level. Here,

VEC = VEB + VBC

VEB = VEC – VBC

The input characteristics of a common-collector configuration are obtained between inputs

current IB and the input voltage VCB at constant output voltage VEC. Keep the output voltage
VEC constant at different levels and vary the input voltage VBC for different points and record the
IB values for each point. Now using these values we need to draw a graph between the
parameters of VBC and IB at constant VEC.

Output Characteristics

The operation of the common collector circuit is same as that of common emitter circuit. The
output characteristics of a common collector circuit are obtained between the output voltage
VEC and output current IE at constant input current IB. In the operation of common collector
circuit if the base current is zero then the emitter current also becomes zero. As a result no
current flows through the transistor

If the base current increases then the transistor operates in active region and finally reaches to
saturation region. To plot the graph first we keep the I B at constant value and we will vary the
VEC value for various points, now we need to record the value of I E for each point. Repeat the
same process for different IB values. Now using these values we need to plot the graph between
the parameters of IE and VCE at constant values of IB. The below figure show the output
characteristics of common collector.

Common Emitter Configuration

In this configuration we use emitter as common terminal for both input and output. This common
emitter configuration is an inverting amplifier circuit. Here the input is applied between base-
emitter region and the output is taken between collector and emitter terminals. In this
configuration the input parameters are VBE and IB and the output parameters are VCEand IC.

This type of configuration is mostly used in the applications of transistor based amplifiers. In this
configuration the emitter current is equal to the sum of small base current and the large collector
current. i.e. IE  = IC + IB. We know that the ratio between collector current and emitter current
gives current gain alpha in Common Base configuration similarly the ratio between collector
current and base current gives the current gain beta in common emitter configuration.
Now let us see the relationship between these two current gains.

Current gain (α) = IC/IE

Current gain (β) = IC/IB

Collector current IC =α IE = βIB

This configuration is mostly used one among all the three configurations. It has medium input and output
impedance values. It also has the medium current and voltage gains. But the output signal has a phase
shift of 1800 i.e. both the input and output are inverse to each other.
Input Characteristics

The input characteristics of common emitter configuration are obtained between input current
IB and input voltage VBE with constant output voltage VCE. Keep the output voltage VCEconstant
and vary the input voltage VBE for different points, now record the values of input current at each
point. Now using these values we need to draw a graph between the values of I B and VBE at
constant VCE. The equation to calculate the input resistance Rin is given below.

Rin = VBE/IB (when VCE is at constant)

Output Characteristics

The output characteristics of common emitter configuration are obtained between the output
current IC and output voltage VCE with constant input current IB. Keep the base current IBconstant
and vary the value of output voltage VCE for different points, now note down the value of
collector IC for each point. Plot the graph between the parameters IC and VCE in order to get the
output characteristics of common emitter configuration. The equation to calculate the output
resistance from this graph is given below.

Rout = VCE/IC (when IB is at constant)

Configurations of Transistors Summary

The table which gives the main characteristics of a transistor in the three configurations is given
above. The BJT transistors have mainly three types of configurations. They are common-emitter,
common-base and common-collector configurations. Among all these three configurations
common-emitter configuration is mostly used type. These three have different characteristics
corresponding to both input and output signals. And also these three configurations have few
similarities.
DESIGN METHODOLOGY

1. Specification and design

The audio power amplifier consists of three major part. A transducer that converts sound
energy into electrical energy. In our case, instead of using transducer, the signal will be
given directly in electrical form. Then it reaches the amplifying region where it will be
amplified and then the speaker will convert the amplified signal into sound.

Fig: Block diagram showing each major functional system

A description of the I/O pins
Externally, we will have three terminals. Two for the supply voltage to drive the IC. And
one for the supply signal which has to be amplified and then will be converted the form
of sound.
Internally, the IC has 8 pins. Pin 1 and 8 will be to adjust the gain. Pin 2 and 3 for the
electrical signal. Pin 4 and 6 for power supply. Pin 5 for output. Pin 7for bypass.
Test procedures
To see if the device will work properly or not, signal will be given from mobile using the
audio jack and the output will be listened from the speaker. We will change the volume
control knob and observe the change in the output sound to see that the device is working
properly.
2. Tools and technology
We will use a general PCB board and the pcb will be made using toner transfer method
by ironing. We will use a general iron ( used in clothing ) for this purpose. For etching,
solution of ferric chloride will be used. Nail polish remover for removing the carbon after
etching. And we will use a hand drill with 1mm drill bit for the drilling purpose. Finally
we will use a soldering iron for soldering.
3. Verification

Verification is done by simulating in PROTEUS software and by its physical implementation

in the pcb.

The whole circuit is first simulated in the PROTEUS. Then we will perform the design
review and check for any electrical errors. We will also observe that whether the output is in
the desired form or it has any deficiencies.
 Now we will create a physical implementation of the design. We will create a layout of the
board's layers in this step. After the the pcb layout is made, we will fabricate the pcb with the
required components. The details in fabrication and simulation will be discussed later.

Next in the formal verification step, the physical implementation will be checked to ensure
that the design that was fully simulated is functionally equivalent to physical implementation
of the design that was produced. At this stage we will also determine the various parameters
like efficiency of the power amplifier.

4. Completion

After all the above steps are done properly and reviews are made, we will ensure for the
completion. The system that we designed will be tested thoroughly and completely. Then it
completes all the steps.

THEORY OF POWER AMPLIFIER

A power amplifier circuit is used to increase the performance of the sound source, thus making it
louder. In general, the purpose of an amplifier is to take an input signal and make it stronger or
increase its amplitude. So a fairly high-quality audio amplifier takes in a small signal and
amplifies it to sufficiently drive a speaker, without distorting the original signal. The power amp
makes sure that there is enough current so the load does not “sag" the voltage at the output.
Power amplifiers are used for high performance power management.

Power amplifier is an electronic amplifier that takes the low-level signal supplied to it from the
program source or pre-amplifier and increases its amplitude so that it can drive the loudspeakers
to listenable levels. In other words, the output of the power amp is identical to the input but the
only difference is that its amplitude is larger ie, the output is bigger than the input. It receives the
signal and provides the larger version of the identical signal to the output transducer or to other
amplifier stage. The speakers then change this electrical signal to the acoustic output.

It strengthens very low-power and inaudible electronic audio signals upto a level that is strong
enough for driving the loudspeakers. The signal may be from radio receiver or electric
guitar pickup. Then the sound is large enough to be heard by the listeners. It is the final
electronic stage in a typical audio playback chain before the signal is sent to the loudspeakers
and speaker enclosures.

Amplifier circuits form the basis of most electronic systems which needs to produce high power
to drive some output device which is speaker in our case. . An input transducer signal is
generally small (a few millivolts from a cassette or CD input, or a few microvolts from an
antenna) and needs to be amplified sufficiently to operate an output device (speaker or other
power-handling device). Audio amplifier output power may be anything from less than 1 Watt to
 several hundred Watts. Radio frequency amplifiers used in transmitters can be required to
produce thousands of kilowatts of output power, and DC amplifiers used in electronic control
systems may also need high power outputs to drive motors or actuators of many different types.

In small signal amplifiers, the main factors are usually amplification linearity and magnitude of
gain. Since signal voltage and current are small in a small-signal amplifier, the amount of power-
handling capacity and power efficiency are of little concern. A voltage amplifier provides
voltage amplification primarily to increase the voltage of the input signal. Large-signal or power
amplifiers, on the other hand, primarily provide sufficient power to an output load to drive a
speaker or other power device, typically a few watts to tens of watts.

Power amplifier is meant to raise the power level of the input signal. In order to get large power
at the output, it is necessary that the input-signal voltage is large. That is why, in an electronic
system, a voltage amplifier always precedes the power amplifier, also, that is why power
amplifiers are called large-signal amplifiers.

In fact, power amplifier does not amplify power. What a power amplifier actually does is that it
draws power from dc supply connected to the output circuit and converts it into useful ac signal
power. The type of ac power available at the output terminals of the power amplifier is
controlled by the input signal. Thus a power amplifier may be defined as a device that converts
dc power and whose action is controlled by the input signal.

In terms of the signal path, the power amp comes after the pre-amp and before the speakers. The
component chain in a home music system look like this: Program Source (CD player, Tuner,
etc.) > Pre-amp> Power Amp> Loudspeakers.

A typical sound system

A very simple sound system is shown in the diagram below. It is made up of two types of
component:

 Transducer – It is a device which converts energy from one form into another. Some
examples of common transducers are loudspeakers headphone microphones, etc. The two
types of transducers we will deal with are microphones (which convert acoustical energy into
electrical energy) and speakers (which convert electrical energy into acoustical energy).
Microphones convert fluctuating sound waves (physical energy in the air or in some other
medium) into an electrical current that is an analog representation of the original sound wave.
The loudspeaker works on the reverse phenomenon of this and converts electrical energy back
into the physical energy.
 Amplifier –It is a type of signal processor. It takes an electrical signal (coming out of
the microphone and going into the loudspeaker) and increases its power (i.e. it increases the
amplitude).
1. The process begins with a sound source (such as a human voice), which creates waves of
sound (acoustical energy).
2. These waves are detected by a transducer (microphone), which converts them to
electrical energy.
3. The electrical signal from the microphone is very weak, and must be fed to an amplifier
before anything serious can be done with it.
4. The loudspeaker converts the electrical signal back into sound waves, which are heard by
human ears.

A more complex type of sound system includes signal processors and recorder or playback
section which enables us to have more control on the type of sound that we want.

 Signal processors - devices and software which allow the manipulation of the signal in
various ways. The most common processors are tonal adjusters such as bass and treble
controls.
 Record and playback section - devices which convert a signal to a storage format for
later reproduction. Recorders are available in many different forms, including magnetic tape,
optical CD, computer hard drive, etc.
GAIN OF AN AMPLIFIER

An amplifier is such an electronic device which controls a bigger electrical signal by means of a
far smaller electrical signal. The output signal of this device may be voltage controlled or current
controlled. An amplifier just creates a copy of input signal (control signal) but in larger
magnitude with the help of external DC source. Hence, there must be an external power source in
all amplifier devices. Each amplifier device has its own ability to amplify an input signal to its
highest possible output magnitude. The gain of an amplifier is defined as the measure this ability
of amplifying a signal. Gain is a ratio so it does not have any unit. The ratio of output current to
input current of an amplifier is defined as current gain, the ratio of output voltage to input
voltage is defined as voltage gain and similarly the ratio of output power to input power of an
amplifier is known as power gain of amplifier.

For example if the input voltage of an amplifier is 2.5 VRMS and output voltage is 50 VRMS, the
voltage gain would be,
Gain=Vout/Vin=20

An amplifier does always not amplify in same extend as its input. It may response differently for
AC and DC. Hence, another way of representing gain is the ratio of change of output signal in
respect of change in input signal. That means how much change occurred in output signal for
certain change in input or control signal. The gain of amplifier can be calculated easily by taking
ratio of rms value of output and input signals but it is not justified technique for AC signal.

EFFICIENCY OF AN AMPLIFIER

The efficiency of an amplifier represents the amount of ac power delivered (transferred) from the
dc source. The efficiency of the amplifier is calculated using

Po (ac)
%n= *100%
Pi (dc )

MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY
For the class A series-fed amplifier, the maximum efficiency can be determined using the
maximum

Voltage and current swings. For the voltage swing it is:

maximum VCE(p-p)=VCC

For the current swing it is:

Vcc
Maximum IC(p-p)=
Rc
 Vcc
Vcc( )
Maximum Po (ac) = Rc
8

Vcc2
=
8 Rc

The maximum power input can be calculated using the dc bias current set to one-half the
maximum value:

BANDWIDTH OF POWER AMPLIFIER

The bandwidth represents the amount or "width" of frequencies, or the "band of frequencies,"
thatthe amplifier is MOST effective in amplifying. However, the bandwidth is NOT the same as
the band offrequencies that is amplified. The bandwidth (BW) of an amplifier is the difference
between thefrequency limits of the amplifier. For example, the band of frequencies for an
amplifier may be from 10kilohertz (10 kHz) to 30 kilohertz (30 kHz). In this case, the bandwidth
would be 20 kilohertz (20 kHz).As another example, if an amplifier is designed to amplify
frequencies between 15 hertz (15 Hz) and 20kilohertz (20 kHz), the bandwidth will be equal to
20 kilohertz minus 15 hertz or 19,985 hertz (19,985Hz). This is shown in figure 2-
1.Mathematically:

The half-power points are the points at which the output voltage (or current) is 70.7 percent of
the maximum output voltage (or current). Any frequency that produces less than 70.7 percent of
the maximum output voltage (or current) is outside the bandwidth and, in most cases, is not
considered auseable output of the amplifier. The reason these points are called "half-power
points" is that the true output power will be half (50percent) of the maximum true output power.

Power amplifier

Power Amplifier (also known as a large signal amplifier), is to deliver power to the load, and
as we know from above, is the product of the voltage and current applied to the load with the
output signal power being greater than the input signal power. In other words, a power
amplifier amplifies the power of the input signal which is why these types of amplifier
circuits are used in audio amplifier output stages to drive loudspeakers.
The preceding stages in such a chain are low power audio amplifiers which perform tasks
like pre amplification this is particularly associated with record turntable signals,
equalization, tone controls,mixing/effects, or audio sources like record players, CD players,
and cassette players. Most audiopower amplifiers require these low-level inputs to adhere to
line levels.
While the input signal to an audio power amplifier may measure only a few hundred
microwatts, its output may be tens or hundreds of watts for a home system or thousands
or tens of thousands of watts for a concert sound reinforcement system.
Not all amplifiers are the same and are therefore classified according to their circuit
configurations and methods of operation. There are many forms of electronic circuits classed
as amplifiers, from Operational Amplifiers and Small Signal Amplifiers up to Large Signal
and Power Amplifiers. The classification of an amplifier depends upon the size of the signal,
large or small, its physical configuration and how it processes the input signal, which is the
relationship between input signal and current flowing in the load.

A power amplifier is an amplifier designed primarily to increase the power available to a load. In
practice, amplifier power gain depends on the source and load impedances, as well as the
inherent voltage and current gain. A radio frequency (RF) amplifier design typically optimizes
impedances for power transfer, while audio and instrumentation amplifier designs normally
optimize input and output impedance for least loading and highest signal integrity. An amplifier
that is said to have a gain of 20 dB might have a voltage gain of 20 dB and an available power
gain of much more than 20 dB (power ratio of 100) yet actually deliver a much lower power gain
if, for example, the input is from a 600 ohm microphone and the output connects to a 47 kilo
ohminput socket for a power amplifier. In general the power amplifier is the last 'amplifier' or
actual circuit in a signal chain (the output stage) and is the amplifier stage that requires attention
to power efficiency. Efficiency considerations lead to the various classes of power amplifier
based on the biasing of the output transistors or tubes.
The main operating characteristics of an ideal amplifier are linearity, signal gain, efficiency and
power output but in real world amplifiers there is always a trade off between these different
characteristics.
Generally, large signal or power amplifiers are used in the output stages of audio amplifier
systems to drive a loudspeaker load. A typical loudspeaker has an impedance of between 4Ω and
8Ω, thus a power amplifier must be able to supply the high peak currents required to drive the
low impedance speaker.
One method used to distinguish the electrical characteristics of different types of amplifieris by
“class”, and as such amplifiers are classified according to their circuit configuration and method
of operation. Then Amplifier Classes is the term used to differentiate between the different
amplifier types.
Amplifier Classes represent the amount of the output signal which varies within the amplifier
circuit over one cycle of operation when excited by a sinusoidal input signal. The classification
of amplifiers range from entirely linear operation (for use in high-fidelity signal amplification)
with very low efficiency, to entirely non-linear (where a faithful signal reproduction is not so
important) operation but with a much higher efficiency, while others are a compromise between
the two.
Amplifier classes are mainly lumped into two basic groups. The first are the classically
controlled conduction angle amplifiers forming the more common amplifier classes of A, B,
AB and C, which are defined by the length of their conduction state over some portion of the
output waveform, such that the output stage transistor operation lies somewhere between being
“fully-ON” and “fully-OFF”.
The second set of amplifiers are the newer so-called “switching” amplifier classes of D, E, F, G,
S, T etc, which use digital circuits and pulse width modulation (PWM) to constantly switch the
signal between “fully-ON” and “fully-OFF” driving the output hard into the transistors saturation
and cut-off regions.
The most commonly constructed amplifier classes are those that are used as audio amplifiers,
mainly class A, B, AB and C and to keep things simple, it is these types of amplifier classes we
will look at here in more detail.

Class A Amplifier
Class A Amplifiers are the most common type of amplifier class due mainly to their simple
design. Class A, literally means “the best class” of amplifier due mainly to their low signal
distortion levels and are probably the best sounding of all the amplifier classes mentioned here.
The class A amplifier has the highest linearity over the other amplifier classes and as such
operates in the linear portion of the characteristics curve.
Generally class A amplifiers use the same single transistor (Bipolar, FET, IGBT, etc) connected
in a common emitter configuration for both halves of the waveform with the transistor always
having current flowing through it, even if it has no base signal. This means that the output stage
whether using a Bipolar, MOSFET or IGBT device, is never driven fully into its cut-off or
saturation regions but instead has a base biasing Q-point in the middle of its load line. Then the
transistor never turns “OFF” which is one of its main disadvantages.

fig:circuit diagram of class A fig:Opearating curve of class A

To achieve high linearity and gain, the output stage of a class A amplifier is biased “ON”
(conducting) all the time. Then for an amplifier to be classified as “Class A” the zero signal idle
current in the output stage must be equal to or greater than the maximum load current (usually a
loudspeaker) required to produce the largest output signal.
As a class A amplifier operates in the linear portion of its characteristic curves, the single output
device conducts through a full 360 degrees of the output waveform. Then the class A amplifier is
equivalent to a current source.
Since a class A amplifier operates in the linear region, the transistors base (or gate) DC biasing
voltage should by chosen properly to ensure correct operation and low distortion. However, as
the output device is “ON” at all times, it is constantly carrying current, which represents a
continuous loss of power in the amplifier.
Due to this continuous loss of power class A amplifiers create tremendous amounts of heat
adding to their very low efficiency at around 30%, making them impractical for high-power
amplifications. Also due to the high idling current of the amplifier, the power supply must be
sized accordingly and be well filtered to avoid any amplifier hum and noise. Therefore, due to
the low efficiency and overheating problems of Class A amplifiers, more efficient amplifier
classes have been developed.

Class B Amplifier
Class B amplifiers were invented as a solution to the efficiency and heating problems associated
with the previous class A amplifier. The basic class B amplifier uses two complimentary
transistors either bipolar of FET for each half of the waveform with its output stage configured in
a “push-pull” type arrangement, so that each transistor device amplifies only half of the output
waveform.
In the class B amplifier, there is no DC base bias current as its quiescent current is zero, so that
the dc power is small and therefore its efficiency is much higher than that of the class A
amplifier. However, the price paid for the improvement in the efficiency is in the linearity of the
switching device.

fig 1.3 circuit diagram of class B fig 1.4 opearating curve of class B

When the input signal goes positive, the positive biased transistor conducts while the negative
transistor is switched “OFF”. Likewise, when the input signal goes negative, the positive
transistor switches “OFF” while the negative biased transistor turns “ON” and conducts the
negative portion of the signal. Thus the transistor conducts only half of the time, either on
positive or negative half cycle of the input signal.

Class AB Amplifier
As its name suggests, the Class AB Amplifier is a combination of the “Class A” and the “Class
B” type amplifiers we have looked at above. The AB classification of amplifier is currently one
of the most common used types of audio power amplifier design. The class AB amplifier is a
variation of a class B amplifier as described above, except that both devices are allowed to
conduct at the same time around the waveforms crossover point eliminating the crossover
distortion problems of the previous class B amplifier.
The two transistors have a very small bias voltage, typically at 5 to 10% of the quiescent current
to bias the transistors just above its cut-off point. Then the conducting device, either bipolar of
FET, will be “ON” for more than one half cycle, but much less than one full cycle of the input
signal. Therefore, in a class AB amplifier design each of the push-pull transistors is conducting
for slightly more than the half cycle of conduction in class B, but much less than the full cycle of
conduction of class A.In other words, the conduction angle of a class AB amplifier is somewhere
between 180oand 360o depending upon the chosen bias point as shown

fig 1.5 circuit diagram for class AB fig1.6 opearating curve for class AB

The advantage of this small bias voltage, provided by series diodes or resistors, is that the
crossover distortion created by the class B amplifier characteristics is overcome, without the
inefficiencies of the class A amplifier design. So the class AB amplifier is a good compromise
between class A and class B in terms of efficiency and linearity, with conversion efficiencies
reaching about 50% to 60%.
Class C Amplifier
The Class C Amplifier design has the greatest efficiency but the poorest linearity of the classes
of amplifiers mentioned here. The previous classes, A, B and AB are considered linear
amplifiers, as the output signals amplitude and phase are linearly related to the input signals
amplitude and phase.
However, the class C amplifier is heavily biased so that the output current is zero for more than
one half of an input sinusoidal signal cycle with the transistor idling at its cut-off point. In other
words, the conduction angle for the transistor is significantly less than 180 degrees, and is
generally around the 90 degrees area.
While this form of transistor biasing gives a much improved efficiency of around 80% to the
amplifier, it introduces a very heavy distortion of the output signal. Therefore, class C amplifiers
are not suitable for use as audio amplifiers.

fig 1.7 circuit diagram for class C fig 1.8 opearating curve for class C

Due to its heavy audio distortion, class C amplifiers are commonly used in high frequency sine
wave oscillators and certain types of radio frequency amplifiers, where the pulses of current
produced at the amplifiers output can be converted to complete sine waves of a particular
frequency by the use of LC resonant circuits in its collector circuit.

Other Amplifier Classes

 Class D Amplifier – A Class D audio amplifier is basically a non-linear switching
amplifier or PWM amplifier. Class-D amplifiers theoretically can reach 100% efficiency,
 as there is no period during a cycle were the voltage and current waveforms overlap as
current is drawn only through the transistor that is on.
 Class F Amplifier – Class-F amplifiers boost both efficiency and output by using
harmonic resonators in the output network to shape the output waveform into a square
wave. Class-F amplifiers are capable of high efficiencies of more than 90% if infinite
harmonic tuning is used.
 Class G Amplifier – Class G offers enhancements to the basic class AB amplifier
design. Class G uses multiple power supply rails of various voltages and automatically
switches between these supply rails as the input signal changes. This constant switching
reduces the average power consumption, and therefore power loss caused by wasted heat.
 Class I Amplifier – The class I amplifier has two sets of complementary output
switching devices arranged in a parallel push-pull configuration with both sets of
switching devices sampling the same input waveform. One device switches the positive
half of the waveform, while the other switches the negative half similar to a class B
amplifier. With no input signal applied, or when a signal reaches the zero crossing point,
the switching devices are both turned ON and OFF simultaneously with a 50% PWM duty
cycle cancelling out any high frequency signals.
To produce the positive half of the output signal, the output of the positive switching
device is increased in duty cycle while the negative switching device is decreased by the
same and vice versa. The two switching signal currents are said to be interleaved at the
output, giving the class I amplifier the named of: “interleaved PWM amplifier” operating
at switching frequencies in excess of 250kHz.
 Class S Amplifier – A class S power amplifier is a non-linear switching mode
amplifier similar in operation to the class D amplifier. The class S amplifier converts
analogue input signals into digital square wave pulses by a delta-sigma modulator, and
amplifies them to increases the output power before finally being demodulated by a band
pass filter. As the digital signal of this switching amplifier is always either fully “ON” or
“OFF” (theoretically zero power dissipation), efficiencies reaching 100% are possible.
 Class T Amplifier – The class T amplifier is another type of digital switching
amplifier design. Class T amplifiers are starting to become more popular these days as an
audio amplifier design due to the existence of digital signal processing (DSP) chips and
multi-channel surround sound amplifiers as it converts analogue signals into digital pulse
width modulated (PWM) signals for amplification increasing the amplifiers efficiency.
Class T amplifier designs combine both the low distortion signal levels of class AB
amplifier and the power efficiency of a class D amplifier.
 Amplifier Conduction
Description
Class Angle

Full cycle 360o of

Class-A θ = 2π
Conduction

Half cycle 180o of

Class-B θ = π
Conduction

Slightly more
Class-AB than 180o of π < θ < 2π
conduction

Slightly less than

Class-C 180o of θ < π
conduction

Class-D ON-OFF non-

θ = 0
to T linear switching

Table 1.1 table for different amplifier class with conduction angle
Power amplifiers by application

 Audio power amplifiers: typically used to drive loudspeakers, will often have two output
channels and deliver equal power to each
 RF power amplifier—typical in transmitter final stages (see also: Linear amplifier)
 Servo motor controllers: amplify a control voltage where linearity is not important
 Piezoelectric audio amplifier—includes a DC-to-DC converter to generate the high
voltage output required to drive piezoelectric speakers[9]
Filters and Preamplifiers
Since modern digital devices, including CD and DVD players, radio receivers and tape decks
already provide a "flat" signal at line level, the preamp is not needed other than as a volume
control and source selector. One alternative to a separate preamp is to simply use passive volume
and switching controls, sometimes integrated into a power amplifier to form an integrated
amplifier.
Power output Stages
The final stage of amplification, after preamplifiers, is the output stage, where the highest
demands are placed on the transistors or tubes. For this reason, the design choices made around
the output device (for single-ended output stages, such as in single-ended triode amplifiers) or
devices (for push-pull output stages), such as the Class of operation of the output devices is often
taken as the description of the whole power amplifier. For example, a Class B amplifier will
probably have just the high power output devices operating cut off for half of each cycle, while
the other devices (such as differential Amplifier, voltage amplifier and possibly even driver
transistors) operate in Class A. In a transformerless output stage, the devices are essentially in
series with the power supply and output load (such as a loudspeaker), possibly via some large
capacitor and/or small resistances.
For some years following the introduction of solid state amplifiers, their perceived sound did not
have the excellent audio quality of the best valve amplifiers (see valve audio amplifier). This
led audiophiles to believe that "tube sound" or valve sound had an intrinsic quality due to the
vacuum tube technology itself. In 1970, MattiOtala published a paper on the origin of a
previously unobserved form of distortion: transient intermodulation distortion (TIM), later also
called slew-induced distortion (SID) by others. TIM distortion was found to occur during very
rapid increases in amplifier output voltage.
TIM did not appear at steady state sine tone measurements, helping to hide it from design
engineers prior to 1970. Problems with TIM distortion stem from reduced open loop frequency
response of solid state amplifiers. Further works of Otala and other authors found the solution for
TIM distortion, including increasing slew rate, decreasing preamp frequency bandwidth, and the
insertion of a lag compensation circuit in the input stage of the amplifier. In high quality modern
amplifiers the open loop response is at least 20 kHz, canceling TIM distortion.
The next step in advanced design was the Baxandall Theorem, created by Peter Baxandall in
England.This theorem introduced the concept of comparing the ratio between the input distortion
and the output distortion of an amplifier. This new idea helped audio design engineers to better
evaluate the distortion processes within an amplifier.
 Amplifier Typical Pros  Cons 
Class Efficiency

 A ~15-35% No possibility of crossover Inefficiency = heat

distortion. Single ended designs prone to hum and higher levels of distortion.

 B ~70% Relatively high efficiency. Potential for significant amounts of crossover distortion and compromised fidelity

 A/B ~50-70% More efficient than Class A. Efficiency is good, but not great.
Relatively Inexpensive.
Crossover distortion can be rendered
moot.

 G & H ~50-70% Improved efficiency over Class A/B. Costlier than Class A/B but higher power levels are achievable in a smaller form factor.

 D >90% Best possible efficiency Pulse width modulators operating at relatively low frequencies can compromise high frequency
Light weight. audio reproduction.
Some designs produce varying sound quality depending on speaker load.

In the end, amplifier classes aren’t necessarily as important as some people might ascribe. Yes, there are important differences, particularly when it comes
to cost, amplifier efficiency, and consequently weight. Certainly a 500W Class A amplifier is a bad idea, unless the idea of using your amplifier as an oven
appeals to you. On the other hand, the differences among the classes don’t inherently define sound quality. In the end, that comes down to engineering and
implementation; at Audioholics, we’ve been lucky to hear (and measure) great examples of all classes of amplifiers.
Design of Audio Amplifer in Proteus

C3
A

R2 10u
B
(+)
R1 1k
+0.27 C
Amps 10
D

C1 U1
220u
C2

6
1
8
RV3(2)
3 LS1
5
2 220u

RV3
4
7
SPEAKER
LM386
100%

1k

Fig: Audio Amplifier in proteus

Circuit Description

The above figure shows the circuit diagram in proteus.Here the potentiometer is used to control
the volume of the speaker.When the Knob of the potentiometer is rotated in clockwise direction
then the volume from the speaker gets increased .The oscilloscope used here is to see the output
across the speaker.When the amplitude is increased then we can see some distortion in the sine
wave. So the amplitude is kept small in order to remove the distortion.

Inside the speaker we can see a magnet .the magnet is responsible for producing the sound.The
input is the sine wave the opamp amplifies it and the sound gets produced.

In the audio power amplifier circuit, power input is given to non-inverting terminal through a
1K pot resistor. The inverting terminal is grounded along with the pin 4. DC voltage between +5
to +15 V is applied to pin 6 through a resistor, capacitor combination. This combination forms a
High pass filter configuration so that the only frequencies in required band can be allowed to
pass. By connecting a resistor of 1K in series with 10f capacitor from pin 1 to pin 8 the gain of
the circuit can be further increased. Without this combination the gain will be limited to 20. The
output of the circuit is obtained from pin 5. The output from pin 5 is connected to speaker
through in order to obtain an output that is free from noise.

Circuit diagram from proteus showing the input and output signal:

This circuit was performed in the proteus using opamp.

Checking of the components in Bread Board

While Checking the components like LM386 ,potentiometer speaker works effectively or not we
tested in the Bread Board .While testing the components in the Bread Board what we found that
in the Bread Board some noise was observed .The same components was again used in the
matrix board we observed that there was minimization of the noise.After making sure that all the
components work effectively the components were finally used in the PCB board.

Circuit Connections

1. Making all the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Supplying input to the non-inverting terminal from any audio source.
3. Grounding the inverting terminal.
4. Supplying a DC source voltage between +5 V to +15 V to the pin 6 and ground pin 4.
5. Receiving the output from a speaker connected to pin 5 of the amplifier.
6. The result obtained is free from noise and is an amplified signal.
Trouble Shooting

First of all I made Circuit on Bread Board and check the making of the amplifier. Some of noise
produced in the sound. J ren1ove tJ1is noise by putting a capacitor and resistor between pin 1
and pin 8 .When the circuit began to work completely then I put the circuit on PCB board after
making PCB Layout and Chemical Etching. In the end I Completed the project it was not king. I
was worried so began to trouble shoot the circuit. Finally I found the error of the circuit; the
10uFcapacitor was short interlay because of giving lot of heat during soldering.

Chemical Etching

There are two methods of making PCB

• By CNC Machine.
• By Chemical Etching.
I made PCB by Chemical Etching.

The Method of Chemical Etching is given below.

Taking a print of PCB layout and pasting it on PCB board with iron. After 5 minutes removing
the print of PCB layout then the traces will be combining on the Board .Putting some quantity of
Ferret Chloride in a plastic box then mixing it into water. Then put the board into the mixture of
Ferret Chloride. After 5 hours all the copper is removed except traces because Ferret Chloride
does not react with Black carbon.
Now I made hole in PCB board and put the components with the help of soldering wire and iron.

APPLICATION OF THE PROJECT

Important applications include public address systems, theatrical and concert sound
reinforcement systems, and domestic systems such as a stereo or home-theatre system.
Instrument amplifiers including guitar amplifiers and electric keyboard amplifiers also use audio
power amplifiers. In some cases, the power amplifier for an instrument is integrated into a single
amplifier "head" which contains a preamplifier, tone controls, and electronic effects. In other
cases, musicians may create a setup with separate rack mount preamplifiers, equalizers, and a
power amplifier in a separate chassis.
PCB Bottom Layout

This circuit was prepared in the PCB wizard and was printed in the glossy paper

PCB Top Layout

Fig: The circuit prepared in the PCB wizard

Backside of the PCB

Hardware of the Audio Amplifier

CONCLUSIONS

The project was based on to design and fabricate the audio power amplifier. The project was
very informative. It is good to see how things work theoretically and physically because it makes
troubleshooting easier. Power amplifiers and projects of this nature are all about making things
better, stronger, and more durable. Therefore, designs are always being implemented, innovated
and changed with time.

There are probably better alternatives than building power amplifiers, such as paying for
a great amplifier that costs five times as much. However, a lot can be learned from building a
power amp circuit from scratch by ourselves. It teaches us about the fundamentals of design and
understanding about the various components used in it and their respective roles in the circuit
that we designed. There are many factors that can come into play when problems occurs. We can
be more acquainted with the circuit when we troubleshoot. Only by designing and building from
experience one can realize potential faults in designs.

The experiment is finished satisfactorily with simulation and measured results. With volume
control sound of different amplitude can be heard by ear clearly.

Overall, the lab provided a good experience designing and troubleshooting the discrete circuit
and pcb designing and fabrication process.
References

http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/physics/transistor/hi
story/ 

"Transient distortion in transistorized audio power

amplifiers". IEEE Transactions on Audio and
Electroacoustics. 

Walter G. Jung, Mark L. Stephens, and Craig C. Todd (June

1979), "An overview of SID and TIM", Audio

"Circuit Design Modifications for Minimizing Transient

Intermodulation Distortion in Audio Amplifiers"

Journal of Audio Engineering Society, Vol 20 # 5, June 1972

Electronic circuits and devices –J.B Gupta

Microelectronic Circuits