TRIBHUWAN UNIVERSITY

INSITUTE OF ENGINEERING (IOE)

CENTRAL CAMPUS, PULCHOWK
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
INITIAL LAB REPORT ON
ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUIT (EDC)

Title: Voltage Regulator

LAB NO: 2
Submitted By:
Submitted To: Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
1. JFET characteristics:
Objectives:
• i. To investigate the drain characteristics of JFET.
• ii. To investigate the transfer characteristics of JFET.

Theory:

The junction gate field-effect transistor (JFET or JUGFET) is the simplest type
of field-effect transistor. They are three-terminal semiconductor devices that can
be used as electronically-controlled switches, amplifiers, or voltage-controlled
resistors.

Unlike bipolar transistors, JFETs are exclusively voltage-controlled in that they

do not need a biasing current. Electric charge flows through a semiconducting
channel between source and drain terminals. By applying a reverse bias voltage
to a gate terminal, the channel is "pinched", so that the electric current is
impeded or switched off completely. A JFET is usually on when there is no
potential difference between its gate and source terminals. If a potential
difference of the proper polarity is applied between its gate and source
terminals, the JFET will be more resistive to current flow, which means less
current would flow in the channel between the source and drain terminals. Thus,
JFETs are sometimes referred to as depletion-mode devices.

JFETs can have an n-type or p-type channel. In the n-type, if the voltage applied
to the gate is less than that applied to the source, the current will be reduced
(similarly in the p-type, if the voltage applied to the gate is greater than that
applied to the source). A JFET has a large input impedance (sometimes on the
order of 1010 ohms), which means that it has a negligible effect on external
components or circuits connected to its gate.
Internal structure of JFET:

a. N-channel b. P-channel

Drain-Source Characteristic Curve:

Fig. 7.4 – Drain-Source Characteristic Curve of JFET.

If Vgs is increased (it's more negative to n-channel), depletion will be

immediately generated in the channel so that the current required to
pinch off the channel will be decreased. The curve corresponding to Vgs
= -1V is shown in Fig 7.4 (a). From this result we can find out that the
gate voltage functions as a controller capable of decreasing the drain
current (at a specific voltage Vds). If Vgs is more positive for p-channel
JFET, the drain current will be decreased from Idss (as shown in Fig 7.4
(b)). If Vgs is continuously increased, the drain current will be decreased
correspondingly. When Vgs reaches a certain value, the drain current
will be decreased to zero and will be independent of the value of Vds.
The gate-source voltage at this time is called pinch-off voltage which is
usually denoted as Vp or Vgs (cutoff). From Fig 7.4 we can find out that
Vp is a negative voltage for n-channel FET and a positive voltage for P-
channel FET.
Transfer Characteristic Curve:

Fig. 7.5 – Transfer and Drain-Source Characteristic Curve for JFET.

Another characteristic curve for JFET is transfer characteristic curve. This is a

variation curve of drain current Id corresponding to gate-source voltage Vgs
while the drain-source voltage Vds is constant. Two points, Idss and Vp are the
most important points in this transfer characteristic curve. When these two
points are fixed in the coordinate axes, the remaining points can be looked up
from this transfer characteristic curve or can be solved from the formula Id =
Idss(1- Vgs/Vp)2. From this formula, we can calculate Vgs = 0, Id = Idss, I
d = 0, Vgs = Vp. The design of JFET is typically designed in the middle
between Vp and Idss of the transfer curve.
Practical Circuit diagram for Drain and transfer characteristics of JFET:
2. IC AUDIO POWER AMPLIFIER:
Objectives:
(i)To investigate the gain efficiency of an IC audio amplifier.
(ii)To investigate the efficiency of an IC audio amplifier.
Theory:
AUDIO POWER AMPLIFIER:

An audio power amplifier (or power amp) is an electronic amplifier that

strengthens very low-power, inaudible electronic audio signals, such as the
signal from radio receiver or electric guitar pickup to a level that is strong
enough for driving (or powering) loudspeakers and being heard by listeners or
the performer (with instrument amplifiers. Power amplifiers make the signal--
whether it is recorded music, a live speech, singing, an electric guitar or the
mixed audio of an entire band through a sound reinforcement system--audible to
listeners. It is the final electronic stage in a typical audio playback chain before
the signal is sent to the loudspeakers and speaker enclosures.

The preceding stages in such a chain are low power audio amplifiers which
perform tasks like pre-amplification of the signal (this is particularly associated
with record turntable signals, microphone signals and electric instrument signals
from pickups, such as the electric guitar and electric bass), equalization (e.g.,
adjusting the bass and treble), tone controls, mixing different input signals or
adding electronic effects such as reverb. The inputs can also be any number of
audio sources like record players, CD players, digital audio players and cassette
players. Most audio power amplifiers require these low-level inputs which are
line level.

While the input signal to an audio power amplifier, such as the signal from an
electric guitar, may measure only a few hundred microwatts, its output may be a
few watts for small consumer electronics devices, such as clock radios, tens or
hundreds of watts for a home stereo system, several thousand watts for a
nightclub's sound system or tens of thousands of watts for a large rock concert
sound reinforcement system. While power amplifiers are available in standalone
units, typically aimed at the hi-fi audiophile market and sound reinforcement
system professionals, most consumer electronics sound products, such as clock
radios, boom boxes and televisions have relatively small power amplifiers that
are integrated inside the chassis of the main product.
GAIN OF AN AMPLIFIER:

An amplifier is such an electronic device which controls a bigger electrical

signal by means of a far smaller electrical signal. The output signal of this
device may be voltage controlled or current controlled. An amplifier just creates
a copy of input signal (control signal) but in larger magnitude with the help of
external DC source. Hence, there must be an external power source in all
amplifier devices. Each amplifier device has its own ability to amplify an input
signal to its highest possible output magnitude. The gain of an amplifier is
defined as the measure this ability of amplifying a signal. Gain is a ratio so it
does not have any unit. The ratio of output current to input current of an
amplifier is defined as current gain, the ratio of output voltage to input voltage
is defined as voltage gain and similarly the ratio of output power to input power
of an amplifier is known as power gain of amplifier.

For example if the input voltage of an amplifier is 2.5 VRMS and output voltage

is 50 VRMS, the voltage gain would be,

An amplifier does always not amplify in same extend as its input. It may
response differently for AC and DC. Hence, another way of representing gain is
the ratio of change of output signal in respect of change in input signal. That
means how much change occurred in output signal for certain change in input or
control signal. The gain of amplifier can be calculated easily by taking ratio of
rms value of output and input signals but it is not justified technique for AC
signal.

EFFICIENCY OF AN AMPLIFIER:

The efficiency of an amplifier represents the amount of ac power delivered (transferred) from
the dc source. The efficiency of the amplifier is calculated using

MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY
For the class A series-fed amplifier, the maximum efficiency can be determined using the
maximum

Voltage and current swings. For the voltage swing it is:

For the current swing it is:

The maximum power input can be calculated using the dc bias current set to one-half the
maximum value:
BANDWIDTH OF POWER AMPLIFIER:

The bandwidth represents the amount or "width" of frequencies, or the "band

of frequencies," thatthe amplifier is MOST effective in amplifying. However,
the bandwidth is NOT the same as the band offrequencies that is amplified.
The bandwidth (BW) of an amplifier is the difference between thefrequency
limits of the amplifier. For example, the band of frequencies for an amplifier
may be from 10kilohertz (10 kHz) to 30 kilohertz (30 kHz). In this case, the
bandwidth would be 20 kilohertz (20 kHz).As another example, if an amplifier
is designed to amplify frequencies between 15 hertz (15 Hz) and 20kilohertz
(20 kHz), the bandwidth will be equal to 20 kilohertz minus 15 hertz or 19,985
hertz (19,985Hz). This is shown in figure 2-1.Mathematically:

You should notice on the figure that the frequency-response curve shows
output voltage (or current)against frequency. The lower and upper frequency
limits (f1 and f2) are also known as HALF-POWERPOINTS. The half-power points
are the points at which the output voltage (or current) is 70.7 percent ofthe
maximum output voltage (or current). Any frequency that produces less than
70.7 percent of themaximum output voltage (or current) is outside the
bandwidth and, in most cases, is not considered auseable output of the
amplifier.The reason these points are called "half-power points" is that the
true output power will be half (50percent) of the maximum true output power
when the output voltage (or current) is 70.7 percent of themaximum output
voltage (or current),

Circuit diagram from proteus showing the circuit:

Circuit diagram from proteus showing the input and output signal: