A WATER RESOURCES TECHNICAL PUBLICATION

ENGINEERING MONOGRAPH No. 36

I---
Guide for Preliminary Design
of Arch Dams
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT
OF THE INTERIOR
BUREAU OF RECLAMATION
A WATER RESOURCES TECHNICAL PUBLICATION

Engineering Monograph No. 36

Guide for Preliminary Design

of Arch Dams
By HOWARD L. BOGGS
Division of Design
Office of Design and Construction,
Engineering and Research Center,
Denver, Colorado

United States Department of the Interior l

BUREAU OF RECLAMATION
 . . _ _ * . “ . . “ . . _ _ . ”

As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of the

lnterior has responsibility for most of our nationally owned public
lands and natural resources. This includes fostering the wisest use of
our land and water resources, protecting our fish and wildlife, preset-p
ing the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and
historical places, and providing for the enjoyment of life through out-
door recreation. The Department assesses our energy and mineral
resources and works to assure that their development is in the best
interests of all our people. The Department also has a major respon-
sibility for American lndian reservation communities and for people
who live in Island Territories under U.S. administration.

ENGINEERING MONOGRAPHS are prepared and used by the technical

staff of the Bureau of Reclamation. In the interest of dissemination of
research experience and knowledge, they are made available to other interested
technical circles in Government and private agencies and to the general public
by sale through the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C.

First Printing: November 1966

Second Printing: August 1975
Third Printing: January 1977

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON : 1977

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, TJ.S. Government Printing Office, Wash-
ington, D.C. 20402, or the Engineering and Research Center, Rureau of Reclamation,
Attention 922, Denver Federal Center, Denver, Colo. 80225. Price SO wntn.
Stock Number 024-00340097-3 Catalog Number I 27.34 :36/976

-- ---
Pre face
IN THEIR PLANNINQ of water resources develop-
ment projects, Bureau of Reclamation engineers
may be required to prepare preliminary layouts
and estimates of arch dams. Such preliminary
studies aid the project planners in evaluating
the feasibility of arch dams and their relationship
to other types of dams in the project plans in
terms of comparative economy, availability of
construction materials, and other technical con-
siderations.
In the past, there has been no convenient
method of preparing preliminary designs of arch
dams. This monograph provides a rapid method
to aid engineers in preparing such designs. The
engineers will f!nd the empirical formulas and
charts developed here useful as a guide in pre-
liminary layouts. They will also find that the
formulas are useful in reanalyzing previous
preliminary designs to obtain more accurate
estimates of dimensions and volumes of arch
dams being considered in project plans.
iii
I ” . X . . _ . , - - _ ”
Summary
developed in this Empirical formulas derived from a statistical

T
HE EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
monograph for use by project planners or other analysis of existing concrete arch dam data are:
interested persons will assist them in estimat-
Tc=0.01[H+1.2L1];
ing volumes and basic dimensions for arch dams
on future projects and in updating past estimates. T,.a=O.95Tg
The information contained here is to be used
only as a guide for the preliminary layout of
concrete arch dams.
Topographic dimensions necessary to compute
thicknesses, projections, and volume are structural
height, H, and horizontal distances between
abutments including estimated excavation to
sound rock at crest elevation, L1, and 15 percent
of H above base, L. Generally, results from
the suggested formulas are conservative as
compared with values computed more precisely.

Acknowledgments
John R. Brizzolara and Kenneth G. Bell of and Mr. Bell developed the volumetric formulas
the Stress Analysis Unit, Concrete Dams Section, and prepared the nomographs. The monograph
Dams Branch, Division of Design, were major
contributors to this monograph. Mr. Brizzolara was prepared under the supervision of M. D.
assembled major portions of the statistical data Copen, Head of the Stress Analysis Unit.

V
Contents
page
.a.
Preface ____- ___________--___- L_________-- ______________________ 111
Summary--.----------------------------------------------------- V
Acknowledgmenk------_---------------------------------------- V
Definitions------------------------------- ______________________ ix
Introduction---------------------------- ________________________ 1
Statistical Data------------------------------------- ____________ 3
Analyses---- ____- ____----..-----------..----_---_-------_---_--- 5
Results--- _____-_-__-- _____-___---_---_-_- _________- ____________ 7
CrownCantilever-Thicknesses--------- _________-___- _______- 7
Crown Cantilever-Projections-~----~---c________ -__-- _______- 7
Volume___---_--------------------------------------------- 10
LimitationsandAccuracy-__--------------------------------- 10
Examples_------------------------------------------------------ 13
Examplel_--__----_-__---_--------------------------------- 13
Exarnple2_________-___------------------------------------- 16
Layout--_-___------------------------------------------------- 17

LIST OF FIGURES
1. Damsit.e topography and required dimensions for nomographs and
layoutofdam__--__-______-___------------------------------ 2
2. Nomograph for obtaining crest thickness and projections on crown
cantilever__--____-____-___-_-_---_------------------------- 8
3. Nomograph for obtaining base thickness and projections on crown
cantilever__--__---____,___________-___--------------------- 9
4. Nomographforobtaining VI- _________ -_-__---__--_--- _________ 11
5. Nomographfor obtaining Vz---- ______ -_-_----__-__--- ________- 12
6. Planforapreliminarydesign __________--__----__-_--_- ____-____ 14
7. Crown cantilever and lines of centers for a preliminary design- _____ 15
vii
Definitions

CONCRETE ARCH DAM TERMINOLOGY is not univer- Crown cantilever- _ _ _ Vertical section positioned about
sal and physical terms used in this guide may, in midway between abutments and
whose base is generally the lowest
some instances, seem ambiguous. For this reason,
elevation of the dam.
words, phrases, and symbols used in this guide Structural height- - _ _ Vertical distance from crest of dam
referring to arch dams are defined. to lowest point of foundation.
Double curvature---- Continuously curved in plan and Thickness- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Horizontal distance between up-
elevation. stream and downstream faces of
Single curvature----- Curved in plan only. dam on line normal to extrados.
Depth of excavation- Depth from ground surface to Upstream projection- Horizontal distance from extrados
sound rock as determined from to axis on line normal to extrados.
available geological sources (geol- Downstream projec- Horizontal distance from intrados
ogists, geologic maps, cores, etc.). tion. to axis on line normal to extrados
Foundation-..--..---- Total mass of sound rock support- (thickness=upstream projection
ing the dam. + downstream projection).
Abutment __________ The rock mass which supports the
H =structural height.
horizontal elements, such as can-
yon walls. TC =thickness a6 crest.
Base ________-___.__ Bottom surface of vertical element TB =thickness at base.
resting on foundation. TO.aH=thickness of crown cantilever at O.&N
Extrados- __ _ _ __ _ __ _ Curved upstream surface of hori- above base.
zontal arch elements.
USP =upstream projection.
Intrados- _ _ _ _ _ ___ __ Curved downstream surface of hori-
zontal arch elements. DSP =downstream projection,
Crest- _ __ _ ____ __ __ _ Top of dam. Ll =straight line distance at crest elevation be-
Axis- _- _ _____ ____ __ Vertical reference surface, cylindri- tween abutments assumed excavated to
cal in plan and coincident with sound rock.
the extrados at crest elevation.
Axis radius--_--_..-- Radius of axis equal to extrados
LZ =straight line distance, at 0.15Habove base,
radius at crest elevation. between abutments assumed excavated to
Central angle- _ _ _ _ _ _ Angle at extrados center formed by sound rock.
lines extended to arch abutments. V =estimated volume of dam.
ix
“ - . . - . . * _ . - _ _
Introduction
THIS MONOGRAPH is a guide which presents for-
mulas and charts for preliminary design of arch
dams. Included are the procedure and examples
for preparing a preliminary layout of a concrete
arch dam. Figure 1 shows the topographic map
used in example 1. The figure indicates the re-
quired measurements for determining the volume
of the dam and dimensions of the crown cantilever.
From statistical analyses of arch dam geometri-
cal properties, empirical formulas were developed
for t,hherapid determination of initial physical
dimensions for design and volume estimates. The
more complicated formulas are expressed in
nomographic charts, shown in figures 2, 3, 4, and
5. Figure 6 illustrates a plan and figure 7 illus-
trates the crown cantilever and lines of centers for
example 1.
1
 ..--._- .._. ..“__.

GUIDE FOR PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF ARCH DAMS

I II,w L>
FIGURE 1 .-Damsite
--
topography and required dimensions for nomographs and layout of dam. For example 1: H= estimated
structural height (890 feet); L,=chord length, crest elevation (660 feet); L,a=chord length, 0.16H above base (160 feet);
and crest assumed at elevation 326.
Statistical Data

DATA USED in the statistical analysis were taken
from a.nalytical studies currently on file in the
Stress Analysis Unit,. Data used in preparation
of this guide include :
a. Structural height.
b. Length, thickness, and central angle of arch
at crest of dam.
c. Axis radius.
d. Length and central angle of lowest theoretical
arch in analysis.
e. Thickness and upstream projection at base of
crown cantilever.
f. Volume of dam.
g. Sustained modulus of elasticity of concrete
and rock.
h. Approximate loaded foundation area.
i. Profile of dam developed along axis.

3
..-_. -.. .-_____
Analyses
STATISTICAL ANALYSES of tabulated data were
based on observation, experience, and intuition.
Combinations of height, thicknesses, projections,
and distances were incorporated with constant or
variable coefficients in linear, nonlinear, or expo-
nential equations to determine proper relation-
ships for the basic dimensions and Volume.
A foremost consideration in developing empirical
formulas for concrete arch dams is the shape of the
canyon. Initia.lly, the tabulated data were sepa-
rated into two general canyon shapes, U and V.
Several formulas were developed in part for each
shape, considering arc length at crest and struc-
tural height. These observations disclosed to
some degree the relative importance of the selected
variables. Including anot’her variable, the canyon
width near the base, enable both canyon shapes to
be handled with a single formula. The most satis-
factory elevation for measuring the lower canyon
width is 15 percent of the structural height above
the base.
Difficulties experienced in arriving at simple
equations were due in part to the inclusion of data
for both single and double curvature dams.
Although a greater number of single curvature
dams have been designed, data from the more
efficient double curvature concrete dams were used
to develop the final empirical formulas. As more
double curvature arch dams are designed, more
data may become available for refinements in the
formulas and nomographs.
Results
T
HE ~0sT IMMEDIATE INFORMATION necessary
for the design of a concrete arch dam for a
reconnaissance study is an estimate of the
volume and a general plan. As a result of the
statistical analyses, empirical formulas were de-
veloped for computing the volume of concrete in
a dam and for sufficient dimensions for a crown
cantilever to produce an adequate shape. Di-
mensions, in feet, required for solving the equa-
tions are: H, the structural height (which is the
vertical distance from the crest of the dam to the
lowest assumed point of foundation) ; L1, the
straight line distance at crest elevation between
abutments, assumed excavated to sound rock; and
Lz, the straight line distance at 0.15H between
abutments, assumed excavated to sound rock.
Crown Cantilever-Thicknesses
Thicknesses which are necessary for shaping
the crown cantilever are at the crest, T,; at the
base, TB; and at 0.45H above the base, T,,.u,.
Formulas for computing each of the thicknesses
are:
a. Crest thickness, in feet,
T,=O.Ol [H+ 1.2 L,];
b. Base thickness, in feet,
;
c. Thickness at O.45H, in feet,
T,,,4m=0.95 TB.
Nomographs for estimating the crest and base
thicknesses are shown in figures 2 and 3. The
crest thickness is found by intersecting the TO-scale
with a straight line from H to L, in figure 2.
Thickness of the base is obtained from figure 3 by
the following procedure:
1. Mark on the S-scale the intersection of
a straight line between known values L1 and
L-2.
2. The base thickness is read from the
T,-scale at the intersection of a straight line
between S, and the known value H.
Crown Cantilever-Projections
Upstream and downstream projections are hori-
zontal distances used to locate the extrados and
intrados relative to the reference surface, the axis,
as shown in figure 2. Projections related to the
preceding three thicknesses are defined as follows:
7
 --. -- .--._.

GUIDE FOR PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF ARCH DAMS

- mo M- - so,

so -

--II00

70 - -,OO
- ,000

-000
so-

- 400
- so0

so -

-700

-so00

SW 40-
NOTES
Dlmonsions roquirod for using shotis
H SEstimotod structural height of dam from crest to
bore including assumed depth of excavation.
so0 L1 &might line dirtonce at crest elevation between
SO- obutmonts including l stimatod excavation to sound rock.
pooo L2 =Stmight line distonco between abutments including l stimotmd
excovation to sound rock ot O.lSH above the base.

-.OO
Procedur.
Crest thickness, TC, on Figure 2
1. Intersact TC with o straight line from H to L1

Bose thickness, lg. on Figure 3

1. lntersoct S1 with a stmight line from L1 to L2
- 1000 2. Intersect fg with a straight line from Ii to S1

Upstream pro/*ctions:
At crest, USP = 0.0
At 0.45”, USP = 0.951s
At baso, USP = 0.67Ts

Downstream pmioctions:
At crest, DSP = TC
At 0.45H, DSP =O.O
At base, DSP s 0.331~

FIGURE 2.-Nomograph for obtaining crest thickness and projections on crown cantilever.
 RESULTS 9

- I200 WOO -034

ID00
Iwo -
-000
II00 -
5000 1000 -
500
WO
WO-

- 1100 4ooo 400 wo-

roo-
Ii
rwo
- woo

-11ooo
300

wo
400
woo

-000

3007

-000

PO0 -

-IO00

-wo
- 700
--- _---
,--- -
-WO

Too
-600
600
C-- too -:

600 SO

-300 1 w

To
400

60
-

-400 /
80
300’
/
/
/
- / 40
/
I /

900
M-
M-

1
L- j
I- to --
to

- 100 1loo I II a

1 LI S I L8
FIQUMO 3 .-Nomograph for obtaining ba.se thicknees and projection8 on crown cantilever. See note8 and drawing on figure 8.
 _ .”* ‘ ^ . .. “.- - _

10 GUIDE FOR PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF ARCH DAMS

a. Crest scale with a straight line between the marks
USP=O.O on the &- and &-scales.
DSP= T, To obtain V2,
h. base On figure 5-A,
USP=O.67 TB 1. Drawing a straight line between values
H and L1 intersecting the X-scale.
DSP=O.33 TB On figure 5-B,
c. At 0.45H 2. Mark on the &-scale its intersection
USP=maximum upstream projection=0.95 TB with a straight line between Hand L1.
DSP=minimum downstream projection=O.O. 3. VZ is found at the intersection of the
Vs-scale by a straight line between the
Volume values of X and S,. (The Xvalue is scaled
The formula for computing the volume in cubic from figure 5-A.)
yards is: To obtain V,
v=v,+v2, V, the total volume, is the sum of VI and Vs.
where Limitations and Accuracy
Upper and lower limits on the known data are:
v~=0.000002 H2 La ‘H;y;1)2]
[ 1
and
v~=0.0004 H L,[H+l.l L,].
Formulas for VI and V2 are graphically repre-
sented in figures 4 and 5. The procedure for Upper and lower limits of the results are shown
estimating the volume from these nomographs is: in the nomographs. The minimum thickness of
To obtam VI, 3 feet in figure 2 is an arbitrary lower limit;
On figure 4-A, factors other than stress become determining
1. Obtain a value of U by intersecting considerations for very thin dams.
the U-scale with a straight line between Accuracy of the formulas for volumes and thick-
known values L1 and Lz. nesses is within 10 percent of designed values for
2. The value of W is obtained by inter- 75 percent of the double curvature dams studied.
secting the W-scale with a straight line However, formulas have been adjusted to assure,
from L1 to known value H. for the most part, conservative quantities and
On figure 4-B, dimensions.
3. Mark on the S-scale the intersection Numerical results from the formulas or nomo-
of a straight line between H and L2. graphs are solely for preliminary design of concrete
4. Indicate on the L&scale the inter- arch dams-that is, for estimating the quantity
section of a straight line between U and W of mass concrete and computing thicknesses for
(values for U and W are the scaled values initial layouts or cost estimates. The final design
from figure 4-A). must be prepared by specialists in the design and
5. VI is now found by intersecting the VI- analysis of arch dams.
 ,-- _.__._.___

RESULTS

m-
to- 40.000,occ
lo-
so-
IOQ-

Loo-

H x0-
c

FIGURE 4-A _-

600-
NOTES
7w-
MO-
mo-
looo-

L2 = Straight line distance betw.en obutmentr

including estimated excavation to round rock
at O.lSH above the base.

rocodur. for using charts

on f ipure CA
1. Intersect U with a straight line from L1 to L;
2. Intersect W with o straight line from Ii to L1

On Ftgure 4.B
3. Inkrsoct S1 with a straight Iin. from tl to L2
4. Intersect 52 with a straight lio. from U to W
(Values for U and W are obtained from
Figure 4-A)
rm
5. Intersect V1 with o straight line from Sf to I:
60

W U FIGURE 4-B

FIWJRE 4.-Nomograph for obtaining VI. (V= VI + VZ).

12 GUIDE FOR PRELIMINARY DEISGN OF ARCH DAMS

H x Ll - - c=;----- __----
----+
----- __
-

5-A
WOW E
f-

FIGURE

i
NOTES
wnrionr r.qu1r.d for using charts.
N = Estlmoted structural height of dam from
crest to bore including assumed depth
of l rcowtien.
L1 = Straight line distant. at crest &votion
between abutments including estimated
l mwation to sound rock.
L2 = Straight line distance bohreon abutment
including estimated wwwtion to sound
reck at 0.15N above the base.

dum for using charts

On Figure 5-A
1. Intersect X with o straight line from
Hto l.1

on Figun LB -i
2. Intersect S3 with o straight line from

3.
H to L1
Intorsoct V2 with a straight lin. from
HW
53 to X (Value for X is obtained from
Figur. bA) FIGURE S-B

J?x.cwa~ b.-Nomograph for obtaining V2. (V= VI + V,).

Examples

Two EXAMPLES ARE PRESENTED to demonstrate Downstream projection:

the procedure for using the formulas. Known DSP,=9.6 feet _____________ 10.0 feet.
data are from dams designed and analyzed by the b. At base
Stress Analysis Unit. Actual values used in the Thickness:
design studied are indicated following the com-
puted values.
A typical damsite is shown in figure 1 from
,=~0.0012 H L1 Ii%($) g
which were measured the dimensions Ll and Ls.
The estimated structural height, H, together with
L, and La are illustrated in the nomographs,
figures 2, 3, 4, and 5. A layout for example 1
utilizing procedures outlined in this guide, is
shown in plan in figure 6 and in elevation in =28.9 feet _-___--________ 27.8 feet,
figure 7. Upstream projection:
Example 1 USP,=0.67 TB
From the estimated structural height, H-290 =(0.67)(28.9)
feet, and the measured chord lengths from figure 1, =19.4 feet ____________ 20.5 feet.
L, =550 feet and L,=160 feet, find thicknesses Downstream projection:
and projections on the crown cantilever and DSPB=O.33 TB
volume.
= (0.33) (28.9)
a. At crest
Thickness: =9.6 feet ______________ 7.3 feet.
To=o.01[H+1.2L,] o. At 0.45H
=0.01[290+(1.2)(550)] Thickness:
-9.5 feet- _ _ __ _ __ _ __ __ _ _ _ 10.0 feet. To.(aa=o.95 TB
Upstream projection: = (0.95) (28.9)
USP,=O.O _-________--_-____ O.Ofoot. =27.5 feet- ___________ 25.7 feet,.
13
 . ..a .-. .I__~” .,

GUIDE FOR PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF ARCH DAMS

EW
 ,.--Axis of dam

El. 325;-,
Normal W.S. --LB.
El. 30 5-----”

,-----Slope 1.25 : 1.00

T, = 28.9.:’

MAXIMUM SECTION LINES OF CENTERS

(ALONG PLANE OF CENTERS)

FIGURE 7.-Cmwn cantilever and lines ojcenterejor a preliminary deeign.

16 GUIDE FOR PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF ARCH DAMS
Upstream projection: At 0.45H:
USPo.4aa=0.95 T,zj To.yH=o.95 TB
= (0.95) (28.9) =(0.95)(113.6)
=27.5 feet- __ - _- - - _ 30.0 feet. =107.9 feet- - - _______ 100.0 feet,
Downstream projection: b. Upstream projections
DSPo.GsH=O.Ofoot- - - __-__ _ -4.3 feet. At crest:
d. Volume USP,=O.O- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _- ___ 0.0.
v= VI + v2, At base:
where
USP,=O.67 TB
v,=o.ooooo2HaL
E
(HL+yy
1 2 1 = (0.67)(113.6)
=76.1 feet- __-_- ____-- 65.0 feet.
c. Downstream projections
=0.000002(290)2(160) ‘2go&(0~;~]
C At crest:
=36,800 cubic yards, DSP, = T,
=23.6 feet- _ __- _______ 25.0 feet.
and
V,=O.OOO4HL,[H+1.1L,] At base:
=0.0004(290)(550)[290+ (1.1)(550)] DSPB=O.33 TB
= 57,100 cubic yards. = (0.33)(113.6)
Then, =37.5 feet------------ 45.0 feet.
V=36,800+57,100=93,900 cubic yards- __- __ At 0.45H:
88,300 cubic yards. DSP,,.rsH=O.O____ - ____-___-__--___- 0.0.
Example P d. Volume
Given: El=736 feet, L1=1,350 feet, and v= v, + v2,
L=400 feet.
where
Find: T, USP, and DSP at crest, base, and
0.45H and volume.
a. Thicknesses
At crest:
vI=o.ooooo2H2L
II
(HL+o*y’
1- 2 1
T,=O.ol[H+l.2L,l
=0.01[736+(1.2)(1,350)]
=23.6 feet------- ____-__-- 25.0 feet.
=0.000002(736)“(400)
{ 736+(0.8)(1,350)}’
1,350-400 1
At base: = 1,504,OOOcubic yards,
I FT and
isi
TB= 3 0.0012 H L, b(-$) V2=o.0004HL1[H+1.1L,J
d =0.0004(736)(1,350)[736+(1.1)(1,350)]
736 =883,000 cubic yards.
= 3 0.0012(736)(1,350)(400)(~) a Then,
J V=1,504,000+883,000=2,387,000 cubic yards
=113.6 feet------------- 110.0 feet. -__-__--_---_-_-- 2,240,OOOcubic yards.
Layout

BECAUSE IDEAL DAMSITES are virtually nonexist- this point and the axis center may be used
ent, a final design for an arch dam is the result, for the plane of centers.. On this vertical
of judicious evaluation and selection of physical plane, extrados and intrados centers are located
properties which best satisfy site conditions, for drawing circular arcs which represent con-
stress requirements, and design cyiteria. This tour lines on the faces of the dam. The system
final design is arrived at by several cycles of of centers for each face must form smooth and
layout, analysis, evaluation, and improvement. continuous curves to produce a satisfactory
The initial layout in the series is based on results line of centers.
of formulas in this guide and the judgment of f. The extrados and intrados centers at each
the designer. A procedure for making the initial selected elevation should be spaced on the plane
layout is as follows: of centers to produce a variation in the ratio
a. From the structural height, H, and chord of abutment thickness to crown thickness of
lengths, Ll and Lz, describe the crown cantilever 1.0 : 1.0 at the crest to about 1.5 : 1.0 at mid-
using equations or nomographs in this guide. height and 1.1: 1.0 at the riverbed.
b. Compute the axis radius: RAxIB=0.6L1. g. Contour lines on the dam pass through
c. From all available geological information the faces of the crown cantilever and terminate
on the damsite, estimate the depth of excavation ,at the abutments. For reasons of expediency,
to sound rock. the contours should be selected at convenient,
d. Draw on vellum overlaying a topographic elevations on both faces, equally spaced wher-
map of the site a circular arc, with the axis ever possible, and at intervals not greater than
radius connecting abutments at the crest eleva- 100 feet nor less than 20 feet in elevation.
tion.’ This arc should be so oriented that h. Abutments are drawn radial from the
the angle of incidence t#o each abutment is extrados center. The perimetrical contact of
approximately equal. dam and foundation should be smooth and
e. On the axis, locate a point about midway continuous.
between abutments and in the riverbed (crown i. A tangent, to each contour on the down-
cantilever). A line on the drawing connecting
stream face at t,he abutment line should make
1 The RAXIS should be longthcned if either the arc fails to make contnct an angle not less than 30” with a line generally
with the abutment at the estimated depth of excavation, or if the subtended
central angle exceeds 120°. parallel to the canyon wall at that elevation.
17

.:.U S GOVERNMENT PRlNTlNG OFFICE 1995-941.783