Field Theory MAGNETOSTATICS PDF

ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY Magnetostatic Fields
Dr. Thomas Afullo

Ukzn, Durban
1
REFERENCES
1. M.N. Sadiku: Elements of
Electromagnetics, Oxford University Press,
1995, ISBN 0-19-510368-8.
2. P. Lorrain, D. Corson: Electromagnetic
Fields and Waves, W.H. Freeman & Co, 1970,
ISBN: 0-7167-0330-0.
3. David T. Thomas: Engineering
Electromagnetics, Pergamon Press, ISBN: 08-
016778-0.
2
INTRODUCTION
As we have noticed, an electrostatic field is
produced by static or stationary charges.
If the charges are moving with a constant velocity,
a static magnetic field (or magnetostatic field) is
produced.
There are two major laws governing magnetostatic
fields:
- The Biot-Savart Law
- Ampere’s Circuital law.
Like Coulomb’s law, the Biot-Savart law is the
general law of magnetostatics.
Just as in Gauss’s law, Ampere’s circuital law is a
special case of Biot-Savart law and is easily applied
in problems involving symmetrical current 3
MAGNETIC FORCES
It is common experience that circuits carrying electric currents
exert forces on each other. For example, the force between
two straight parallel wires carrying currents Ia and Ib is
proportional to IaIb/ρ, where ρ is the distance between the
wires.
Ia
dla
dlb
Ib
4
MAGNETIC FORCES
The force is attractive if the currents flow in the same
direction, and it is repulsive if they flow in opposite
directions.
For the more general case shown in the above figure,
 µ I I dl x( dl xrˆ )
the force between the current-carrying conductors is
given by:
F = ∫∫
o a b b a 1
4π r
ab 2
a b
This is the force exerted by current Ia on current Ib, and

the line integrals are evaluated over the two circuits.
This is the magnetic force law. The vectors dla and dlb
point in the direction of current flow, r is the distance
between the two elements dla and dlb, and r1 is the unit
vector pointing from dla to dlb.
Magnetostatic Fields ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY 5
The constant, µo=4πx10 H/m, is the permeability of
-7
MAGNETIC FORCES
The force Fab can be expressed in symmetrical form by
expanding the triple vector product under the integral sign:
dl x( dl xrˆ ) dl ( dl .rˆ ) rˆ ( dl .dl )

b
= a 1
− a b 1 1 a b
r 2
r r2 2
To show that the double integral of the first term on the right
is zero, we note that:
dl ( dl .rˆ ) ( dl .rˆ )
∫∫
a
= ∫ dl ∫
b 1 b 1
r r
2 a 2
a b a b
This is the integral of dr/r2 around a closed curve, circuit b;

which implies that the upper and lower limits of integration
are identical. It is therefore zero.

MAGNETIC FORCES
We are thus left with the double integral of only the second
term for the triple vector product. Thus:
 µ I I rˆ ( dl .dl )
F =− ∫∫
o a b 1 a b
4π r
ab 2
a b
Despite the fact that the above integral for Fab is simpler and
more symmetrical than that involving the triple vector
product, it is not as useful.
This is because in the above integral, the force cannot be
expressed as the interaction of the current b with the field in
a.  µo I a I b dlb x dla xrˆ1
Fab =the earlier
 ( )
Thus we use ∫ ∫ relationship= to
I b ∫obtain:
dlb xBa
4π r a b
2
b
 µ I ( dl xrˆ )
B = o
∫
a a 1
4π r
a 2
a

MAGNETIC FORCES
The vector Ba is called the magnetic induction due to
the circuit a at the position of the element dlb of
circuit b.
Therefore the element of force, dF, on an element of
wire of length dl carrying a current I in a region
  is B is given by:
 induction
where the magnetic
dF = Idl xB
If the current I is distributed in space with a (free)
( )dv'
 dv’ the elemental
current density Jf, then, with
 µo
volume, we have: J f xrˆ1
B= ∫∫∫
4π v' r2

MAGNETIC FLUX
As in electrostatics, where we use lines of force to describe
an electric field, we can describe a magnetic field by drawing
lines of B that are everywhere tangent to the direction of B.
It is convenient to use the concept of flux, the flux of the
magnetic induction B through a surface S being defined as
the normal component of B integrated over S:
 
Φ = ∫ B.dS
S
The flux Φ is expressed in webers.

BIOT-SAVART’S LAW
The Biot-Savart’s law states that the magnetic field
intensity, dH, produced at a point P shown in the figure
below by the differential current element Idl is
proportional to the product Idl and the sine of the angle
α between the element and the line joining P to the
element, and is inversely
 proportional to the square of
the distance R between
dl P and the element.
α 
Current I
R
10
BIOT-SAVART’S LAW
That is:
Idl sin α kIdl sin α
dH ∝ ⇒ dH =
R2 R2
Here, k is the constant of proportionality.
In SI units, the above equation becomes:
Idl sin α
dH =
4πR 2
From the definition of cross product, it is seen that, in

vector form,   
( )
 Idl xaˆ R Idl xR
dH = =
( )
4πR 2
4πR 3
Here, aR is the unit vector in the direction of vector R.
11
BIOT-SAVART’S LAW
Just as we have different charge configurations, we can
have different current distributions: the line current, the
surface current, and the volume current, as shown
below. 
I dl 
K

I 
 Jdv
J
Line current
density  Volume current
KdS density
Surface current density
If we define K as the surface current density (A/m2), and

  
J as the volume current
I dl = KdS = J(A/m
density dv ), then we have:
3
12
BIOT-SAVART’S LAW
Thus in terms of the distributed source currents , the
Biot-Savart law becomes:


H=∫
( )
Idl xaˆ R
(line current )
L 4πR
2


H=∫
( KdS ) xaˆ R
( surface current )
S 4πR 2


H =∫
( Jdv ) xaˆ R
(volume current )
v 4πR
2
13
FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT CURRENT-

CARRYING CONDUCTOR
z
B
α2
dl
α
I 
z Aα R
1
O ρ P
Consider the field due to a straight current-carrying

filamentary conductor of finite length AB, as shown
above.
14

CARRYING CONDUCTOR
Let us assume the conductor is along the z-axis, with its
upper and lower ends respectively subtending angles α1
and α2 at P, the point at which the magnetic field
strength, H, is to be determined.
If we consider the contribution dH at P due to an
( )
 
element dl at (0,0,z),
 we Idl have,
xR from Biot-Savart’s law:
dH =
4πR 3
 
dl = dzzˆ; R = ρρˆ − zzˆ
 
⇒ dl xR = ρdzϕˆ
 Iρdz
∴H = ∫ ϕˆ
(
4π ρ 2 + z 2)3 / 2
15

CARRYING CONDUCTOR
Let us make the following substitutions:
Let z = ρ cot α ⇒ dz = − ρ cos ec 2αdα

 I α 2 ρ 2 cos ec 2αdα 1 α2
∴H = − ∫ ϕˆ = ∫ sin αdαϕˆ
4π α1 ρ cos ec α
3 3
4πρ α1
 I
∴H = ( cosα 2 − cosα1 )ϕˆ
4πρ
Note that H is always along the unit vector ϕ,
irrespective of the length of the wire or the
point of interest P.
16

CARRYING CONDUCTOR – EXAMPLE
The conducting triangular loop below carries a current
of 10 A. Find the magnetic filed intensity H at (0,0,5)
due to side 1 of the loop.
y
1
3 2
10A
1 1 2 x
17
CARRYING CONDUCTOR – EXAMPLE
Solution:
The problem can be solved using the following figure:
x  z
R
 P(0,0,5
)
1
Idl α
γ

FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT CURRENT-CARRYING
CONDUCTOR – EXAMPLE
From the Biot-Savart law, we obtain:

 Idl xaˆ R
dH =
4πR 2

dl = xˆdx; aˆ R = − xˆ cos α + zˆ sin α
z x
sin α = ; cos α =
(z2 + x2 ) 3/ 2
( z 2 + x 2 )3 / 2
z
∴ tan α = ⇒ z = x tan α
x
 Idxxˆx( − xˆ cos α + zˆ sin α ) I sin αdxyˆ Izdxyˆ
∴ dH =
(
4π z 2 + x 2 ) =−
(
4π z 2 + x 2 ) =−
(
4π z 2 + x 2 )3 / 2
x
tan γ = ⇒ x = z tan γ
z
dx d z
= z ( tan γ ) = = z sec 2
γ
dγ dγ cos 2 γ
∴ dx = z sec 2 γdγ

Therefore we obtain:
( z 2 + x 2 )3 / 2 = ( z 2 + z 2 tan 2 γ )3 / 2 = z 3 (1 + tan 2 γ )3 / 2 = z 3 sec3 γ

 Izdxyˆ I z 2 sec 2 γdγ I
∴ dH = − = − yˆ = − yˆ cos γdγ
( 2
4π z + x )
2 3/ 2 4π z sec γ
3 3 4πz
 tan ( 2 / z )
−1 tan −1 ( 2 / z )
I I
H= ∫ −yˆ cos γdγ = − yˆ sin γ
0 4πz 4πz 0

H = − yˆ
I
4πz
( )
sin tan −1 ( 2 / z )

H
( 0, 0 ,5)
= − yˆ
I
4πz
(
sin tan −1 ( 2 / 5) ) = −0.0591yˆ A / m
1. Find H due to side 3 of the rectangular loop
Ans :

H = −0.03063xˆ + 0.03063 yˆ A / m


CONDUCTOR
As a special case, when the conductor is semi-infinite
(with respect to P), point A is now at O(0,0,0), while
point B is at (0,0,∞); then α1=90o, α2=0o. Then we have:
 I   µI
H= ϕˆ ; B = µH = ϕˆ
4πρ 4πρ
Another special case is when the conductor is infinite in

length.
For this case, point A is at (0,0,-∞),while B is at (0,0,∞);
then α1=180o,α2=0o. Then  we have:
I µI
H= ϕˆ ; B = ϕˆ
2πρ 2πρ
22
FORCE BETWEEN TWO LONG PARALLEL

CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTORS
Consider two long parallel conductors, separated by
distance ρ, carrying current in the same direction as
shown in the figure below.
Ia Ib
dlb
Ba
dF
23
CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTORS
The current Ia produces a magnetic induction Ba, as shown,
at the position
 of current Ib. The force acting on an element
( )
 
F = I b dlbis:
Idlb of thisdcurrent xBa
 µI
Ba = a ϕˆ
2πρ
   µI a   µI 
∴ dF = I b  dlb x ϕˆ  = I b  zˆdlb x a ϕˆ 
 2πρ   2πρ 
  µI I dl 
⇒ dF = − ρˆ  a b b 
 2πρ 
 µI I dl  dF  µI a I b 
dF =  a b b  ⇒ = 
 2πρ  dl  2πρ 
The last expression is theENEL2FT

Magnetostatic Fields
force per unit length of the wire.
FIELD THEORY 24

CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTORS-
EXAMPLE
Consider a current-carrying conductor of finite length L placed
a distance d from another current-carrying conductor of
infinite length.
Determine the magnetic force per unit length acting on the
z
finite conductor.
I
I
dlb
Infinitely Ba
long wire
dF ρ
Finite wire
of length L
d
25
FORCE BETWEEN TWO LONG PARALLEL CURRENT-
CARRYING CONDUCTORS-EXAMPLE
THE Solution is as follows:
 µI
B= ϕˆ
2πd
  µI 
∴ dF = I  zˆdzx ϕˆ 
 2πd 
  µI 2  dF  µI 2 
dF = ρˆ  dz ⇒ = 
 2πd  dz  2πd 

 
 L  µI 2   µI 2 
F = ∫ ρˆ  dz = ρˆ  L
 2πd   2πd 
0    

F  µI 2 
∴ = ρˆ   N /m
L  2πd 
 
FIELD DUE TO A CIRCULAR CURRENT-CARRYING

LOOP
Consider the circular loop shown below, with the loop
having radius ρ. z
P
 
 R1 h R
dl1
ρ y
ρ 
dl
x
The magnetic field intensity dH at point P(0,0,h)

contributed by current element Idl is given by Biot-
Savart’s law: 27

LOOP  
 Idl xR
dH =
4πR 3
Further, from the diagram, we note that:

dl = ρdϕϕˆ ;

R = − ρρˆ + hzˆ
 
∴ dl xR = ( ρdϕϕˆ ) x( − ρρˆ + hzˆ ) = ρhdϕρˆ + ρ 2 dϕzˆ
Therefore we determine the elemental magnetic field

intensity due to current
 element Idl to be:
 Idl xR
dH = =
I
ρ (
hd ϕ ρ
ˆ + ρ 2
dϕzˆ )
4πR 3
[
4π ρ + h
2 2
]
3/ 2
28

LOOP
Similarly we determine the elemental magnetic field
dH1 intensity due
 to current element Idl1 to be:
R1 = ρρˆ + hzˆ; dl = − ρdϕϕˆ
 
∴ dl1 xR1 = ( − ρdϕϕˆ ) x( ρρˆ + hzˆ ) = ρhdϕρˆ + ρ 2 dϕzˆ
 
 Idl1 xR1
dH 1 = =
I
( − ρhd ϕ ρ
ˆ + ρ 2
dϕzˆ ) = dH ρ ρˆ + dH z zˆ
4πR1 4π [ ρ + h ]
3 2 2 3/ 2
Therefore, by symmetry, the H contributions along ρ

add up to zero because the radial components produced
bypairs of current elements 180o apart I 2πρ 2
cancel each Iρ 2
I
( ρ dϕzˆ ) = zˆ
2π
H = zˆ ∫ Thus:
other. dH z = ∫ 2
= zˆ
0 2
4π [ ρ + h
2 3/ 2
] 2
4π [ ρ + h
2 3/ 2
] 2
2[ ρ + h
2 3/ 2
]
29
LOOP
The magnetic induction is thus given by:
  µIρ 2
B = µH = zˆ
[
2ρ +h2
]
2 3/ 2
Thus the magnetic induction is maximum in the plane

of the current-carrying loop (h=0), and it drops off as h
→∞ or h»ρ.

FIELD DUE TO A CIRCULAR

CURRENT-CARRYING LOOP –
EXAMPLE
A circular loop located on x2+y2=9, z=0,
carries a direct current of 10 A.
Determine the magnetic field intensity
at:
A) (0,0,4)
B) (0,0,-4)
31
LOOP – EXAMPLE
SOLUTION:
For the circular loop, the radius ρ=3. therefore, at a height h
above the x-y plane, the field strength is given by:
 Iρ 2
H = zˆ
[
2ρ +h2
]
2 3/ 2
 (10)32
∴H = zˆ = 0.36 zˆ A / m
( 0, 0, 4 )
[
2 32 + 4 ]
2 3/ 2
 (10)32
∴H = zˆ = 0.36 zˆ A / m
( 0,0, −4)
[
2 32 + ( − 4 ) ]
2 3/ 2

FIELD DUE TO A CIRCULAR CURRENT-
CARRYING LOOP – EXAMPLE
A thin loop of radius 5 cm is placed on the plane z=1 cm so
that its centre is at (0,0,1 cm). The loop carries a 0.05A
current.
Determine H at:
A) (0,0, -1 cm)
B) (0,0, 10 cm)
Answer: 
A) H = 0.4 zˆ A / m

B ) H = 0.0573 zˆ A / m

FIELD DUE TO A SOLENOID
Consider a solenoid of length L, consisting of N turns of wire
carrying a current I, whose cross-section is shown in the figure
below.
The number of turns per unit length, n, is given by n=N/L
L
z
dz
ρ θ θ2
θ1
Cross-section of a solenoid

For a single loop centered about the z-axis, the value of H a
distance z is:
2
 Iρ
H = zˆ
[ 2
2ρ +z ]
2 3/ 2
For an arbitrary point z along the length of the

solenoid, the incremental electric field intensity for
small length dz is: Iρ 2 ndz
dH = zˆ
2
[
2 3/ 2
2ρ +z ]

From the sketch, we obtain:
z = ρ / tan θ = ρ cot θ
dz
dθ
(
= − ρ cos ec 2θ ⇒ dz = − ρ cos ec 2θ dθ )
( ρ 2 + z 2 ) = ρ 2 (1 + cot 2 θ ) = ρ 2 cos ec 2θ
 Iρ 2 ndz Iρ 2 n  − ( ρ cos ec 2θ )dθ 
∴ dH = zˆ = zˆ
2[ ρ + z ]
2 2 3/ 2 2  ρ 3 cos ec 3θ 
 nI
dH = − sin θdθzˆ
2
 θ 2  nI  nI
H = ∫  − sin θdθ  zˆ = zˆ ( cosθ 2 − cosθ1 )
θ1  2  2
 NI
H = zˆ ( cosθ 2 − cosθ1 )
2L
In the middle of a very long solenoid, θ1=0o, θ2=180o; therefore:
 NI
H = zˆ = zˆnI
L
FIELD DUE TO A TORROID

For a toroidal coil of radius R, with N coils of wire
carrying a current I, the total values of B and H are
obtained from the figure below.
37
FIELD DUE TO A TORROID
Note that µ is the magnetic permeability of the material
around which the current-carrying coil is wound.
It is assumed that the coil lies on the x-y plane. Note that
with the length, L, of the torroid, the B and H fields are
given by:  NI NI
H= ϕˆ = ϕˆ
L 2πR
 µNI
B= ϕˆ
2πR
It is assumed that the coil lies on the x-y plane.

If the coil has a circular cross-section with radius ρ,
and if ρ<<R, then the total flux Φ inside2 the toroid is:
µNI µNIρ
Φ = BA = (πρ 2 ) =
2πR 2R
FORCE ON A POINT CHARGE MOVING IN
A MAGNETIC FIELD – THE LORENTZ
FORCE
Let us determine the force F on a single charge Q moving at
a velocity v in a magnetic field B.
  
The force on a current element Idl is:
dF = Idl xB
I = n( dav ) Q
If the cross-sectional area of the wire is da, the current I is
given by:
Here n is the number of carriers per unit volume, v is their

average drift velocity, and Q is the charge per carrier.
FORCE ON A POINT CHARGE MOVING IN
A MAGNETIC FIELD – THE LORENTZ
FORCE
Therefore the total charge flowing per second is the
charge on the carriers that are contained in a length v
of the wire.     
Then the force = Id
dFon = ( ndadlQ
l xBelement
the dl ) becomes:
v xB
  
= Qv xBQ moving at a velocity v
F charge
The force on a single
in a field B is:
More generally, if F

[   
= QisEalso
there (
+ van )]
xBelectric field E, the
force is:

AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW – MAXWELL’S

EQUATION
Ampere’s circuital law states that the line
integral of the tangential component of H
around a closed path is the same as the net
current enclosed by the path.
In other words:

∫ H .dl = I enclosed
Ampere’s circuital law is similar to Gauss’s

law, and is easily applied to determine H when
the current distribution is symmetrical.
Ampere’s circuital law is a special case of the
Biot-Savart law.
41
AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW – MAXWELL’S
EQUATION
By applying Stoke’s theorem, we obtain:
    
I encl = ∫L H .dl = ∫S ( ∇xH ).dS
We can further simplify this, with J the current
density, to obtain:
    
I encl = ∫S J .dS ⇒ ∇xH = J
This is the third Maxwell’s equation, which is

Ampere’s law in differential form.
APPLICATION OF AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL

LAW – INFINITE LINE CURRENT
Consider an infinitely long filamentary current I along the z-axis,
as shown below.
Amperian path
ρ y

dl
x
This path, on which ampere’s law is to be applied, is known as

the Amperian path (analogous to the Gaussian surface).
43
APPLICATION OF AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL

LAW – INFINITE LINE CURRENT
We choose a concentric circle as the Amperian path in
view of the previous considerations.
Since this path encloses the entire current I, according
to Ampere’s law,
I = ∫ H φ aˆφ .ρdφaˆφ = H φ ∫ ρdφ = H φ .2πρ

I
∴H = aˆφ
2πρ
This is the result expected, from the application of the
Biot-Savart law.
44
AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW – INFINITELY

LONG COAXIAL TRANSMISSION LINE
Consider an infinitely long transmission line consisting
of two concentric cylinders having their axes along the
z-axis.
The cross-section of the line is shown below.
Amperian
path (one of a
4)
45

The inner conductor has radius a and carries a current I,
while the outer conductor has inner radius b and
thickness t, and carries return current –I.
We want to determine H everywhere, assuming the
current is uniformly distributed in both conductors.
Since the current distribution is symmetrical, we apply
Ampere’s law along the Amperian path for each of the
four possible regions:
Region 1: 0<ρ<a (This is the only one shown in the figure)

Region 2: a<ρ<b
Region 3: b<ρ<b+t
Region 4: ρ>b+t
46
For Region 1, we apply Ampere’s law, giving:
   
∫ H .dl = I = ∫ J .dS
Re g 1
enc
Since the current is uniformly distributed over the cross-

section, we have:  I 
J= zˆ; dS = ρdφdρzˆ
πa 2
  I Iρ 2
I = ∫ J .dS = ∫∫ ρdφdρ =
πa a
enc 2 2
  Iρ 2
∫ H .dl = H φ
2πρ =
Re g 1 a 2
Iρ
∴ Hφ =
2πa 2

For Region 2: a<ρ<b, using the Amperian path (not
shown in the figure) gives:
 
∫ H .dl = I = I
Re g 2
enc
H φ 2πρ = I
I
∴ Hφ =
2πρ
For Region 3, b<ρ<b+t, we have:
   
∫ H .dl = I = I + ∫ J .dS
Re g 3
enc
Re g 3

J=
(− I) zˆ
π [( b + t ) − t ]
2 2

Thus we obtain:
  (− I) 2π ρ
I = I + ∫ J .dS = I − ∫ ρdρ
enc
Re g 3 π [( b + t ) − t
2 2
]∫
φ = 0 ρ =b
 ρ −b 
2 2
I = I 1 −
 t + 2bt 
enc 2
I  ρ −b  2 2
∴ Hφ = 1−
2πρ  t + 2bt 
 2
For Region 4, ρ>b+t, we obtain:

I  ρ −b  2 2
H = 1−  =0
2πρ  t + 2bt 
φ 2
ρ =b

Therefore from the equations we have, for a coaxial cable:
 Iρ ˆ
 φ 0≤ ρ ≤a
2πa 2
 I ˆ
  φ a≤ ρ ≤b
H = 2πρ
 I  ρ −b  ˆ 2 2
 2πρ 1 − t + 2bt φ b ≤ ρ ≤ b + t
 
2

 0 ρ >b+t
Thus Ampere’s law can only be used to find H due to
symmetric current distributions for which it is possible
to find a closed path over which H is constant in
magnitude.

MAGNETIC VECTOR POTENTIAL
The magnetic flux through a surface S is given by:
 
Ψ = ∫ B.dSs
However, unlike electric flux lines, magnetic flux lines always

close upon themselves. This is due to the fact that it is not
possible to have isolated magnetic poles or magnetic
charges.
Thus the total flux through a closed surface in a magnetic
field must be zero; that is:
 
Ψ = ∫ B.dS = 0
This is Gauss’s law for magnetostatic fields.
By applying the divergence theorem, we obtain:
   
Ψ = ∫ B.dS = ∫ ∇.Bdv = 0
V
 
∴ ∇.B = 0
This is the fourth Maxwell’s equation.

In order to satisfy the above equation, we define the vector
magnetic potential, A, such that:
    
∇.B = 0 ⇒ B = ∇xA
Just as we defined the electric scalar potential, V as:
dQ
V =∫
4πε r o
We can define:

 µ Idl
A=∫ o
( line current )
4πε r o

 µ KdS
A=∫ o
( surface current )
4πε r o

 µ Jdv
A=∫ o
( volume current )
4πε r o

Let us apply Stoke’s theorem to the flux equation:
 
Ψ = ∫ B.dS
s
     
B = ∇xA ⇒ Ψ = ∫ ∇xA.dS s
    
∫ ∇xA.dS = ∫ A.dl
s
L
 
∴ Ψ = ∫ A.dl
L

MAGNETIC VECTOR POTENTIAL - EXAMPLE:
Given the magnetic vector potential,

A = − ρ / 4 zˆ
2
Calculate:
The total magnetic flux density
The total magnetic flux crossing the surface: φ=π/2, 1<ρ
<2 m, 0<z<5 m.

MAGNETIC VECTOR POTENTIAL - EXAMPLE:
SOLUTION
   ∂A ˆ ρ ˆ
B = ∇xA = − φ= φ
z
∂ρ 2
 
Ψ = ∫ B.dS

dS = dρdzφˆ
  1 5
5
2
2
∴ Ψ = ∫ B.dS = ∫ ∫ ρdρdz = ρ 2
2 ρ z =0 4
=1
1
Ψ = 3.75Wb
EXAMPLE:
A current distribution gives rise to a vector magnetic
potential: 
A = x yxˆ + y xyˆ − 4 xyzzˆ
2 2
Calculate:
A) B at (-1, 2, 5)
B) The flux through the surface defined by z=1, 0<x<1,
-1<y<4.

Ans: B = 20 xˆ + 40 yˆ − 3 zˆ
Ψ = 20Wb
Let us consider the curl of the magnetic flux density:
  
∇xB = µ J
o
        
∇xB = ∇x∇xA = ∇ ( ∇. A) − ∇ A 2
    
∴ ∇ ( ∇. A) − ∇ A = µ J
2
o
However, for a static magnetic field, we have:

   
∇. A = 0 ⇒ ∇ A = − µ J 2
o
∴∇ A = −µ J
2
x o x
∇ A = −µ J
2
y o y
∇ A = −µ J
2
z o z

MAGNETIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The magnetic boundary conditions are defined as the
conditions that B and H must satisfy at the boundary
between different media.
To derive these conditions, we make use of Gauss’s
 
law for magnetic fields, namely:
∫ B.dS = 0
 
We also use Ampere’s circuital law, namely:
∫ H .dl = I

Consider the boundary between two magnetic media 1
and 2, characterized respectively by µ1 and µ2, as shown
below.
Medium 1, µ 1
B1 B1n ∆S
B1t
∆h
B2t
B2n
B2
Medium 2, µ 2
60
Applying Gauss’s law to the pillbox and allowing ∆h→0,
we obtain:
B ∆S − B ∆S = 0
1n 2n
∴B = B 1n 2n
µH =µH
1 1n 2 2n
The above equation shows that the normal component

of B is continuous at the boundary.
It also shows that the normal component of H is
discontinuous at the interface; that is, H undergoes
some
Magnetostatic change at the interface.
Fields ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY 61

Similarly, we apply Ampere’s circuital law to the closed
path abcda shown in the figure below, where surface
current K on the boundary is assumed normal to the
path.
Medium 1, µ 1
H1 H1n
a b
H1t K
∆h
H2t
d c
∆w
H2n
H2
Medium 2, µ 2
62
We obtain:
∆h ∆h ∆h ∆h
K∆w = H ∆w + H +H − H ∆w − H −H
2 2 2 2
1t 1n 2n 2t 2n 1n
As ∆h-0, the above equation becomes:
H −H =K 1t 2t
This shows that the tangential component of H is

discontinuous. The above equation may be written in terms
of B as: B B
− =K
1t 2t
µ µ 1 2
If the boundary is free of current or the media are not
conductors, K=0, and we have the tangential
components of H being equal:
B B
H =H ; = 1t 2t
µ µ
1t 2t
1 2
If the fields make an angle θ with the normal to the

interface, then, from the normal and tangential
B1 cos
components of B (with
θ1 = we
K=0)
B2 n = B2 cosθ 2
B1n =have:
B B
sin θ = H = H = sin θ
1 2
µ µ
1 1t 2t 2
1 2
tan θ µ
∴ = 1 1
tan θ µ 2 2

MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Consider a current-carrying conductor formed into a coil
of N turns around a doughnut-shaped iron core
(magnetic material), the electrically-induced magnetic
flux lines will be largely concentrated inside the iron
core.
This is the example of a simple magnetic circuit.
Flux φ Iron core
I
Cross-
sectional
area A,
N-turn coil, mean length
with current I L
65
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
The flux φ in this magnetic circuit is analogous to the
electric current in an electric circuit.
In the figure, there are N turns, each having a current I;
thus the cause of the induced flux φ is the current flow
NI.
The analogy in an electric circuit is the fact that a
voltage potential difference is the cause of the flow of
the current carriers (that is, V causes I).
The quantity NI is called the magnetomotive force
(MMF). It is the driving force behind the existence of the
magnetic flux φ.
Thus: (
Fm = MMF = NI Ampere − turns )
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
If the same magnetomotive force (MMF) is
applied to similar iron cores, each with a
different mean length Li, the resulting
magnetic flux density for the i-th coil is:
NI
B=µ ; φ = BA
Li
One therefore expects that stronger magnetic

fields will result in iron cores with shorter
length L.
Therefore the other B quantity
NI Fm of interest in
H = is =the magnetizing
magnetic circuits = force, or
µ Li Li
magnetic field intensity:
67
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS: RELUCTANCE
When the current I or the number of turns N is
increased in the simple magnetic circuit, the
magnetomotive force, Fm, is increased, resulting in a
higher flux φ in the magnetic core.
Thus, we have:
Fm ∝ φ
∴ Fm = kφ
Based on the analogies previously established, the
electric voltage, E or V is analogous to the
magnetomotive force Fm(=NI), and the electric current I
is analogous to the magnetic flux φ.
The equation relating Fm to φ is thus similar to Ohm’s
law for
Magnetostatic Fields electric circuits: V=RI.FIELD THEORY
ENEL2FT 68
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS: RELUCTANCE
Thus the constant of proportionality, k, is actually a
measure of the opposition to the establishment of
magnetic flux.
This quantity is called the reluctance, R of the
magnetic circuit, and is analogous to the resistance
R of an electric circuit.
Hence Ohm’s law for the magnetic circuit can be
expressedFas:= Rφ ⇒ R = Fm A / Wb
m
φ

MAGNETIC CIRCUITS: PERMEABILITY
It is easier to establish or set up the magnetic flux
lines in some materials (e.g. iron) than it is in other
materials (e.g. air).
The magnetic lines of force, like electric current,
always try to follow the path of least resistance.
Permeability is the property of materials that
measures its ability to permit the establishment of
magnetic lines of force. It is analogous to
conductivity in electric circuits.
Air is taken as the reference material, with its
µ=µ µ
permeability called µo. The permeability µ of any
other material is given by:o r
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS: PERMEABILITY
Where µr is called the relative permeability. Non-
magnetic materials (e.g. air, glass, copper and
aluminum) are characterized by their µr which is
approximately unity. Magnetic materials such as iron,
steel, cobalt, nickel, and their alloys are called
ferromagnetic materials, as characterized by high
values of µr(100 to 100,000 or more)
From the definitions of reluctance, R of the magnetic
circuit, and permeability µ of the material, it is clear
that one is the opposite of the other.
Thus, we have the relationship between reluctance
Fm NI
and permeability: NI L
R= = = =
φ BA ( µNI L ) A µA
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS: EXAMPLES
1. The simple magnetic circuit with one coil would around

a doughnut-shaped iron core has a cross-sectional
area of 50cm2 and a mean length of 2 m. The relative
permeability of the magnetic material of the core is
80. If the current coil has 150 turns and the resulting
flux is 80 µWb, determine:
The reluctance of the magnetic circuit (Ans: 3.98x106
A/Wb)
The value of the current flowing in the coil (Ans: 2.123
A)
2. The same magnetic circuit in example 1 has a

magnetomotive force of 200 A. If the length of the coil
is 40cm, and the permeability of the core is 6x10-4
Wb/m2, determine:
The magnetizing force, H (Ans: 500 A/m)
The flux density B in the iron core (Ans: 0.3 Wb/m2) 72
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS – AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL
LAW
The figure below shows an example of a simple series
magnetic circuit, made up of three different types of materials,
including the air gap.
Since there is only one path for the magnetic flux lines φ, it
must be the same in all parts of this series magnetic circuit.
This is similar to a series electric circuit where the current is
the same in all series components.
Air
Gap
I I
1 2
N
N
1
2
Mate
rial 1
Materi
al 2
LAW
As E and V are analogous to Fm (=NI) and φR or HL, a law
similar to KVL (algebraic sum of voltage rise and drop in a
closed loop =0) also applies to the closed-loop series
magnetic circuit. This is Ampere’s circuital law.
Ampere’s circuital law states that the sum of the
magnetomotive force (MMF or Fm) rises equals the sum of the
MMF drops around any closed path of a magnetic circuit.
In general, Ampere’s circuital law can be stated as follows:
A lg ebraic sum of applied MMF ' s = φR1 + φR2 + φR3 + .. = φRT
= H1L1 + H 2 L2 + .H 3 L3 + ..
Here, φ is the same amount of magnetic flux in the series

magnetic circuit, R1 is the reluctance of part 1 of the circuit
(similarly for R2 and R3), H1 is the magnetic field intensity of
part 1 of the circuit (similarly for H2 and H3), and L1 is the
length of this part of the circuit (similarly for L2 and L3).
LAW
From the above equation, one can easily see that in a series
magnetic circuit,
R T = T o ta l s e r ie s r e lu c ta n c e = R 1 + R 2 + R 3
That is, the net algebraic sum of the applied MMFs in the
assumed positive direction of φ is the sum of φ times the
sum of the reluctances of each part of the series circuit,
consisting of materials 1 and 2 and the air gap (material 3).
The above form of Ampere’s circuital law is used if the
dimensions and the permeabilities of each portion of the
circuit are known, so that the reluctances can be calculated.

MAGNETIC CIRCUITS – AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW

In the magnetic circuit shown in the figure below, the
flux φ induced by the MMF (NI) can be split into two
parts, since there are two different paths of the
magnetic flux lines, in either branch a (φa) or branch b (φ
b).
φ φb
I
φa
φ φb
76
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS – AMPERE’S

CIRCUITAL LAW
The sum of the two magnetic fluxes must be the
same as the total flux, φ:
φ = φa + φb
This is the law of conservation of flux.
It is similar to KCL at a node of an electric circuit.
If the reluctance of branch a is Ra, and the reluctance
of branch b is Rb, then the equivalent reluctance of
branches a and b is: R R
R eq = a b
Ra + R b
77
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS – AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW –

EXAMPLE 1
Consider the magnetic circuit for a relay shown below. The
average length of the iron core is 40 cm, and the length of the
air gap is 0.2 cm, while the average cross-sectional area is 2.5
m2. The number of turns of the coil is 50, and µr for iron is 200.
Determine the current required to produce a flux density of 0.1
Wb/m2 in the air gap.
φ
I
Iron φ
Air Gap
78
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS – AMPERE’S
CIRCUITAL LAW – EXAMPLE 1
Solution:
−7
µo = 4πX 1 0 = 1 .2 5 7 X 1 0 − 6 W b / A m
µ ir o n = µ o µ r = 1 .2 5 7 X 1 0 ( −6
)X 2 0 0 = 2 .5 1 3 X 1 0 − 4 W b / A m
1 L ir o n 0 .4
∴ R = = = 6 .3 6 6 X 1 0 6 A / W b
ir o n
µ ir o n A (
2 .5 1 3 X 1 0 − 4 X 2 .5 X 1 0 ) ( −4
)
1 L a ir − g a p 0 .0 0 2
R = = = 6 .3 6 4 X 1 0 6 A / W b
a ir − g a p
µo A (
1 .2 5 7 X 1 0 − 6 X 2 .5 X 1 0 ) ( −4
)
∴ RT = R ir o n + R a ir − g a p = 1 .2 7 3 X 1 0 7 A / W b
M M F = F m = φ R T = B A R T = ( 0 .1 ) ( 2 . 5 X 1 0 −4
(
) 1 .2 7 3 X 1 0 7
) = 3 1 8 .2 4 A
∴ M M F = N I = 3 1 8 .2 4 A = 5 0 I
∴ I = 6 .3 6 5 A
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic
field.
The next question is: can a magnetic field result in a
current flow, or induced voltage? In other words, is
the electromagnetic induction process reversible?
Faraday observed that when the magnetic lines of

force (flux, φ) linking a conductor are changed, a
voltage will be induced across the terminals of the
conductor.
The magnetic flux linkage can be changed by either

moving the conductor or the magnetic filed itself in
such a way that the conductor cuts across the
magnetic lines of force.
The induced voltage and the resulting induced current

are produced only if the cutting action is exhibited. 80
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
In the figure below, φorig is the original magnetic flux of
the stationary horse-shoe magnet.
If the conductor is moved perpendicular to the magnetic
lines of force, the galvanometer’s pointer deflects,
indicating an induced current flow (iind) resulting from
the induced voltage, vind.
conductor
Induced
current
S Galvano
N meter
81
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION – THE
TRANSFORMER
The transformer is essentially just two (or
more) inductors, sharing a common magnetic
path.
Any two inductors placed reasonably close to
each other will work as a transformer, and the
more closely they are coupled magnetically,
the more efficient they become.
When a changing magnetic field is in the
vicinity of a coil of wire (an inductor), a voltage
is induced into the coil which is in sympathy
with the applied magnetic field.
A static magnetic field has no effect, and
generates
Magnetostatic Fields no output. Many
ENEL2FT of the same
FIELD THEORY 82
principles apply to generators, alternators,

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION – THE TRANSFORMER

The figure shows the basics of all transformers. A coil (the
primary) is connected to an AC voltage source - typically the
mains for power transformers. The flux induced into the core is
coupled through to the secondary, a voltage is induced into
the winding, and a current is produced through the load.
83
TRANSFORMER
Note that the time-varying current ip flowing in the primary
coil, generates a time-varying flux φp in the space
surrounding the coil.
Part of this flux, φps, will link with the secondary coil. This
part is called the mutual flux.
Another part of this flux, φpp, will not link with the secondary
coil. This last part is called the leakage flux of the primary
coil.
dφ p
vp = N
The primary and the induced secondary
p
voltages, vs and vp,
are: dt
dφ ps
vs = N s
dt
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION – THE TRANSFORMER

Note that the flux is proportional to the current producing it.
Thus:
ip ip
φp = N p ; φs = N p
Rp R ps
lp ls
Rp = ; R ps =
µAp µAps
Here, Rp is the reluctance of the magnetic path of φp, and Rps

is the reluctance of the magnetic path of φps.
Thus the expressions
dφ pfor vp and
d  vs become:
i p  N p2 di p
Np =
vp = N p = Np
dt 
dt  R p  R p dt
dφ ps d  i p  N p N s di p

di p
vs = N s = Ns Np = =M
dt 
dt  
R ps  R ps dt dt
85

TRANSFORMER
The constants of proportionalities are the inductance, Lp
N 2p the mutual
of the primary coil, and N p N s inductance, M,
Lp = ; M=
between the two coils:Rp R ps
Both M and Lp have the same physical units (the Henry), and
both are constants, depending on the physical parameters and
dimensions of the magnetic flux paths, related through the
coupling coefficient, k. By exciting the secondary coil and
N s2
determining the induced voltage
N p N s and
N pcurrent
Ns in the primary
Ls =
side, we find that: ; M= =
Rs R ps Rsp
φ ps φ ps + φss
∴ M = k L p Ls ; k = = ⇒ 0 ≤ k ≤1
φp φp
86
TRANSFORMER
The first and most important characteristic of an ideal
transformer is that its primary and secondary fluxes have no
leakage components.
Thus all the flux produced due to the flow of ip links with the
secondary coil, while all the flux produced due to the flow of is
links with the
φ pprimary
= φ ps , φs coil.
= φsp ;
That is:
φ ps φsp
∴k = = =1
φ p φs
∴ M = k L p Ls = L p Ls
dφ p dφ ps dφ p vp Np
vp = N p ; vs = N s = Ns ⇒ =
dt dt dt vs Ns

TRANSFORMER
From KVL, we have, for a signal with frequency ω:
v p = jωL p I p ; vs = jωLs I s
∴
Ip
=
( v p / L p ) N p Ls
=
Is ( vs / Ls ) N s Lp
N 2p N s2 lp l
Lp = ; Ls = ; Rp = ; Rs = s ⇒ R p = Rs
Rp Rs µAp µAs
Ip N p  Ls  N p  N s2  N s
∴ =  =  =
I s N s  L p  N s  N p  N p
2
∴V p I p = Vs I s
Consider vector A. Then the divergence of vector A at a point P is the

outward flux per unit volume as the volume  shrinks
 about P. That is:
   ∫ A.dS
divA = ∇. A = lim S
∆v →0 ∆v
The divergence theorem states that, for a closed surface S, which
closes a volume v:
   
∫ A.d S = ∇
∫v . Adv
S
The curl of vector A is defined as the circulation per unit area. That is:
 
    ∫ A.dl 
curlA = ∇xA = lim  L aˆ
∆s → 0  ∆s  
 
Here, the area ∆S is bounded by the curve L, and a is the unit vector
normal to the surface ∆S. Then Stoke’s theorem states that:
    
∫ A.dl = ∫S ( ∇xA).dS
L
89
1. Conservation of Electrostatic Field:

Consider an electrostatic field which produces a field E. Then,
    
∫ E .d l = ∫S xE ).dS
( ∇
L
But, from definition of potential difference between point 1 and

point 2, we have:
L2  
∫ E.dl = V2 − V1
L1
For a closed loop, the potential difference would be V2-V2=0

Thus:
    
∫ E .d l = ∫S xE ).dS = V1 − V1 = 0
( ∇
L
 
∴ ∇xE = 0
This is Maxwell’s curl equation for an electrostatic filed.
90
2. Maxwell’s Curl Equation for Magnetostatic Field

Similarly, from Ampere’s circuital law:
      
I encl = ∫L H .dl = ∫S ( ∇xH ).dS = ∫S J .dS
  
∴ ∇xH = J
3. Divergence Theorem: Maxwell’s Scalar equation for D.
From Gauss’s law, we have:
 
Q = ∫S D.dS
If we assume that Q is the total charge in a volume enclosed by surface

S, with volume charge density ρv; and applying the divergence theorem,
we have:
   
Q = ∫S D.dS = ∫V ∇.D ) dv
(
But Q = ∫V ρ v dv
 
∴ ∇.D = ρ v
91
4. Divergence Theorem: Maxwell’s Scalar equation for B
For the magnetic field intensity, the total flux enclosed by a surface S is
given by:
 
Ψ = ∫S B.dS
 
B = µH
Applying the divergence theorem, and noting that there is no magnetic

charge density in a given volume – that is, it is not possible to have
isolated magnetic poles, since magnetic flux lines always close upon
themselves, we have:
   
∫S B.d S = ∫V .B ) dv = 0
( ∇
 
∴ ∇.B = 0
This is Maxwell’s fourth equation for static fields.
92

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ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY Magnetostatic Fields

Dr. Thomas Afullo

This is the force exerted by current Ia on current Ib, and

dl x( dl xrˆ ) dl ( dl .rˆ ) rˆ ( dl .dl )

This is the integral of dr/r2 around a closed curve, circuit b;

Magnetostatic Fields ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY 6

Magnetostatic Fields ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY 7

If the current I is distributed in space with a (free)

Magnetostatic Fields ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY 8

Magnetostatic Fields ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY 9

From the definition of cross product, it is seen that, in

Here, aR is the unit vector in the direction of vector R.

If we define K as the surface current density (A/m2), and

FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT CURRENT-

Consider the field due to a straight current-carrying

FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT CURRENT-

FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT CURRENT-

Let z = ρ cot α ⇒ dz = − ρ cos ec 2αdα

FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT CURRENT-

Magnetostatic Fields ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY 18

Magnetostatic Fields ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY 19

( z 2 + x 2 )3 / 2 = ( z 2 + z 2 tan 2 γ )3 / 2 = z 3 (1 + tan 2 γ )3 / 2 = z 3 sec3 γ

Magnetostatic Fields ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY 21

FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT CURRENT-CARRYING

Another special case is when the conductor is infinite in

FORCE BETWEEN TWO LONG PARALLEL

The last expression is theENEL2FT

FORCE BETWEEN TWO LONG PARALLEL

FIELD DUE TO A CIRCULAR CURRENT-CARRYING

The magnetic field intensity dH at point P(0,0,h)

FIELD DUE TO A CIRCULAR CURRENT-CARRYING

Further, from the diagram, we note that:

Therefore we determine the elemental magnetic field

FIELD DUE TO A CIRCULAR CURRENT-CARRYING

Therefore, by symmetry, the H contributions along ρ

Thus the magnetic induction is maximum in the plane

Magnetostatic Fields ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY 30

FIELD DUE TO A CIRCULAR

Magnetostatic Fields ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY 32

Magnetostatic Fields ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY 33

Magnetostatic Fields ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY 34

For an arbitrary point z along the length of the

Magnetostatic Fields ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY 35

FIELD DUE TO A TORROID

It is assumed that the coil lies on the x-y plane.

Here n is the number of carriers per unit volume, v is their

Magnetostatic Fields ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY 40

AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW – MAXWELL’S

Ampere’s circuital law is similar to Gauss’s

This is the third Maxwell’s equation, which is

APPLICATION OF AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL

This path, on which ampere’s law is to be applied, is known as

APPLICATION OF AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL

I = ∫ H φ aˆφ .ρdφaˆφ = H φ ∫ ρdφ = H φ .2πρ

AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW – INFINITELY

AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW – INFINITELY

Region 1: 0<ρ<a (This is the only one shown in the figure)

Since the current is uniformly distributed over the cross-

Magnetostatic Fields ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY 47

Magnetostatic Fields ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY 48

For Region 4, ρ>b+t, we obtain:

Magnetostatic Fields ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY 49

Magnetostatic Fields ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY 50