Unit 3

UNIT - III
APERTURE ANTENNAS
B.Hemalatha – AP/ECE 1
Magnetic field due to a current
Biot-Savart law:
dB = (mo/4p) i dsxř/r2
mo = 4p 10-7 T m/A
Biot-Savart Law is an inverse square law
If ds and ř are parallel, the contribution is zero!
Special cases
For a straight wire making angles 1 and 2:
B = (mo i/4pa)(cos q1- cos q2)
Prove it!
The direction is found through the right hand rule:
grasp the element in your right hand with your extended thumb pointing
in the direction of the current.
Your fingers will then naturally curl around in the direction of the
magnetic field lines due to that element.
For infinite straight wire:
B = (mo i/2pa)
At the center of a circular arc with angle :

B = (mo i f/4pR)
The radial part extending from the arc does not contribute; why?
At the center of a circular loop:

B = (mo i/2R)
Force between two parallel currents
For two long, straight parallel wires a distance [d] apart, the
magnetic field created by current ia at wire #b is:
Ba = moia/(2pd)
Therefore, the force felt at wire #b is:
Fba = Ib L x Ba
L and B are perpendicular, therefore Fba = ib L Ba
Fba/L = moiaib/(2pd)
What about the force which wire #a feels?
The same!! Why?
Fab/L = moiaib/(2pd)
In which direction are the forces?
Towards one another if the currents are parallel and away from one
another if they are anti-parallel.
In this way we can define the ampere!!
The rail gun:
Is a device in which a magnetic force can accelerate (~106 g) a
projectile to a high speed (~10 km/s) in a short time (~ 1 ms).
Ampere’s law:
If a current carrying wire is grasped with the right-hand with
the thumb in the direction of the current, the fingers curl in the
direction of B.
Ampere’s law states that: the closed path line integral of B . ds
around a circle concentric with the current equals oienc.
 
 B  ds  oi enc
Special cases
The magnetic field outside a long (thick/ circular) straight wire:
B = mo i/(2p r) for r > R
The magnetic field inside a long (thick/ circular) straight wire with
uniform current density:
B = mo i r/(2p R2) for r < R
What is the magnetic field created by an infinite uniform
current sheet Js, with a current i over a perpendicular length of
the sheet L such: i = Js/L?
Interaction:
B = mo Js/2
Prove it!
Solenoids and Toroids
The field inside the solenoid is ~ uniform. The field between the turns
tend to cancel. The field outside the solenoid is weak!
The field of a solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet!
An ideal solenoid is one for which the turns are

closely spaced and the length is long compared
to the radius.
Applying Ampere’s law to an ideal solenoid gives:
B = mo (N/L) I = mo n I  Inside
B= 0  outside
So, now we know how to create strong uniform magnetic fields!!

Why do we use superconducting coils?
What is the magnetic field created by a toroid?
B = mo N i/(2pr) inside
B = 0  outside
Note that B is not everywhere constant inside the toroid!!
A current carrying coil as a magnetic dipole:
We have already seen that if a circuit of magnetic dipole is

situated in a magnetic field B, the circuit experiences a orque 
produced such that:
t = m x B
Moreover, one can show that for points on the central axis (take it
to be the z-axis) of a single circular loop, a circulating current [i]
produces a magnetic field:
B(z) = (mo/2) i R2/(R2+z2)3/2
For points far from the loop (still on the z-axiz), this can be cast in
the form:
B(z) = (mo/2p) m/z3
Notice the similarity with the electric field and the electric dipole!!
The circular loop current acts like a magnet:
Duality Principle
Two circuits are said to be duals of one another if they are described by
the same characterizing equations with the dual pairs interchanged.
Dual Pairs
Resistance (R) Conductance (G)
Inductance (L) Capacitance (C)

Voltage (v) Current (i)
Voltage Source Current Source
Node Mesh/Loop
Series Path Parallel Path
Open Circuit Short Circuit
KVL KCL
Thévenin Norton
.Duality means the state of combing two different things which are
losely linked. In antennas, the duality theory means that it is possible
to write the fields of one antenna from the field expressions of the
other antenna by interchanging parameters:
System 1
System 2
Method of Images
Solving electrostatic problems involves solving Laplaces

Equation, assuming appropriate boundary conditions.
2 V = 0
Uniqueness Theorem
The solution to Laplace’s equation in some Region is uniquely
determined if the value of V is specified on all Boundaries of the
region
Classic Image Problem
Suppose a charge q is held a distance d above an infinite grounded
conducting plane.
z z
q
q
d
d
y
y d
x -q
V= 0
x
1  q q 
V ( x, y , z )    
4 O  x  y  z  d 
2 2 2
x  y  z  d  
2 2 2

Horn Antennas
 Invented in late 1800’s. Studied in 1930’s

 Most widely used microwave antenna
 Used as feed element
 Radio astronomy
 Satellite tracking
 Communication dishes
 Universal standard for calibration and gain measurement of
other antennas.
Types
1. H-plane
2. E-plane
3. Pyramidal
4. Conical
H-plane horn Antenna
Directivity - H-plane horn
Fresnel Integrals
S(x) & C(x)
 Can be computed from
DH 
4U max 4 b 2
Prad

a1

C (u )  C (v)2  S (u )  S (v)2 
 Or from
b GH
a1 50 DH 
A  50
 h /  h / 
E-planehorn
b1 / 2
tan 2 e 
1
Directivity - E-plane horn
Fresnel Integrals
 Can be computed from S(x) & C(x)
4U max 64 a1  2  b   b1 

DE   C   S  
1 2
Prad  b1   2  1   2  
  1 
 Or from
a GE
b1 50 DE 
B  50
 e /  e / 
GE from fig. 13.9 and D is plotted on the fig.13.8 of Balanis.
 HPBW is found from fig. 13.7.
E plane horn antenna
/a DE
2e
b1 /
Pyramidal Horn
1 GE GH
Dp 
32 /  50 50
h /  e / 
 2
Dp  DE DH
32ab
Optimum pyramidal horn design
3 
le  l h l h  lo  le  lo 
8 4
 2
  D0e  D0 h 
Dp  DE DH    
32ab 32  a /   b /  
Reflector Antenna
 Reflector antenna such as parabolic antenna are
composed of primary radiator and a reflective mirror.
Parabolic Reflector Antenna
 Any electromagnetic wave incident upon the paraboloid
surface will be directed to the focal point.
 Primary antenna is used at the focal point of the parabolic

reflector antenna instead of isotropic antenna. The isotropic
antenna would radiate and receive radiation from all
directions resulting in spillover.
 Primary antenna should be designed to “illuminate” just the

reflector uniformly.
Characteristics
 Effective area of reflector antenna: Ae  IAp
 Projected physical aperture: Ap  D 2
 Gain: Gain   I D /  2 4
 Loss in efficiency due to due to radiation in undesired
direction
 Spillover loss
 Focal point errors
 Feedhorn sidelobes
 Imperfections in parabolic surface
 Feedline line
Loss
Characteristics
 Aperture: A  r ^ 2
r= radius of the diameter
 Larger dish has more gain than smaller
 Clear line of sight is important
Calculations
D ^ 2
• Physical area: Ap  D= Diameter
4
• Effective area: Ae  i * Ap  = illumination efficiency

• Wavelength:
4Ae c
• Gain: Gi  
 ^2 f
• 3db beamwidth:  3dB  70


Degrees
D
The half power graph showing the angle between the half power
point on either side of maximum
DIRECT TV
DIRECT TV Specs
 D of reflector = 18” = 0.457 m
 Operating frequency = 12.4 GHz
 Illumination Efficiency
I  0.778 77.8%
Projected Physical aperture of parabolic reflector
D  (0.457m)
2 2
Ap    0.164m 2
4 4
Effective Area
Ae   I ( Ap )  0.778 (0.164 m )  .127 m

2 2
Gain
c 3  10 8
   .0242m
f 12.4GHz
2 2
  ( D)    (.457m ) 
Gi  i    0.778   2736
    .0242m 
Gain in dB
GdBi  10 logGi   10 log2736  34.38dBi
3-dB Beamwidth
  .0242m 
3dB  70   70   3.71

 D  0.457 m 
3dB beamwidth for Direct TV
Slot Antennas
They are very low-profile and can be conformed to basically any
configuration, thus they have found many applications, for example,
on aircraft and missiles.
Antenna Equivalent circuit
Slot waveguide antenna array: widely used for radar
Equivalence Principle: for field analysis
 The radiated field by the slot is the same as the field radiated by its
equivalent surface electric current and magnetic current which
were given by
where E and H are the electric and magnetic fields within the slot, and
n̂ is the unit vector normal to the slot surface S
For a half-wavelength slot, its equivalent electric surface current JS = ˆn ×

H = 0, the remaining source at the slot is its equivalent magnetic current
MS = −ˆn × E (it would be 2MS if the conducting ground plane were
removed using the imaging theory).
Babinet’s Principle
 The field at any point behind a plane having a screen, if
added to the field at the same point when the complementary
screen is substituted, is equal to the field at the point when
no screen is present.
 Apply this to antennas:
Since the impedance for a half-wavelength dipole is about 73

ohms, the corresponding slot has an impedance of
Basic Parabolic Antenna Types
Standard Focal Plane

Parabolic Antenna
Antenna
Shielded GRIDPAK®
(Radomes) Antenna
Antenna
Standard Parabolic Antenna
• Basic Antenna
• Comprised of
– Reflector
– Feed Assembly
– Mount
Shielded Antenna
• Absorber-Lined Shield
• Improved Feed System
• Protection Against Ice, Snow and
Dirt
• Better against the wind
Focal Plane Antenna
• Deeper Reflector
• Edge Geometry
• Slightly Lower Gain
GRIDPAK® Antenna
• Grid Reflector
• Low Wind load
• Below 2.7GHz
Antenna Efficiency
Well-designed antennas have
efficiency ratings of 45 - 65%
Efficiency Factor Affected By :

• Signal Strength,
• Blockage & Obstructions
• Reflector Surface
Efficiency can never be 100%
Calculating the Focal Point
 In order to determine the optimal location for the antenna feed,
or receiver, you must calculate the focal point.
 Using the following formula:
 F= D2 / 16d
 Where
 F = focal point
 D = Diameter of the dish
 d = depth of dish
Focal Point
The point at which the RF signals meet after reflecting off of
the parabolic curve of the antenna.
Calculating the Focal Point
 If you have a Parabolic Dish antenna that is 12” in diameter
and 3” deep where would the focal point be located?
 Use the formula: F= D2 / 16d

 12” squared = 144”,
 144” divided by (16 x 3”) or 48”
 144/48”=3”
 The focal point is 3”.
Lenses play a similar role to that of reflectors in reflector
antennas: they collimate divergent energy
Often preferred to reflectors at frequencies > 100 GHz.
Spherical microwave lenses
 The classical Luneburg lens is a spherically-symmetric,
graded index lens which images a point on the celestial
sphere to a point on the lens surface.
 A practical lens would

comprise uniform shells,
with focus away from the
lens surface.
Dielectric lens materials
 Simple calculation based on the dielectric properties of
polymer foam and the price of raw materials (oil) shows
that a foamed polymer lens would be far too expensive
for the SKA
 Only artificial materials seem to offer low loss and low

density.
Artificial dielectrics
 Artificial dielectrics are made by distributing small
polarizable particles in a uniform background material – a
macroscopic analogue of a “natural” dielectric.
 Controllable dielectric properties
 Reduced loss and density
 Two main classes:

 Metallic particles (traditional artificial dielectric)
 Dielectric particles (composite dielectrics)
Advantages
* Greater extent of wrapping and twisting is possible without

disturbing electrical path length.
Disadvantages
* The design of lens antenna is complicated.

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UNIT - III

Biot-Savart Law is an inverse square law

If ds and ř are parallel, the contribution is zero!

At the center of a circular arc with angle :

At the center of a circular loop:

Therefore, the force felt at wire #b is:

L and B are perpendicular, therefore Fba = ib L Ba

In this way we can define the ampere!!

B = mo i r/(2p R2) for r < R

The field of a solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet!

An ideal solenoid is one for which the turns are

So, now we know how to create strong uniform magnetic fields!!

Note that B is not everywhere constant inside the toroid!!

We have already seen that if a circuit of magnetic dipole is

B(z) = (mo/2) i R2/(R2+z2)3/2

Inductance (L) Capacitance (C)

Solving electrostatic problems involves solving Laplaces

 Invented in late 1800’s. Studied in 1930’s

4U max 64 a1  2  b   b1 

GE from fig. 13.9 and D is plotted on the fig.13.8 of Balanis.

 HPBW is found from fig. 13.7.

 Primary antenna is used at the focal point of the parabolic

 Primary antenna should be designed to “illuminate” just the

 Larger dish has more gain than smaller

 Clear line of sight is important

• Effective area: Ae  i * Ap  = illumination efficiency

• 3db beamwidth:  3dB  70

 Operating frequency = 12.4 GHz

Ae   I ( Ap )  0.778 (0.164 m )  .127 m

GdBi  10 logGi   10 log2736  34.38dBi

Slot waveguide antenna array: widely used for radar

For a half-wavelength slot, its equivalent electric surface current JS = ˆn ×

Since the impedance for a half-wavelength dipole is about 73

Standard Focal Plane

Efficiency Factor Affected By :

Efficiency can never be 100%

 Use the formula: F= D2 / 16d

 A practical lens would

 Only artificial materials seem to offer low loss and low

 Two main classes:

* Greater extent of wrapping and twisting is possible without

* The design of lens antenna is complicated.

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