EMF2016 Electromagnetic Theory

LECTURE 2(2): Maxwell's Equations

Time Varying fields : Faraday’s Law of

Induction, the conservation of charge
and the incompleteness of Ampere's
Law.
Maxwell’s equations and Lorentz force
law.
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 What we want to do first?

We are going to reconsider Maxwell’s curl equation

for electrostatic fields and modify it for time-
varying situations to satisfy Faraday’s Law

2
 Faraday’s Law
 Biot-Savart & Ampere Law states that a steady
current produces a magnetic field.
 Michael Faraday showed that a time-varying
magnetic field would produce an electric
current, unlike a static magnetic field, which
produces no current flow.
 In the experiment a closed circuit in a time-
varying magnetic field produced an induced
voltage or electromotive force (EMF), which
causes current to flow.
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 This is Faraday’s Law
Faraday’s Law
 Induced EMF, Vemf (in V), in any closed circuit is
equal to the time rate of change of the magnetic flux
linkage by the circuit. Number of turns in the circuit
Negative sign is due
to Lentz’ Law d d
Vemf   N Flux through each turn
dt dt

 Lentz’ Law emphasizes the fact that the direction of

current flow in the circuit is such that the induced
magnetic field will oppose the original magnetic
field.
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 EMF
 What is emf?
 Remember electric field? E-field is caused (or generated) by
electric charges, but not always!
 Electric field can also be found in generators, batteries,
thermocouples, fuel cells and photovoltaic cells.
These are all
emf-produced
electric fields

 They are similar to “regular” charge-produced electric field.

 EMF-produced E-field are non-conservative.

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 EMF
P I
Charge accumulation
at the terminals
cause an electrostatic Ee Ee
field to exist inside
and outside the
Resistor, R
 E  dl   E
battery.
f  dl  0
L L
Ef Ee P
 E f  dl
N
Battery is the
source of emf. The
electrochemical Ee
action of battery
Ee
results in an emf
produced field. N P P
Vemf   E f  dl    Ee  dl  IR
6 N N
 Transformer and Motional EMFs
For a single turn (N=1)
d
Vemf   E  dl    B  dS and  replaced
L dt S
S is surface bounded by
closed path L
Increasing B(t)
Both Electric and Magnetic fields are
present and are interrelated.
I
Flux can be varied by three ways:
•Stationary loop in a time-varying B field
•Time-varying loop in a static B field
Induced Binduced
•Time-varying loop in a time-varying B
field.
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 Stationary loop in time-varying B-
field
Also known as transformer EMF –
as in transformer action. B
LE  dl   S t  dS

Apply Stoke’s Theorem

B
S   E   dS   S t  dS
Consider the loop is stationary in a Maxwell’s
B
time-varying magnetic field  E   equation for
t time-varying
where
8 E = electric field intensity B = magnetic flux density fields.
dl = differential length dS = differential surface
 Transformer EMF
When N  1, total flux is B
multiplied by N
tr
Vemf  N   ds
S t

the current I flowing through the circuit is given by

I  Vemf
tr
/( R  Ri )
where
9 N = number of turn B = magnetic flux density
R = Resistance dS = differential surface
 Transformer EMF – Example 1
An inductor is formed by winding N turns of a thin conducting wire
into a circular loop of radius a. The inductor loop is in the x-y plane
with its center at the origin, and it is connected to a resistor R, as
shown in the next slide. In the presence of a magnetic field given by
B =B0 (y2 + z3) sint, where  is the angular frequency. Find:
(a) the magnetic flux linking a single turn of the inductor,
(b) the emf, given that N = 10, B0 = 0.2 T, a = 10cm, and  =103
rad/s,
(c) the polarity of Vemftr at t = 0, and
(d) the induced current in the circuit for R = 1 k (assume the wire
resistance to be negligibly small).

10
 Example 1
Solution:
(a) the magnetic flux linking each turn of the inductor is
 = s B  ds
= s [B0 (y2 + z3) sin t]  zds = 3a2B0 sint.

(b) To find Vemf , we can use the Faraday’s law equation. The
approach gives
Vemf = -N d/dt = - d(3Na2B0sint)/dt = 3Na2B0cost.

For N = 10, a = 0.1m,  = 103 rad/s, and B0 = 0.2 T,

11 Vemf = - 188.5 cos 103 t (V).
 Example 1

c) At t = 0, d/dt > 0 and Vemf = 188.5 V. Since the flux is

increasing, the current I must be in the direction shown in
figure in order to satisfy Lenz’s law. Consequently, point 2
is at a higher potential than point 1 and

Vemf = V1 – V2 = - 188.5 (V)

d) The current I is given by

I =(V2-V1)/R = (188.5/103) cos 103t = 0.19 cos 103t (A).

12
 Example 2
Determine the voltage V1 and V2 across the 2- and 4-
resistors shown in figure below. The loop is located in the x-y
plane, its area is 4m2, the magnetic flux density is B = -z 0.3t
(T), and the internal resistance of the wire may be ignored.

13
 Example 2
Solution:
 = s B  ds = s(-z0.3t)  zds = -0.3t x 4 = -1.2t

and the corresponding transformer emf

Vemftr = -d/dt = 1.2

The current in the wire:

I = Vemftr / (R1 + R2) = 1.2 / (2 + 4) = 0.2 A

The voltages across R1 and R2

V1 = IR1 = 0.2 x 2 = 0.4V
V2 = IR2 = 0.2 x 4 = 0.8V
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 Example 3
(Lets Try)

A coil consists of 100 turns of wire wrapped around a

square frame of sides 0.25m. The coil is centered at the
origin with each of its sides parallel to the x- or y- axis.
Find the induced emf across the open circuited ends of
the coil if the magnetic field is given by
2 t
i) B  ˆ
z10 e (T)

ii) B  ẑ10 cos x cos10 t 3

(T)
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 Time-varying loop in static B-field
This is the case where the loop changes in a static magnetic field. Alternately
the source of the static B-field may change (rotate) while the loop is
stationary. Both are related to generators. Also known as motional EMF.

Force on a charge moving with uniform

velocity u in a magnetic field B is:

F m  qu  B
Note that we defined the force excreted on a charge
by an Electric field is: F e  qE

Thus, we define “motional electric field” Em, as:

Fm
Em   uB
q
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 Motional EMF
Consider a conducting loop, moving with uniform velocity u as
consisting of a large number of free electrons. The emf induced in
the loop is:
1 1
m
Vemf  V12   E m  d l   u  B   d l
2 2

This type of emf is called motional emf or flux-cutting emf

because it is due to motional action.
This is the kind of emf found in electrical machines such as
motors, generators and alternators.
where E = electric field intensity u = velocity of charge
17 dl = differential length B = magnetic flux density
 Motional EMF

Fm  Il  B
Fm  IlB
Vemf  uBl

where F = magnetic force I = current

18 l = length B = magnetic flux density
u = velocity of charge
 Motor & Generator
*Rectangular wire
loop rotating at
angular velocity ω
in radially outward
pointing magnetic
field B of fixed
magnitude. Current
is collected by
brushes attached to
top and bottom
discs, which have
conducting rims.

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 Example 4
The rectangular loop shown in the next slide has a
constant width l, but its length x0 increases with time as
a conducting bar slides at a uniform velocity in a static
magnetic field B=zB0x. Note that B increases linearly
with x. The bar starts from x = 0 at t = 0. Find the
motional emf between terminals 1 and 2 and the current
I flowing through the resistor R. Assume that the loop
resistance Ri <<R.

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 Example 4
Solution:
This problem can be solved by using the motional emf
expression.
The sliding bar, being the only part of the circuit that crosses
the lines of the field B , is the only part of contour (2341)
that contributes to Vemfm . Hence, at x = x0.

 V12  V43   u  B   d l
4
m
V emf
3

The length of the loop is related to u by x0 = ut. Hence,

V m
emf   Bou lt
2

21
 Time-varying loop in a time-varying
B-field
For the general case of a single-turn conducting loop moving in a
time-varying magnetic field, the total induced emf is the sum of a
transformer emf component and a motional emf component.
Thus, the sum of both emf is:

Vemf  V tr
emf V m
emf

B
   d s   (u  B)  d l
S t C

22
 What we want to do next?

We are now going to reconsider Maxwell’s curl

equation for magnetic fields (or Ampere’s Law) for
time-varying conditions.

23
 Charge-current continuity
By the principle of charge conservation, the time rate
of decrease of charge within a given volume must be
equal to the net outward current flow through the
closed surface of the volume.

 dQ
 J  ds  dt Continuity of
current
equation
 v
J  
t
24 where Q = Charge ds = differential surface
v = volume charge density J = volume current density
 Reconsider Ampere’s Law
For static case recall that:  H  J
But the divergence of the curl of any vector field is zero,
    H   0    J
Hence,

Continuity of current equation  v

requires that,  J   0
t
So both the equations are not compatible
for time-varying case.

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 Modification to Ampere’s Law
We add a term to the right
hand side of Ampere’s law, Jd.
This term is to be determined
 H  J  Jd
and defined.
Again, take the div of the above equation.

    H   0    J    J d
And set,   J d    J
    D
So that,   J 
d
v
   D    
where D = electric flux density
t t H = magnetic field intensity
t
26 v = volume charge density J = conduction current density
Jd = displacement current density
 Displacement current
D
Since now, J d 
t (displacement current )
Ampere’s law for time varying case is now:
D
 H  J 
t
The term Jd is known as displacement current density and J is
the conduction current density. The insertion of Jd was one of
the major contributions of Maxwell. Without this term,
electromagnetic wave propagation would be impossible. At
low freq Jd is usually neglected compared to J. However at
radio freq the two terms are comparable.
where D = electric flux density H = magnetic field intensity
27 J = conduction current density Jd = displacement current density
 Example 5
A parallel plate capacitor with plate area of 5cm2 and plate
separation of 3mm has a voltage 50sin(103t) V applied to its
plates. Calculate the displacement current assuming  = 2o .

A
d 
Solution ~
V
|D| = |E| = V/d
|Jd| = |D/t| = (/d)(V/t)

Id =  J d  ds = |Jd| A
= (A/d) (V/ t) = 147.4 cos 103t (nA)
28 where D = electric flux density H = magnetic field intensity
J = conduction current density Jd = displacement current density
 Maxwell equations in final form
  D  v
Same as static case
B  0
B
 E   Faraday’s law
t
D
 H  J  Ampere’s law
t
Infinitely
long wire
Closed path, C

where E = electric field intensity D = electric flux density

29 H = magnetic field intensity B = magnetic flux density
v = volume charge density J = volume current density
 Maxwell equations in integral form

 D ds  Q
S (Gauss’s law)

 B  ds  0
S
(Non-existence of isolated magnetic charge)

B
C E  d l  S t  d s (Faraday’s law)

 D 
C H  d l  S  J  t   d s (Ampere’s law) Infinitely
long wire
Closed path, C

where E = electric field intensity D = electric flux density

30 H = magnetic field intensity B = magnetic flux density
ds / l= differential surface / length J = volume current density
 What shall we do next?

Take a moment to appreciate the Maxwell’s

equation and conclude the lecture!

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 James Clerk Maxwell
 James Clerk Maxwell (13
June 1831 – 5 November
1879) was a Scottish
physicist and
mathematician.
 His most prominent
achievement was
formulating classical
electromagnetic theory.

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 Maxwell’s equations
 This united all previously unrelated observations,
experiments and equations of electricity, magnetism and even
optics into a consistent theory.
 Maxwell's equations demonstrated that electricity,
magnetism and even light are all manifestations of the same
phenomenon, namely the electromagnetic field.
 Subsequently, all other classic laws or equations of these
disciplines became simplified cases of Maxwell's equations.
 Maxwell's achievements concerning electromagnetism have
been called the “second great unification in physics”, after the
first one realized by Isaac Newton.
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 Lorentz Force equation
Lorentz Force equation goes hand-in-hand with Maxwell’s equations.

F e  qE Fm  qv  B
The electric force is always The magnetic force is
parallel (anti-parallel) to the always perpendicular to
electric field. the magnetic field.

Lorentz’ Force equation:

F  F m  F e  q v  B  E 

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 Maxwell’s equation
 The concept of linearity, isotropy and homogeneity of
material medium still apply for time-varying case.
 In a linear, homogeneous and isotropic medium the
constitutive relations below holds, Wave Polarization

D  E   o E  P
B  H   o H  M 
J  E   v v

where E = electric field intensity D = electric flux density

H = magnetic field intensity B = magnetic flux density
35 P= Polarization M = Magnetization
J = Volume current density v = volume charge density
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
B
C E  d l  S t  d s
 V   emf
 V   emf 0

V 0
*The directed sum of the electrical potential
differences (voltage) around any closed network is zero..

36
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law

  H = J + D/t
  H = J’
 . (  H) = 0 =  . J’

 J  d s  0
I 0
*At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing
into that node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node..
37