EMI & AC

EMI & AC
THEORY

1. MAGNETIC FLUX
Various Methods of Producing induced E.M.F.
(1) The total number of magnetic lines of force passing
normally through an area placed in a magnetic field is equal We have learnt that e.m.f. is induced in a circuit, whenever
to the magnetic flux linked with that area. the amount of magnetic flux linked with the circuit is
changed. As I = BA cos T, the magnetic flux I can be
changed by changing B, A or T. Hence there are three
methods of producing induced e.m.f.
1. By changing the magnitude of magnetic field B,
2. By changing the area A, i.e., by shrinking or stretching or
changing the shape of the coil.

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3. By changing angle T between the direction of B and normal
to the surface area A, i.e., changing the relative orientation
of the surface area and the magnetic field.
(2) Net flux through the surface I = ³ B. dA = BA cos T
(T is the angle between area vector and magnetic field
vector) If T = 0o then I= BA, If T = 90o then I = 0
a 3. LENZ’S LAW
This law gives the direction of induced emf/induced current.
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According to this law, the direction of induced emf or current in a
(3) Unit and Dimension : Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity. It’s
circuit is such as to oppose the cause that produces it. This law is
S.I. unit is weber (wb), CGS unit is Maxwell or Gauss × cm2;
based upon law of conservation of energy.
(1wb = 108 Maxwell).
(1) When N-pole of a bar magnet moves towards the coil, the
e_

Num Joule Volt u Coulomb

(4) Other units : Tesla × m 2 flux associated with loop increases and an emf is induced
Amp Amp Amp
in it. Since the circuit of loop is closed, induced current
= Volt × sec = Ohm × Coulomb = Henry × Amp. It’s also flows in it.
dimensional formula [I] = [ML2T–2A–1]
(2) Cause of this induced current, is approach of north pole
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2. FARADAY’S LAWS OF EMI
(1) First law : Whenever the number of magnetic lines of
force (magnetic flux) passing through a circuit changes an
emf is produced in the circuit called induced emf. The
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and therefore to oppose the cause, i.e., to repel the
approaching north pole, the induced current in loop is in
such a direction so that the front face of loop behaves as
north pole. Therefore induced current as seen by observer
O is in anticlockwise direction. (figure)

induced emf persists only as long as there is change or

cutting of flux.
(2) Second law : The induced emf is given by rate of change
dI
of magnetic flux linked with the circuit i.e. e  . . For
dt
NdI
N turns e  ; Negative sign indicates that induced
dt
emf (e) opposes the change of flux. (3) If the loop is free to move the cause of induced emf in the
coil can also be termed as relative motion. Therefore to
Induced current (i) Induced charge (q) Induced power (P) oppose the cause, the relative motion between the
e N dI e2 N 2 § dI ·
2 approaching magnet and the loop should be opposed.
N
i  . dq idt  .dI P ¨ ¸ For this, the loop will itself start moving in the direction of
R R dt R R R © dt ¹
motion of the magnet.
Induced charge It depends on (4) It is important to remember that whenever cause of induced
is time indepen- time and resistance emf is relative motion, the new motion is always in the
dent. direction of motion of the cause.
 EMI & AC

Table : The various positions of relative motion between the magnet and the coil

Position of magnet

Direction of Anticlockwise direction Clockwise direction Clockwise direction Anticlockwise direction

induced current

Behaviour of face As a north pole As a south pole As a south pole As a north pole
of the coil

Type of magnetic Repulsive force Attractive force Repulsive force Attractive force
force opposed

Magnetic field linked Cross (×), Increases Cross (×), Decreases Dots (˜) Increases Dots (˜) Decreases

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with the coil and it’s
progress as viewed
from left

4. EDDY CURRENT
When a changing magnetic flux is applied to a bulk piece of
a (i) Dead-beat galvanometer : A dead beat galvanometer
means one whose pointer comes to rest in the final
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conducting material then circulating currents called eddy currents equilibrium position immediately without any oscillation
are induced in the material. Because the resistance of the bulk about the equilibrium position when a current is passed
conductor is usually low, eddy currents often have large in its coil.
magnitudes and heat up the conductor.
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This is achieved by winding the coil on a metallic

(1) These are circulating currents like eddies in water.
frame the large eddy currents induced in the frame provide
(2) Experimental concept given by Focault hence also named electromagnetic damping.
as “Focault current”.
(ii) Electric-brakes : When the train is running its wheel is
(3) The production of eddy currents in a metallic block leads
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moving in air and when the train is to be stopped by

to the loss of electric energy in the form of heat.
electric breaks the wheel is made to move in a field created
(4) By Lamination, slotting processes the resistance path for
by electromagnet. Eddy currents induced in the wheels
circulation of eddy current increases, resulting in to
due to the changing flux oppose the cause and stop
weakening them and also reducing losses causes by them
the train.
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(iii) Induction furnace : Joule’s heat causes the melting of a

metal piece placed in a rapidly changing magnetic field.
(iv) Speedometer : In the speedometer of an automobile, a
magnet is geared to the main shaft of the vehicle and it
rotates according to the speed of the vehicle. The magnet
is mounted in an aluminium cylinder with the help of
hair springs. When the magnet rotates, it produces eddy
currents in the drum and drags it through an angle, which
indicates the speed of the vehicle on a calibrated scale.
(v) Energy meter : In energy meters, the armature coil carries
a metallic aluminium disc which rotates between the poles
of a pair of permanent horse shoe magnets. As the
armature rotates, the current induced in the disc tends
(5) Application of eddy currents : Though most of the times to oppose the motion of the armature coil. Due to this
eddy currents are undesirable but they find some useful braking effect, deflection is proportional to the energy
applications as enumerated below consumed.
 EMI & AC

5. INDUCED CHARGE FLOW

When a current is induced in the circuit due to the flux change,
charge flows through the circuit and the net amount of charge
which flows along the circuit is given as :

1 dI 1
q ³ i dt ³ R dt
dt
R
dI ³ when r < a; E =
r dB
2 dt
; En v r

'I 'I 7. DYNAMIC (MOTIONAL) EMI DUE

Ÿ q and q N for N turns.
R R TO TRANSLATORY MOTION

6. INDUCED ELECTRIC FIELD (1) Consider a conducting rod of length l moving with a

It is non-conservative and non-electrostatic in nature. Its field uniform velocity v perpendicular to a uniform magnetic
lines are concentric circular closed curves.
field B , directed into the plane of the paper. Let the rod be

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dB moving to the right as shown in figure. The conducting
A time varying magnetic field always produced induced electrons also move to the right as they are trapped within
dt
the rod.
electric field in all space surrounding it.
Induced electric field (E in) is directly proportional to

³E in .d A
a
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induced emf so e = ..…(i)

dI
From Faraday’s second laws e  ..…(ii)
dt
e_

dI Conducting electrons experiences a magnetic force

From (i) and (ii) e ³ E in .dA 
dt
This is known as Fm = evB. So they move from P to Q within the rod. The
end P of the rod becomes positively charged while end Q
integral form of Faraday’s laws of EMI.
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becomes negatively charged, hence an electric field is set

up within the rod which opposes the further downward
movement of electrons i.e. an equilibrium is reached and
in equilibrium Fe = Fm i.e. eE = evB or E = vB
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ª Vº
Ÿ Induced emf e = El = Bvl «E
¬ A »¼

(2) If rod is moving by making an angle T with the direction of

magnetic field or length. Induced emf e = Bvl sinT

A uniform but time varying magnetic field B(t) exists in a

circular region of radius ‘a’ and is directed into the plane
of the paper as shown, the magnitude of the induced
electric field (Ein) at point P lies at a distance r from the
centre of the circular region is calculated as follows.

dI dB dB
So ³E in .dA e
dt
A
dt
i.e. E 2 Sr Sa 2
dt

a 2 dB 1
where r t a or E ; E in v (3) Motion of conducting rod on an inclined plane : When
2r dt r conductor start sliding from the top of an inclined plane
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 EMI & AC

as shown, it moves perpendicular to it’s length but at an (2) Magnetic force : Conductor PQ experiences a magnetic
angle (90  T ) with the direction of magnetic field. force in opposite direction of it’s motion and

§ BvA · B 2 vA 2
Fm BiA B¨ ¸A
© R ¹ R

(3) Power dissipated in moving the conductor : For uniform

motion of rod PQ, the rate of doing mechanical work by
external agent or mech. Power delivered by external source
is given as

dW B 2 vA 2 B2 v 2 A 2
Pmech Pext Fext .v uv
Hence induced emf across the ends of conductor dt R R
e = Bv sin(90 – T)l = Bvl cosT (4) Electrical power : Also electrical power dissipated in
BvA cos T resistance or rate of heat dissipation across resistance is
So induced current i (Directed from Q to P). given as
R

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2
The forces acting on the bar are shown in following figure. H § BvA · B2v 2A 2
Pthermal i 2R ¨ ¸ .R ; Pthermal
The rod will move down with constant velocity only if t © R ¹ R
Fm cos T = mg cos (90 – T) = mg sin T (It is clear that Pmech. = Pthermal which is consistent with the
Ÿ Bil cos T = mg sin T

a (5)
principle of conservation of energy.)
Motion of conductor rod in a vertical plane : If conducting
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§ Bv A cos T · mgR sin T
B¨ T ¸A cos T mg sin T Ÿ vT rod released from rest (at t = 0) as shown in figure then
© R ¹ B 2 A 2 cos 2 T with rise in it’s speed (v), induces emf (e), induced current
(i), magnetic force (Fm) increases but it’s weight remains
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8. MOTIONAL EMI IN LOOP BY GENERATED AREA constant.

Rod will achieve a constant maximum (terminal) velocity
If conducting rod moves on two parallel conducting rails
vT if Fm = mg
as shown in following figure then phenomenon of induced
emf can also be understand by the concept of generated B 2 v T2 A 2 mgR
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area (The area swept of conductor in magnetic field, during So mg Ÿ vT

R B2 A 2
it’s motion)
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As shown in figure in time t distance travelled by conductor = vt

SPECIAL CASES
Area generated A = lvt. Flux linked with this area I = BA =
Motion of train and aeroplane in earth’s magnetic field
dI
Blvt. Hence induced emf e BvA
dt

(1) Induced current :

e BvA
i
R R
 EMI & AC

Induced emf across the axle of the wheels of the train and it is
across the tips of the wing of the aeroplane is given by e = Bvlv
where l = length of the axle or distance between the tips of the
wings of plane, B v = vertical component of earth’s magnetic field
and v = speed of train or plane.

9. MOTIONAL EMI DUE TO ROTATIONAL MOTION

(1) Conducting rod : A conducting rod of length l whose one
end is fixed, is rotated about the axis passing through it’s
fixed end and perpendicular to it’s length with constant
angular velocity Z. Magnetic field (B) is perpendicular to
the plane of the paper.
emf induces across the ends of the rod
where Q = frequency (revolution per sec) and T = Time
period.
(4) Semicircular conducting loop : If a semi-circular
conducting loop (ACD) of radius ‘r’ with centre at O, the
plane of loop being in the plane of paper. The loop is now
made to rotate with a constant angular velocity Z, about
an axis passing through O and perpendicular to the plane
of paper. The effective resistance of the loop is R.

a ck
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In time t the area swept by the loop in the field i.e. region II

(2) Cycle wheel : A conducting wheel each spoke of length l 1 1 2 dA r 2Z

A r rT r Zt ;
Z in a given magnetic 2 2 dt 2
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is rotating with angular velocity

field as shown below in fig. Flux link with the rotating loop at time t I = BA. Hence induced

Due to flux cutting each metal spoke becomes identical dI dA BZr 2

emf in the loop in magnitude e B and
cell of emf e (say), all such identical cells connected in dt dt 2
BZr 2
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parallel fashion enet = e (emf of single cell). Let N be the e

induced current i
R 2R
1
number of spokes hence e net BZA 2 ; Z 2 Sv
2 10. PERIODIC EMI
Suppose a rectangular coil having N turns placed initially in a
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magnetic field such that magnetic field is perpendicular to it’s

plane as shown.
Z–Angular speed
v–Frequency of rotation of coil
R–Resistance of coil
Here e net v N 0 i.e. total emf does not depends on number
of spokes ‘N’.
(3) Faraday copper disc generator : A metal disc can be
assumed to made of uncountable radial conductors when
metal disc rotates in transverse magnetic field these
radial conductors cuts away magnetic field lines and
because of this flux cutting all becomes identical cells each

1
of emf ‘e’ where e BZr 2
2
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 EMI & AC

For uniform rotational motion with Z, the flux linked with coil at (1) Coefficient of self-induction : Number of flux linkages with
any time t the coil is proportional to the current i. i.e. NI v i or

I = NBA cos T = NBA cos Zt NI Li (N is the number of turns in coil and NI – total

I = I0 cosZt where I0 = NBA = maximum flux NI

flux linkage). Hence L = coefficient of self-induction.
i
(1) Induced emf in coil : Induced emf also changes in periodic
manner that’s why this phenomenon called periodic EMI (2) If i = 1amp, N = 1 then, L = I i.e. the coefficient of self
dI induction of a coil is equal to the flux linked with the coil
e  = NBA Z sinZt Ÿ e = e0 sinZt where e0 = emf when the current in it is 1 amp.
dt
amplitude or max. emf = NBA Z = I0Z dI
(3) By Faraday’s second law induced emf e N . Which
dt
e e0
(2) Induced current : At any time t, i sinZt = i0
R R di di
gives e L ; If = amp/sec then | e |= L.
sinZt where i 0 = current amplitude or max. current dt dt

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e0 NBAZ I0 Z Hence coefficient of self induction is equal to the emf
i0
R R R induced in the coil when the rate of change of current in
the coil is unity.
11. INDUCTANCE
(1)
a
Inductance is that property of electrical circuits which
(4) Units and dimensional formula of ‘L’ : It’s S.I. unit
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opposes any change in the current in the circuit. weber Tesla u m 2 Num Joule Coulomb u volt
2 2
Amp Amp Amp Amp Amp 2
(2) Inductance is inherent property of electrical circuits. It will
always be found in an electrical circuit whether we want it
volt u sec
e_

or not. ohm u sec . But practical unit is henry (H).

amp
(3) A straight wire carrying current with no iron part in the
circuit will have lesser value of inductance. It’s dimensional formula [L] = [ML2T–2A–2]
(4) Inductance is analogous to inertia in mechanics, because (5) Dependence of self inductance (L) : ‘L’ does not depend
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inductance of an electrical circuit opposes any change of upon current flowing or change in current flowing but it
current in the circuit. depends upon number of turns (N), Area of cross section
(A) and permeability of medium (P).
11.1 Self Induction
‘L’ does not play any role till there is a constant current
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Whenever the electric current passing through a coil or circuit

changes, the magnetic flux linked with it will also change. As a
result of this, in accordance with Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic
induction, an emf is induced in the coil or the circuit which opposes
the change that causes it. This phenomenon is called ‘self
induction’ and the emf induced is called back emf, current so
produced in the coil is called induced current.
flowing in the circuit. ‘L’ comes in to the picture only when
there is a change in current.
(6) Magnetic potential energy of inductor : In building a
steady current in the circuit, the source emf has to do
work against of self inductance of coil and whatever
energy consumed for this work stored in magnetic field
of coil this energy called as magnetic potential energy (U)
of coil

i 1 2
U ³0
Lidi
2
Li ;

1 NIi
Also U Li i
2 2

(7) The various formulae for L

 EMI & AC

Condition Figure 11.2 Mutual Induction

Whenever the current passing through a coil or circuit changes,

the magnetic flux linked with a neighbouring coil or circuit will
Circular coil also change. Hence an emf will be induced in the neighbouring
coil or circuit. This phenomenon is called ‘mutual induction’.
P 0 SN 2 r
L
2

Solenoid

P0 N 2r
L P 0 n 2 AA
A

(1) Coefficient of mutual induction : Total flux linked with the

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secondary due to current in the primary is N2I2 and N2I2
P 0N 2r
Toroid L
2 v i1 Ÿ N2I2= Mi1 where N1 - Number of turns in primary;
N2 - Number of turns in secondary; I2 - Flux linked with

a each turn of secondary; i1 - Current flowing through

primary; M-Coefficient of mutual induction or mutual
cr
inductance.
Square coil (2) According to Faraday’s second law emf induces in

2 2P 0 N 2 a dI 2 di1
L N 2 M
e_

secondary e 2 ; e2
S dt dt

Triangular coil di1 1Amp

(3) If then |e2| = M. Hence coefficient of mutual
dt sec
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P 0 18 Ni
B . induction is equal to the emf induced in the secondary
4S A
coil when rate of change of current in primary coil is unity.

§ P 18 Ni · §¨ 3 2 ·¸ (4) Units and dimensional formula of M : Similar to self-

N¨ 0 . ¸u A
© 4S A ¹ ¨© 4 ¸ inductance (L)
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L ¹
i (5) Dependence of mutual inductance
(i) Number of turns (N1, N2) of both coils
9 3 P0 N 2A
L Ÿ L v N2 (ii) Coefficient of self inductances (L1, L2) of both the coils
8S
(iii) Area of cross-section of coils

Coaxial cylinders (iv) Magnetic permeability of medium between the coils (Pr)
P0 r or nature of material on which two coils are wound
L log e 2
2 Sr r1
(v) Distance between two coils (As d increases so M
2.303 r decreases)
P 0 log10 2
2 Sr r1
(vi) Orientation between primary and secondary coil (for 90o
orientation no flux relation M = 0)
(vii) Coupling factor ‘K’ between primary and secondary
coil
 EMI & AC

(6) Relation between M, L1 and L2 : For two magnetically Condition Figure

coupled coils M K L1L 2 ; where k – coefficient of
Two concentric coplaner
coupling or coupling factor which is defined as
circular coils

K
Magnetic flux linked in sec ondary
; SP 0 N1N 2 r 2
M
Magnetic flux linked in primary 2R
0dKd1

Two Solenoids

P 0 N1 N 2 A
M
A

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Two concentric
(7) The various formulae for M : coplaner square coils

P 0 2 2 N1 N 2 A 2
M

a SL
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12. COMBINATION OF INDUCTANCE
(1) Series : If two coils of self-inductances L1 and L2 having mutual inductance are in series and are far from each other, so that the
mutual induction between them is negligible, then net self inductance LS = L1 + L2
e_

When they are situated close to each other, then net inductance LS = L1 + L2 ± 2M

Mutual induction is absent (k = 0) Mutual induction is present and Mutual induction is present and
favours self inductance of coils opposes self inductance of coils
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Leq = L1 + L2

Current in same direction Current in opposite direction

Winding nature same Opposite winding nature
Their flux assist each other Their flux opposes each other
Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M Leq = L1 + L2 – 2M

(2) Parallel : If two coils of self-inductances L1 and L2 having When they are situated close to each other, then
mutual inductance are connected in parallel and are far
1 1 1 L1L 2  M 2
from each other, then net inductance L is  LP
LP L1 L 2 L1  L 2 r 2M

L1L 2
Ÿ LP
L1  L 2
 EMI & AC

Mutual induction is absent (k = 0) Mutual induction is present and Mutual induction is present and
favours self inductance of coils opposes self inductance of coil

L1L 2 L1L 2  M 2 L1L 2  M 2

L eq L eq L eq
L1  L 2 L1  L 2  2M L1  L 2  2M

13. GROWTH AND DECAY OF CURRENT IN LR­ CIRCUIT

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If a circuit containing a pure inductor L and a resistor R in series
with a battery and a key then on closing the circuit current
through the circuit rises exponentially and reaches up to a certain
maximum value (steady state). If circuit is opened from it’s steady
state condition then current through the circuit decreases
exponentially.
a
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(4) Behaviour of inductor : The current in the circuit grows
exponentially with time from 0 to the maximum value

§ E·
i¨ ¸ . Just after closing the switch as i = 0, inductor act
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© R¹

as open circuit i.e. broken wires and long after the switch
has been closed as i = i0, the inductor act as a short circuit
i.e. a simple connecting wire.
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(1) The value of current at any instant of time t after closing

the circuit (i.e. during the rising of current) is given by

ª  tº
R
E
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i i 0 «1  e L » ; where i 0 i max = steady state

«¬ »¼ R

current.
(2) The value of current at any instant of time t after opening
from the steady state condition (i.e. during the decaying
R
 t
of current) is given by i i 0e L

L
(3) Time constant (W) : It is given as W ; It’s unit is second.
R
In other words the time interval, during which the current
in an inductive circuit rises to 63% of its maximum value at 14. LC­ OSCILLATION
make, is defined as time constant or it is the time interval,
during which the current after opening an inductive circuit When a charged capacitor C having an initial charge q0 is
falls to 37% of its maximum value. discharged through an inductance L, the charge and current in the
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 EMI & AC

circuit start oscillating simple harmonically. If the resistance of

the circuit is zero, no energy is dissipated as heat. We also assume
an idealized situation in which energy is not radiated away from
the circuit. The total energy associated with the circuit is constant.

1 rad
Frequency of oscillation is given by Z
LC sec

1 The oscillation of the LC circuit are an electromagnetic analog to

or Hz
2S LC the mechanical oscillation of a block-spring system.

a ck
cr
e_
Je
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 EMI & AC

15. DC MOTOR Ee E  kZ ; When motor

(5) Current in the motor : i
R R
It is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. E
is just switched on i.e. Z = 0 so e = 0 hence i =
(1) Principle : It is based on the fact that a current carrying R
coil placed in the magnetic field experiences a torque. This
maximum and at full speed, Z is maximum so back emf e is
torque rotates the coil.
maximum and i is minimum. Thus, maximum current is drawn
when the motor is just switched on which decreases when
motor attains the speed.
(6) Motor starter : At the time of start a large current flows
through the motor which may burn out it. Hence a starter
is used for starting a dc motor safely. Its function is to
introduce a suitable resistance in the circuit at the time of
(2) Construction : It consists of the following components starting of the motor. This resistance decreases gradually
figure. and reduces to zero when the motor runs at full speed.

a ck
cr
e_

The value of starting resistance is maximum at time t = 0

and its value is controlled by spring and electromagnetic
system and is made to zero when the motor attains its safe
ABCD = Armature coil, S1, S2 = split ring comutators speed.
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B1, B2 = Carbon brushes, N, S = Strong magnetic poles (7) Mechanical power and Efficiency of dc motor :

(3) Working : Force on any arm of the coil is given by Pmechanical Pout e Back e.m.f .
Efficiency K
Psup plied Pin E Supply voltage
F i A u B in fig., force on AB will be perpendicular to
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plane of the paper and pointing inwards. Force on CD will
be equal and opposite. So coil rotates in clockwise sense
when viewed from top in fig. The current in AB reverses
due to commutation keeping the force on AB and CD in
such a direction that the coil continues to rotate in the
same direction.
(4) Back emf in motor : Due to the rotation of armature coil in
magnetic field a back emf is induced in the circuit. Which
is given by e = E – iR.
Back emf directly depends upon the angular velocity Z of
armature and magnetic field B. But for constant magnetic
field B, value of back emf e is given by e v Z or e = kZ
(e = NBAZ sinZt)
(8) Uses of dc motors : They are used in electric locomotives,
electric ears, rolling mills, electric cranes, electric lifts, dc
drills, fans and blowers, centrifugal pumps and air
compressors, etc.
16. DC GENERATOR
If the current produced by the generator is direct current, then the
generator is called dc generator.
dc generator consists of (i) Armature (coil) (ii) Magnet (iii)
Commutator (iv) Brushes
In dc generator commutator is used in place of slip rings. The
commutator rotates along with the coil so that in every cycle
when direction of ‘e’ reverses, the commutator also reverses or
makes contact with the other brush so that in the external load the
current remains in the some direction giving dc
 EMI & AC

7. If an aeroplane is landing down or taking off and its wings

are in the east-west direction, then the potential difference
or emf will be induced across the wings. If an aeroplane is
landing down or taking off and its wings are in the north-
south direction, then no potential difference or emf will be
induced.

8. When a conducting rod moving horizontally on equator

of earth no emf induces because there is no vertical
component of earth’s magnetic field. But at poles BV is
maximum so maximum flux cutting hence emf induces.

9. When a conducting rod falling freely in earth’s magnetic

field such that it’s length lies along East - West direction
TIPS AND TRICKS then induced emf continuously increases w.r.t. time and
induced current flows from West - East.
1. If a bar magnet moves towards a fixed conducting coil,

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then due to the flux changes an emf, current and charge 10. 1 henry = 109 emu of inductance or 109 ab-henry.
induces in the coil. If speed of magnet increases then
induced emf and induced current increases but induced 11. Inductance at the ends of a solenoid is half of it’s the
charge remains same
§ 1 ·
inductance at the centre. ¨ L end L centre ¸ .

a © 2 ¹
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12. A thin long wire made up of material of high resistivity
behaves predominantly as a resistance. But it has some
amount of inductance as well as capacitance in it. It is
thus difficult to obtain pure resistor. Similarly it is difficult
e_

to obtain pure capacitor as well as pure inductor.

Induced parameter : e1, i1, q1
e2 ( > e1), i2( > i1), q2 (= q1 13. Due to inherent presence of self inductance in all electrical
circuits, a resistive circuit with no capacitive or inductive
2. Can ever electric lines of force be closed curve ? Yes,
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element in it, also has some inductance associated with

when produced by a changing magnetic field.
it.
3. No flux cutting No EMI
G JG G
The effect of self-inductance can be eliminated as in the
4. Vector form of motional emf : e vuB A coils of a resistance box by doubling back the coil on itself.
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5. In motional emf B, v and A are three vectors. If any two

vector are parallel – No flux cutting.

14. It is not possible to have mutual inductance without self

inductance but it may or may not be possible self
inductance without mutual inductance.

di
6. A piece of metal and a piece of non-metal are dropped from 15. If main current through a coil increases (in) so will be
dt
the same height near the surface of the earth. The non-
metallic piece will reach the ground first because there will positive (+ve), hence induced emf e will be negative (i.e.
be no induced current in it. opposite emf) Ÿ Enet = E – e
 EMI & AC

20. In RL-circuit with dc source the time taken by the current

to reach half of the maximum value is called half life time

L
and it is given by T = 0.693 .
R

21. dc motor is a highly versatile energy conversion device. It

16. Sometimes at sudden opening of key, because of high
inductance of circuit a high momentarily induced emf
produced and a sparking occurs at key position. To
avoid sparking a capacitor is connected across the
key.
17. Sometimes at sudden opening of key, because of high
inductance of circuit a high momentarily induced emf
produced and a sparking occurs at key position. To
avoid sparking a capacitor is connected across the
can meet the demand of loads requiring high starting
torque, high accelerating and decelerating torque.
22. When a source of emf is connected across the two ends of
the primary winding alone or across the two ends of
secondary winding alone, ohm’s law can be applied. But
in the transformer as a whole, ohm’s law should not be
applied because primary winding and secondary winding
are not connected electrically.

ck
23. Even when secondary circuit of the transformer is open it
key.
also draws some current called no load primary current for
18. One can have resistance with or without inductance but supplying no load Cu and iron loses.
one can’t have inductance without having resistance.
24. Transformer has highest possible efficiency out of all the
19.

a
The circuit behaviour of an inductor is quite different from
that of a resistor. while a resistor opposes the current i, an
electrical machines.
cr
di
inductor opposes the change in the circuit.
dt
e_
Je
@
 EMI & AC

ALTERNATING CURRENT From (3) and (4), we get I m u

T
2
I0 2 I0 .T
...(5)
2 Z 2S

1. THE ALTERNATING CURRENT 2

or Im I0 0.637 I0
S
The magnitude of alternating current changes
Hence, mean or average value of alternating current over
continuously with time and its direction is reversed
positive half cycle is 0.637 times the peak value of
periodically. It is represented by
alternating current, i.e., 63.7% of the peak value.
I I 0 sin Z t or I I 0 cos Z t
3. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE ONLY
2S
Z 2Sv Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to a pure
T resistance R, Figure. Suppose the alternating e.m.f.
supplied is represented by
2. AVERAGE VALUE OF ALTERNATING CURRENT E = E0 sin Zt ...(1)

ck
Let I be the current in the circuit at any instant t. The
The mean or average value of alternating current over any
potential difference developed across R will be IR. This
half cycle is defined as that value of steady current which
must be equal to e.m.f. applied at that instant, i.e.,
would send the same amount of charge through a circuit in
the time of half cycle (i.e. T/2) as is sent by the alternating IR = E = E0 sin Zt
current through the same circuit, in the same time.
To calculate the mean or average value, let an alternating
a
cr
current be represented by
I = I0 sin Z t ...(1)
If the strength of current is assumed to remain constant
e_

for a small time, dt, then small amount of charge sent in a

small time dt is
dq = I dt ...(2)
Let q be the total charge sent by alternating current in the
Je

first half cycle (i.e. 0 o T/2).

T/2

? q ³ I dt
0
@

T/2
ª cos Zt º
T/2

Using (1), we get, q ³I

0
0 sin Zt.dt I0 « 
¬ Z »¼ 0
E0
I ª or I sin Zt I 0 sin Zt ...(2)
T º R
 0 « cos Z  cos 0q »
Z¬ 2 ¼
where I0 = E0/R, maximum value of current.
10 This is the form of alternating current developed.
 cos S  cos 0q 'Z T 2S
Z Comparing I0 = E0/R with Ohm’s law equation, viz. current
= voltage/resistance, we find that resistance to a.c. is
I0 2I 0 represented by R–which is the value of resistance to d.c.
q  1  1 ...(3)
Z Z
Hence behaviour of R in d.c. and a.c. circuit is the same, R
If Im represents the mean or average value of alternating can reduce a.c. as well as d.c. equally effectively.
current over the 1st half cycle, then
Comparing (2) and (1), we find that E and I are in phase.
T Therefore, in an a.c. circuit containing R only, the voltage
q Im u ...(4) and current are in the same phase, as shown in figure.
2
EMI & AC

3.1 Phasor Diagram 5. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING CAPACITANCE ONLY

In the a.c. circuit containing R only, current and voltage
are in the same phase. Therefore, in figure, both phasors
G G
I0 and E 0 are in the same direction making an angle (Zt)
with OX. This is so for all times. It means that the phase
angle between alternating voltage and alternating current
through R is zero.
I = I0 sin Zt and E = E0 sin Zt.
4. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING INDUCTANCE ONLY
In an a.c. circuit containing L only alternating current I
lags behind alternating voltage E by a phase angle of 90°,
i.e., by one fourth of a period. Conversely, voltage across
Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to a capacitor
only of capacitance C, figure. Suppose the alternating e.m.f.
supplied is
E = E0 sin Zt ...(1)
The current flowing in the circuit transfers charge to the
plates of the capacitor. This produces a potential difference
between the plates. The capacitor is alternately charged
and discharged as the current reverses each half cycle. At
any instant t, suppose q is the charge on the capacitor.
Therefore, potential difference across the plates of
capacitor V = q/C.
At every instant, the potential difference V must be equal
to the e.m.f. applied i.e.
q
E 0 sin Zt

ck
V E
L leads the current by a phase angle of 90°. This is shown C
in figure. or q = CH0 sin Zt
If I is instantaneous value of current in the circuit at instant
t, then

a I
dq d
(CH0 sin Zt)
cr
dt dt
I=CE0 (cos Zt) Z

E0
sin Zt  S / 2
e_

I ...(2)
1/ ZC
The current will be maximum i.e.
I = I0, when sin (Zt + S/2) = maximum = 1
Je

E0
? From (2), I 0 u1 ...(3)
1/ ZC
Put in (2), I = I0 sin (Zt + S/2) ...(4)
This is the form of alternating current developed.
@

Figure (b) represents the vector diagram or the phasor Comparing (4) with (1), we find that in an a.c. circuit
diagram of a.c. circuit containing L only. The vector containing C only, alternating current I leads the alternating
G e.m.f. by a phase angle of 90°. This is shown in figure (b)
representing E 0 makes an angle (Zt) with OX. As current
and (c).
lags behing the e.m.f. by 90°, therefore, phasor representing
G The phasor diagram or vector diagram of a.c. circuit containing
I0 is turned clockwise through 90° from the direction of G
C only in shown in figure (b). The phasor I0 is turned
G § S· v0 G
E0 . I I0 sin ¨ Zt  ¸ , I0 , XL = Z L anticlockwise through 90° from the direction of phasor E 0 .
© 2¹ xL
Their projections on YOY’ give the instantaneous values E
A pure inductance offer zero resistance to dc. It means a and I as shown in figure (b). When E0 and I0 rotate with
pure inductor cannot reduce dc. The units of inductive frequency Z, curves in figure (c). are generated.
reactance

1 1 1
XL = Z L Ÿ (henry) = ohm
sec sec amp / sec
The dimensions of inductive reactance are the same as
those of resistance.
 EMI & AC

(i) The maximum voltage across R is

G G
VR I0 R
G
In figure, current phasor I0 is represented along OX.

Comparing (3) with Ohm’s law equation, viz current =

voltage/resistance, we find that (1/Z C) represents
effective resistance offered by the capacitor. This is called
capacitative reactance and is denoted by XC.

1 1
Thus X C
ZC 2SvC

ck
The capacitative reactance limits the amplitude of current in a
purely capacitative circuit in the same way as the resistance
limits the current in a purely resistive circuit. Clearly, G
capacitative reactance varies inversely as the frequency of As VR is in phase with current, it is represented by the

In a d.c. circuit, v = 0, ? XC = f
a
a.c. and also inversely as the capacitance of the condenser.
vector OA , along OX.
cr
G G
1 1 sec (ii) The maximum voltage across L is VL I0 X L
Xc sec
ZC farad coulomb / volt As voltage across the inductor leads the current by 90°, it
G
is represented by OB along OY, 90° ahead of I0 .
e_

volt sec .
ohm
amp. sec G G
(iii) The maximum voltage across C is VC I0 X C
6. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE, As voltage across the capacitor lags behind the alternating
INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE AND SERIES
Je

current by 90°, it is represented by OC rotated clockwise

G
6.1 Phasor Treatment through 90° from the direction of I0 . OC is along OY’.

Let a pure resistance R, a pure inductance L and an ideal 6.2 Analytical Treatment of RLC series circuit
capacitor of capacitance C be connected in series to a source
@

of alternating e.m.f., figure. As R, L, C are in series, therefore, Let a pure resistance R, a pure inductance L and an ideal
current at any instant through the three elements has the condenser of capacity C be connected in series to a source
same amplitude and phase. Let it be represented by of alternating e.m.f. Suppose the alterning e.m.f. supplied
I = I0 sin Zt is
E = E0 sin Zt ...(1)
At any instant of time t, suppose
q = charge on capacitor
I = current in the circuit
dI
= rate of change of current in the circuit
dt

q
? potential difference across the condenser
C
However, voltage across each element bears a different
dI
phase relationship with the current. Now, potential difference across inductor L
dt
 EMI & AC

potential difference across resistance = RI or q0 Z Z cos (Zt + T – I) = E0 sin Zt = E0 cos (Zt – S/2) ...(7)
? The voltage equation of the circuit is Comparing the two sides of this equation, we find that
E0 = q0 Z Z = I0 Z, where I0 q0Z ...(8)
dI q
L  RI  = E = E sin Zt ...(2) and Zt + TI = Zt – S/2
dt C 0

S
dq dI d 2q ? TI
As I , therefore, 2
dt dt dt 2
S
? The voltage equation becomes or T I ...(9)
2
d 2q dq q ? Current in the circuit is
L 2
R  E 0 sin Zt ...(3)
dt dt C
dq d
I q 0 sin Zt  T = q Z cos (Zt + T)
This is like the equation of a forced, damped oscillator. Let dt dt 0

the solution of equation (3) be

I = I0 cos (Zt + T) {using (8)}
q = q0 sin (Zt + T)
Using (9), we get, I = I0 cos (Zt + I– S/2)

ck
dq I = I0 sin (Zt + I) ...(10)
? q 0 Z cos Zt  T
dt
XC  XL
From (6), I tan 1 ...(11)
2 R

a
d q
q 0 Z sin Zt  T
2

dt 2 2
As cos I + sin I = 1
2
cr
Substituting these values in equation (3), we get 2 2
§ R · § XC  XL ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
2
L [–q0 Z sin (Zt + T)] + R q0 Z cos (Zt + T) ? 1
©Z¹ © Z ¹
q0
 sin (Zt  T) E 0 sin Zt
2 2
e_

or R2 + (XC – XL) = Z
C
or Z R 2  (X C  X L ) 2 ...(12)
q 0 Z[R cos Zt  T  ZL sin Zt  T

1 7. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTING RESISTANCE & INDUCTANCE

Je

 sin Zt  T ] E 0 sin Zt
ZC
Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to an ohmic
resistance R and a coil of inductance L, in series as shown
1
A s ZL = XL and XC , therefore in figure.
ZC
@

q0 Z [R cos (Zt + T) + (XC – XL) sin (Zt + T)] = E0 sin Zt

Multiplying and dividing by

2
Z R 2  XC  X L , we get

ªR X  XL º
q 0 ZZ « cos Zt  T  C sin Zt  T » = E sin Zt
¬Z Z ¼ 0

...(4)

R XC  XL
Let cos I and sin I ...(5)
Z Z

XC  XL
so that tan I ...(6)
R
? q0 Z Z[cos (Zt + T) cos I + sin (Zt + T) sin I] = E0 sin Zt
 EMI & AC

Z R 2  X 2L E L
dI
...(1)
dt
We find that in RL circuit, voltage leads the current by a
phase angle I, where The self induced e.m.f. is also called the back e.m.f., as it
opposes any change in the current in the circuit.
AK OL VL I0 X L
tan I Physically, the self inductance plays the role of inertia. It
OA OA VR I0R
is the electromagnetic analogue of mass in mechanics.
Therefore, work needs to be done against the back e.m.f. E
XL
tan I in establishing the current. This work done is stored in the
R
inductor as magnetic potential energy.
8. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE For the current I at an instant t, the rate of doing work is
AND CAPACITANCE
dW
EI
Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to an ohmic dt
resistance R and a condenser of capacity C, in series as
If we ignore the resistive losses, and consider only
shown in figure.

ck
inductive effect, then
Z R 2  X 2C
dW dI
Using (1), EI L u I or dW = LI dI
dt dt

a Total amount of work done in establishing the current I is

cr
I
1 2
W ³ dW ³ LIdI
0
2
LI

Thus energy required to build up current in an inductor =

e_

energy stored in inductor

1 2
UB W LI
2
Je

10. ELECTRIC RESONANCE

10.1 Series Resonance Circuit

A circuit in which inductance L, capacitance C and

@

resistance R are connected in series, and the circuit admits

Figure represents phasor diagram of RC circuit. We find maximum current corresponding to a given frequency of
that in RC circuit, voltage lags behind the current by a a.c., is called series resonance circuit.
phase angle I, where The impedance (Z) of an RLC circuit is given by

AK OC VC I0X C
tan I § 1 ·
2
OA OA VR I0R Z R 2  ¨ ZL  ¸ ...(1)
© Z C¹
XC
tan I
R At very low frequencies, inductive reactance XL = ZL is
negligible, but capacitative reactance (XC = 1/ZC) is very
9. ENERGY STORED IN AN INDUCTOR high.
As frequency of alternating e.m.f. applied to the circuit is
When a.c. is applied to an inductor of inductance L, the increased, X L goes on increasing and X C goes on
current in it grows from zero to maximum steady value I0. If
decreasing. For a particular value of Z ( = Zr, say)
I is the current at any instant t, then the magnitude of
induced e.m.f. developed in the inductor at that instant is XL = XC
 EMI & AC

i.e., Zr L
1
or Zr
1 § Z ·
The quantity ¨ r ¸ is regarded as a measure of
Zr C LC © 2'Z ¹
sharpness of resonance, i.e., Q factor of resonance circuit
1 1
2S v r or v r is the ratio of resonance angular frequency to band width
LC 2 S LC of the circuit (which is difference in angular frequencies at
At this particular frequency vr, as XL = XC, therefore, from which power is half the maximum power or current is
(1)
I0 / 2 .
Z R 2  0 = R = minimum 10.2 Average Power in RLC circuit or Inductive Circuit
i.e. impedance of RLC circuit is minimum and hence the
Let the alternating e.m.f. applied to an RLC circuit be
E0 E0
current I 0 becomes maximum. This frequency E = E0 sin Zt ...(1)
Z R
If alternating current developed lags behind the applied
is called series resonance frequency.
e.m.f. by a phase angle I, then
I = I0 sin (Zt – I) ...(2)

ck
dW
Power at instant t, EI
dt

a dW
dt
E 0 sin Zt u I 0 sin Zt  I
cr
= E0 I0 sin Zt (sin Zt cos I– cos Zt sin I)
2
= E0I0 sin Zt cos I– E0I0 sin Zt cos Zt sin I

E 0I0
e_

2
= E0I0 sin Zt cos I  sin 2 Zt sin I
2
The Q factor of series resonant circuit is defined as the If this instantaneous power is assumed to remain constant
ratio of the voltage developed across the inductance or for a small time dt, then small amount of work done in this
capacitance at resonance to the impressed voltage, which time is
Je

is the voltage applied across R.

§ E I ·
dW ¨ E 0 I 0 sin 2 Zt cos I  0 0 sin 2 Zt sin I ¸ dt
i.e. Q
voltage across L or C © 2 ¹
applied voltage ( voltage across R )
Total work done over a complete cycle is
@

Zr L I Zr L T T
Q E0 I0
RI R W ³
0
E 0 I 0 sin 2 Zt cos I dt  ³
0
2
sin 2Zt sin I dt
1 / Zr C I I
or Q
RI RC Zr T T
E0 I0
1
W ³
E 0 I 0 cos I sin 2 Zt dt 
2 ³
sin I sin 2 Zt dt
Using Zr , we get 0 0
LC
T T
T
Q
L
R
1 1
R
L
C
As ³ sin 2 Zt dt
2 ³
and sin Zt dt 0
LC 0 0

1 LC 1 L T
or Q ? W E 0 I 0 cos Iu
RC R C 2
? Average power in the inductive circuit over a complete
1 L
Thus Q ...(1) cycle
R C
 EMI & AC

W E 0 I 0 cos I T E 0 I0 R
P . cos I
T T 2 2 2 2 [from impedance triangle]
R  XL  XC
2

P = Ev Iv cos I ...(3)
Hence average power over a complete cycle in an inductive Resistance
? Power factor = cos I =
circuit is the product of virtual e.m.f., virtual current and Impedance
cosine of the phase angle between the voltage and current.
In a non-inductance circuit, XL = XC

R R
? Power factor = cos I = 1, I 0q ...(4)
R 2 R
The relation (3) is applicable to all a.c. circuits. cos I and
Z will have appropriate values for difference circuits. This is the maximum value of power factor. In a pure

For example : inductor or an ideal capacitor, I = 90°

Power factor = cos I = cos 90° = 0
R
(i) In RL circuit, Z R X 2 2
L
and cos I Average power consumed in a pure inductor or ideal a
Z

ck
capacitor, P = Ev Iv cos 90° = Zero. Therefore,
R current through pure L or pure C, which consumes no
(ii) In RC circuit, Z R 2  X 2C and cos I
Z power for its maintenance in the circuit is called Idle current
or Wattless current.
(iii) In LC circuit, Z = XL – XC and I = 90°

(iv) In RLC circuit, Z R 2  XL  XC

2
and cos I
a R
In actual practice, we do not have ideal inductor or ideal
capacitor. Therefore, there does occur some dissipation
cr
Z of energy. However, inductance and capacitance continue
to be most suitable for controlling current in a.c. circuits
Ev with minimum loss of power.
In all a.c. circuits, I v
Z
e_

10.3 Power Factor of an A.C. Circuit

We have proved that average power/cycle in an inductive

circuit is
Je

P = EvIv cos I ...(1)

Here, P is called true power, (EvIv) is called apparent power
or virtual power and cos I is called power factor of the
circuit.
@

true power (P )
Thus, Power factor = cos I
apparent power E v I v

...(2)
EMI & AC

Theory and Working : As the armature coil is rotated in the

11. A.C. GENERATOR OR A.C. DYNAMO
An a.c. generator/dynamo is a machine which produces
alternating current energy from mechanical energy. It is
one of the most important applications of the phenomenon
of electromagnetic induction. The generator was designed
originally by a Yugoslav scientist, Nikola Tesla. The word
generator is a misnomer, because nothing is generated by
the machine. Infact, it is an alternator converting one form
of energy into another.
11.1 Principle
magnetic field, angle T between the field and normal to the
coil changes continuously. Therefore, magnetic flux linked
with the coil changes. An e.m.f. is induced in the coil.
To start with, suppose the plane of the coil is perpendicular
to the plane of the paper in which magnetic field is applied,
with AB at front and CD at the back, figure (a). The amount
of magnetic flux linked with the coil in this position is
maximum. As the coil is rotated anticlockwise (or
clockwise), AB moves inwards and CD moves outwards.
The amount of magnetic flux linked with the coil changes.
According to Fleming’s right hand rule, current induced
in AB is from A to B and in CD, it is from C to D. In the
external circuit, current flows from B2 to B1, figure (a)

ck
An a.c. generator/dynamo is based on the phenomenon
of electromagnetic induction, i.e., whenever amount
of magnetic flux linked with a coil changes, an e.m.f. is

a
induced in the coil. It lasts so long as the change in
magnetic flux through the coil continues. The direction of
cr
current induced is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.

11.2 Construction
e_

The essential parts of an a.c. dynamo are shown in figure.

1. Armature : ABCD is a rectangular armatrue coil. It
Je

consists of a large number of turns of insulated copper

wire wound over a laminated soft iron core, I. The coil can
be rotated about the central axis.
2. Field Magnets : N and S are the pole pieces of a strong
@

electromagnet in which the armature coil is rotated. Axis

of rotation is perpendicular to the magnetic field lines.
The magnetic field is of the order of 1 to 2 tesla.
3. Slip Rings : R1 and R2 are two hollow metallic rings, to
which two ends of armature coil are connected. These
rings rotate with the rotation of the coil.
4. Brushes : B1 and B2 are two flexible metal plates or
carbon rods. They are fixed and are kept in light contact
with R1 and R2 respectively. The purpose of brushes is to
pass on current from the armature coil to the external load
resistance R.
 EMI & AC

After half the rotation of the coil, AB is at the back and CD The current supplied by the a.c. generator is also
is at the front, figure. Therefore, on rotating further, AB sinusoidal. It is given by
moves outwards and CD moves outwards and CD moves
e e0
inwards. The current induced in AB is from B to A and in i sin Zt i 0 win Zt
CD, it is from D to C. Through external circuit, current R R
flows from B1 to B2; figure (b). This is repeated. Induced e0
current in the external circuit changes direction after every where i 0 maximum value of current.
R
half rotation of the coil. Hence the current induced is
alternating in nature.
To calculate the magnitude of e.m.f. induced, suppose
N = number of turns in the coil, Suppose to start with, the plane of the coil is not
A = area enclosed by each turn of the coil perpendicular to the magnetic field. Therefore, at t = 0,
G T z 0. Let T G, the phase angle. This is the angle which
B = strength of magnetic field G
normal to the coil makes with the direction of B. The
G
T = angle which normal to the coil makes with B at any equation (4) of e.m.f. induced in that case can be rewritten
instant t, figure. as e = e0 sin (Zt + G).

ck
12. TRANSFORMER
A transformer which increases the a.c. voltage is called a

? Magnetic flux linked with the coil in this position

a step up transformer, A transformer which decreases the
a.c. voltages is called a step down transformer.
cr
G G 12.1 Principle
I N B . A NBA cos T NBA cos Zt ...(1)
A transformer is based on the principle of mutual
where Z is angular velocity of the coil.
induction, i.e., whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked
As the coil is rotated, T changes; therefore, magnetic flux
e_

with a coil changes, an e.m.f. is induced in the neighbouring

I linked with the coil changes and hence an e.m.f. is
coil.
induced in the coil.
12.2 Construction
At the instant t, if e is the e.m.f. induced in the coil, then
A transformer consists of a rectangular soft iron core made
dI d
Je

e  NAB cos Zt of laminated sheets, well insulated from one another, figure.
dt dt
Two coils P1P2 (the primary coil) and S1S2 (the secondary
d coil) are wound on the same core, but are well insulated
 NAB cos Zt  NAB  sin Zt Z
dt from each other. Note that both the coils are also insulated
from the core. The source of alternating e.m.f. (to be
E = NAB Z sin Zt
@

...(2)
transformed) is connected to the primary coil P1P2 and a
The induced e.m.f. will be maximum, when load resistance R is connected to the secondary coil S1S2
sin Zt = maximum = 1 through an open switch S. Thus, there can be no current
? emax = e0 = NAB Z × 1 ...(3) through the secondary coil so long as the switch is open.
Put in (2), e = e0 sin Zt ...(4)
The variation of induced e.m.f. with time (i.e. with position
of the coil) is shown in figure.

For an ideal transformer, we assume that the resistances

of the primary and secondary windings are negligible.
 EMI & AC

Further, the energy losses due to magnetic hysterisis in

Ep np
the iron core is also negligible. Well designed high capacity From (2),
Es ns
transformers may have energy losses as low as 1%.

12.3 Theory and working np Ip

? Is Ip . ...(3)
Let the alternating e.m.f. supplied by the a.c. source ns K
connected to primary be For a step up transformer, Es > Ep ; K > 1 ? Is < Ip
Ep = E0 sin Zt ...(1) i.e. secondary current is weaker when secondary voltage
As we have assumed the primary to be a pure inductance is higher, i.e., whatever we gain in voltage, we lose in
with zero resistance, the sinusoidal primary current Ip lags current in the same ratio.
the primary voltage Ep by 90°. The primary’s power factor, The reverse is true for a step down transformer.
cos I = 90° = 0. Therefore, no power is dissipated in primary.
The alternating primary current induces an alternating §n · Es § ns ·
From eqn. (3) I p Is ¨ s ¸ ¨ ¸
magnetic flux IB in the iron core. Because the core extends ¨ np ¸ R ¨ np ¸
© ¹ © ¹
through the secondary winding, the induced flux also
extends through the turns of secondary.
§n · § ns ·

ck
1
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, Using equation (2), we get I p .Ep ¨ s ¸¨ ¸
R ¨ np ¸¨ np ¸
the induced e.m.f. per turn (Eturn) is same for both, the © ¹© ¹
primary and secondary. Also, the voltage Ep across the 2
primary is equal to the e.m.f. induced in the primary, and 1 §¨ n s ·
¸ Ep

a
the voltage Es across the secondary is equal to the e.m.f.
induced in the secondary. Thus,
Ip
R ¨© n p ¸
¹
...(4)
cr
Ep
dI B Ep Es This equation, has the form I p , where the
E turn R eq
dt np ns
2
§ np ·
e_

Here, np ; ns represent total number of turns in primary and equivalent resistance Req is R eq ¨ ¸ R
¨n ¸ ...(5)
secondary coils respectively. © s ¹
Thus Req is the value of load resistance as seen by the
n source/generator, i.e., the source/generator produces
? Es Ep s ...(2)
np current Ip and voltage Ep as if it were connected to a
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resistance Req.
If ns > np ; Es > Ep, the transformer is a step up transformer.
Similarly, when ns < np ; Es < Ep. The device is called a step Efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output
to the input power.
ns
down transformer. = K represents transformation ratio.
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np
Note that this relation (2) is based on three assumptions
(i) the primary resistance and current are small,
(ii) there is no leakage of magnetic flux. The same magnetic
flux links both, the primary and secondary coil,
(iii) the secondary current is small.
Now, the rate at which the generator/source transfer energy
to the primary = IpEp. The rate at which the primary then
transfers energy to the secondary (via the alternating
magnetic field linking the two coils) is IsEs.
As we assume that no energy is lost along the way,
conservation of energy requires that
Ep
IpEp = IsEs ? Is Ip
Es
Output power E s Is
i.e., K
Input power Ep Ip
In an ideal transformer, where there is no power loss, K = 1
(i.e. 100%). However, practically there are many energy
losses. Hence efficiency of a transformer in practice is
less than one (i.e. less than 100%).
12.4 Energy Losses in a Transformer
Following are the major sources of energy loss in a
transformer :
1. Copper loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in the
copper coils of a transformer. This is due to Joule heating
of conducting wires. These are minimised using thick wires.
2. Iron loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in the iron core
of the transformer. This is due to formation of eddy currents
in iron core. It is minimised by taking laminated cores.
 EMI & AC

3. Leakage of magnetic flux occurs inspite of best insulations.

Therefore, rate of change of magnetic flux linked with each
turn of S1S2 is less than the rate of change of magnetic flux
linked with each turn of P1P2. It can be reduced by winding
the primary and secondary coils one over the other.
4. Hysteresis loss. This is the loss of energy due to repeated
magnetisation and demagnetisation of the iron core when
a.c. is fed to it. The loss is kept to a minimum by using a
magnetic material which has a low hysteresis loss.
5. Magnetostriction, i.e., humming noise of a transformer. Now, we consider a different surface, i.e., a tiffin box shaped
Therefore, output power in the best transformer may be surface without lid with its circular rim, which has the same
roughly 90% of the input power. boundary as that of loop C1. The box does not touch to
the connecting wire and plate P of capacitor. The flat
13. DISPLACEMENT CURRENT circular bottom S of the tiffin box lies in between the
capacitor plates. Figure (b). No conduction current is
According to Ampere circuital law :

ck
passing through the tiffin box surface S, therefore I = 0.
G On applying Ampere’s circuital law to loop C1 of this tiffin
the line integral of magentic field B around any closed
box surface, we have
path is equal to P0 times the total current threading the
closed path, i.e.,

³
G G
B. d A P 0I
a ...(1)
cr
C

Consider a parallel plate capacitor having plates P and Q

connected to a battery B, through a tapping key K. When
e_

key K is pressed, the conduction current flows through

the connecting wires. The capacitor starts storing charge.
As the charge on the capacitor grows, the conduction
current in the wires decreases. When the capacitor is G G
³ B.d A = B 2Sr = P × 0 = 0
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fully charged, the conduction current stops flowing in 0

or B = 0 ...(3)
the wires. During charging of capacitor, there is no C

conduction current between the plates of capacitor. From (2) and (3), we note that there is a magnetic field at R
During charging, let at an instant, I be the conduction calculated through one way and no magnetic field at R,
current in the wires. This current will produce magnetic calculated through another way. Since this contradition
@

field around the wires which can be detected by using a arises from the use of Ampere’s circuital law, hence
compass needle. Ampere’s circuital law is logically inconsisten.
Let us find the magnetic field at point R which is at a If at the given instant of time, q is the charge on the plate
perpendicular distance r from connecting wire in a region of capacitor and A is the plate area of capacitor, the
outside the parallel plate capacitor. For this we consider a magnitude of the electric field between the plates of
capacitor is
plane circular loop C1, of radius r, whose centre lies on
wire and its plane is perpendicular to the direction of current q
carrying wire (figure a). The magnitude of the magnetic E
0 A
field is same at all points on the loop and is acting
tangentially along the circumference of the loop. If B is This field is perpendicular to surface S. It has the same
magnitude over the area A of the capacitor plates and
the magnitude of magnetic field at R, then using Ampere’s
becomes zero outside the capacitor.
circuital law, for loop C1, we have
The electric flux through surface S is,
G G P0I
³
C1
B. dA ³ B dA cos 0q = B 2 Sr = P I or B
C1
0
2 Sr
...(2)
IE
G G
E.A EA cos 0q
1 q
uA
q
...(4)
0 A 0
 EMI & AC

dq
If is the rate of change of charge with time on the plate
dt
of the capacitor, then

dI E d§ q · 1 dq
¨ ¸
dt dt ¨© 0 ¸
¹ 0 dt

dq dI E
or 0
dt dt
Due to battery B, let the conduction current I be flowing
dq through the lead wires at any instant, but there is no
Here, = current through surface S corresponding to
dt conduction current across the capacitor gap, as no charge
changing electric field = ID, called Maxwell’s displacement is transported across this gap.
current. Thus, For loop C1, there is no electric flux, i.e., IE = 0 and
displacement current is that current which comes into play
dI E

ck
in the region in which the electric field and the electric flux 0
is changing with time. dt

dI E dI E
I D 0 ? I  ID I 0 I 0 0 I ...(7)
...(5) dt
dt
Maxwell modified Ampere’s circuital law in order to make
a For loop C2, there is no conduction current, i.e., I = 0
cr
the same logically consistent. He stated Ampere’s circuital dI E
law to the form, ? I + ID = 0 + ID = ID = 0 ...(8)
dt
G G § dI · At the given instant if q is the magnitude of charge on the
³ B.dA P 0 I  ID P0 ¨ I  H0 E ¸
e_

...(6)
© dt ¹ plates of the capacitor of area A, then electric field E in the
gap between the two plates of this capacitor is given by
This is called Ampere Maxwell’s Law.
q § V q ·
14. CONTINUITY OF CURRENT E ¨'E ¸
0 A ¨ 0 0 A ¸¹
©
Je

Maxwell’s modification of Ampere’s circuital law gives that

G G q q
? Electric flux, I E EA A
³
C
B.dA P 0 I  ID 0 A 0
@

dI E
where I D 0 , called displacement current, I is the
dt
conduction current and IE is the electric flux across the
loop C.
The sum of the conduction current and displacement
current (i.e., I + ID) has the important property of continuity
along any closed path although individually they may not
be continuous.
To prove it, consider a parallel plate capacitor having plates
P and Q, being charged with battery B. During the time,
charging is taking place, let at an instant, I be the
conduction current flowing through the wires. Let C1 and
C2 be the two loops, which have exactly the same boundary
as that of the plates of capacitor. C1 is little towards left
and C2 is a little towards right of the plate P of parallel plate
capacitor, figure.
d dq
Thus from (8), we have I + ID = 0 q / 0 I
dt dt
...(9)
From (7) and (9), we conclude that the sum (I + ID) has the
same value on the left and right side of plate P of the
parallel plate capacitor. Hence (I + ID) has the property of
continuity although individually they may not be
continuous.
15. CONSEQUENCES OF DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
The discovery of displacement current is of great
importance as it has established a symmetry between the
laws of electricity and magnetism. Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction states that the magnitude of
the emf induced in a coil is equal to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linked with it. Since, the emf between two
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 EMI & AC

points A and B is the measure of maximum workdone in

taking a unit charge from point A to B, therefore, the
existence of an emf shows the existence of an electric field.
It is due to this fact, Faraday concluded that a changing
magnetic field with time gives rise to an electric field.
The Maxwell’s concept that a changing electric field with
time gives rise to displacement current which also produces
a magnetic field similar to that of conduction current. It is
infact, a symmetrical counterpart of the Faraday’s concept,
which led Maxwell to conclude that the displacement
current is also a source of magnetic field. It means the
time varying electric and magnetic fields give rise to each
other. From these concepts, Maxwell concluded the where P0 and 0 are permeability and permittivity of the
existence of electromagnetic wave in a region where free space respectively.
electric and magnetic fields were changing with time. –7
We know, P0 = 4S× 10 Wb A m ;
–1 –1

ck
–2 2 –1 –2
16. MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS AND LORENTZ FORCE 0 = 8.85 × 10 C N m
8 –1
In the absence of any dielectric or magnetic material, the Putting these values in (10), we have c = 3.00 × 10 ms
four Maxwell’s equations are given below ? where P  are the absolute permeability and absolute
permittivity of the medium. We also know that P = P0Pr and
(i) ³
G G
E . ds q / 0 . This equation is Gauss’s Law in

a  0 r where P 0 , r are the relative permeability and

cr
S
relative permittivity of the medium.
electrostatics.
The electric lines of force do not form continuous closed 1 c
Therefore, v
path. P 0 P r 0r P r r
e_

G G
(ii)
³
S
B . ds 0 . This equation is Gauss’s Law in
ª 1 º
«' c »
magnetostatics. «¬ P 0 0 »¼
The magnetic lines of force always form closed paths.
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Maxwell also concluded that electromagnetic wave is

G G d G G transverse in nature and light is electromagnetic wave.
(iii) ³ E .d A 
dt ³
s
B . d s . This equation is Faraday’s law of
17. VELOCITY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
electromagnetic induction.
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Consider a plane electromagnetic wave propagating along

The line integral of electric field around any closed path
positive direction of X–axis in space with speed c. Since
(i.e., the emf) is equal to the time rate of change of magnetic
in electromagnetic wave, the electric and magnetic fields
flux through the surface bounded by the closed path.
are transverse to the direction of wave propagation,
G G therefore, the electric and magnetic fields are in Y–Z plane.
d G G
(iv) ³ B. dA P 0 I  P 0 0 ³
dt s
E .ds . This equation is G
Let the electric field E be acting along Y–axis and
G
magnetic field B along Z–axis.
generalised form of Ampere’s law as Modified by Maxwell
and is also known as Ampere-Maxwell law. At any instant, the electric and magnetic fields varying
sinusoidally with x and t can be represented by the
The electromagnetic waves are those wave in which there
equations.
are sinusoidal variation of electric and magnetic field
vectors at right angles to each other as well as at right E = Ey = E0 sin Z (t – x/c) ...(1)
angles to the direction of wave propagation. B = Bz = B0 sin Z (t – x/c) ...(2)
Here E0 and B0 are the amplitudes of electric and magnetic
1
c fields along Y–axis and Z–axis respectively. Consider a
P 0 0 ...(10)
rectangular path PQRS in X–Y plane as shown in figure.
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EMI & AC

G Consider a rectangular path PUTQ in the X–Z plane as

The line integral of E over the closed path PQRS will be G
shown in figure. The line integral of B over the closed
Q path PUTQ, we have
G G G G RG G SG G PG G
³ E . dA ³ ³ ³ ³
E , d A  E , dA  E , dA  E , d A
G G U
G G TG G QG G PG G

ck
PQRS P Q R S

³
PUTQ
B.dA ³
P
³
U
³
T
³
B .d A  B .d A  B .d A  B .dA
Q
0 E x2 A0E x1 A
B x1 A  0  B x 2 A  0
ª
¬
§ x ·
c ¹
§ x ·º
E 0 A «sin Z ¨ t  2 ¸  sin Z ¨ t  1 ¸»
© © c ¹¼
a
...(3)
ª § x · § x ·º
cr
B 0 A «sin Z¨ t  1 ¸  sin Z¨ t  2 ¸» ...(6)
¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼
Magnetic flux linked with surface surrounded by
rectangular path PQRS will be The electric flux linked with the surface surrounded by
rectangular path PUTQ is
e_

x2 x2
ª § x ·º
IB ³ B x A dx ³ B A«¬sin Z¨© t  c ¸¹»¼ dx
0 x2
G G
x2 x2
§ x·
x1 x1 IE ³
x1
E .ds ³
x1
E x Adx ³
E 0 A sin Z¨ t  ¸ dx
x1
© c¹
Je

B 0 Ac ª § x2 · § x ·º
«cos Z ¨ t  ¸  cos Z ¨ t  1 ¸»
ª § x · § x ·º
Z ¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼ c
 E 0 A « cos Z¨ t  2 ¸  cos Z¨ t  1 ¸»
Z ¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼

dI B B 0 Ac ª § x2 · § x ·º
« Z sin Z¨ t  ¸  Z sin Z¨ t  1 ¸»
@

? Z ¬ dI E ª § x · § x ·º
dt © c ¹ © c ¹¼ cE 0 A «sin Z¨ t  2 ¸  sin Z¨ t  1 ¸»
or dt ¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼

ª § x · § x ·º
B 0 Ac «sin Z¨ t  2 ¸  sin Z¨ t  1 ¸» ...(4) ª § x · § x ·º
¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼ c E 0 A «sin Z¨ t  1 ¸  sin Z¨ t  2 ¸» ...(7)
¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼
Using Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, we have
In space, there is no conduction current. According to
G G dI B Ampere Maxwell law in space
³ E . dA 
dt
G G dI E
Putting the values from (3) and (4), we get ³
PUTQ
B. dA P 0 0
dt
E0 = cB0 ...(5)
Putting values from (6) and (7), we get
Since E and B are in phase, we can write.
B0 P 0 0 cE 0 P 0 0 c cB 0
E = c B at any point in space.
 EMI & AC

1 1 B02
or 1 P 0 0 c 2 or c ...(8) In terms of maximum magnetic field, u av ,
P 0 0 2 P0

Which is the speed of electromagnetic waves in vacuum. 1 B 20 1 2

so I c B rms c
–7 –1 2 P0 P0
For vacuum, P0 = 4S × 10 T mA

1 19. ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

and 9 u 10 9 Nm 2 C  2
S 0
After the experimental discovery of electromagnetic waves
1 by Hertz, many other electromagntic waves were
or 0 N 1m  2 C 2
S u 9 u 10 9 discovered by different ways of excitation.

Putting the value in (8), we get The orderly distribution of electromagnetic radiations
according to their wavelength or frequency is called the
1 electromagnetic spectrum.
c 3 u10 8 m / s
7
S u10 u 1 / S u 9 u10 9
The electromagnetic spectrum has much wider range with
–14 2
wavelength variation ~ 10 m to 6 × 10 m. The whole

which is exactly the speed of light in vacuum.
This shows that light is an electromagnetic wave.
18. INTENSITY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
Intensity of electromagnetic wave at a point is defined as
the energy crossing per second per unit area normally
a corresponding radiations can be produced by two
cr
around that point during the propagation of electromagnetic
wave.
Consider the propagation of electromagnetic wave with
e_
ck
electromagnetic spectrum has been classified into different
parts and subparts in order of increasing wavelength,
according to their type of excitation. There is overlapping
in certain parts of the spectrum, showing that the
methods. It may be noted that the physical properties of
electromagnetic waves are decided by their wavelengths
and not by the method of their excitation.
A table given below shows the various parts of the

speed c along the X–axis. Take an imaginary cylinder of electromagnetic spectrum with approximate wavelength
area of cross-section A and length c ' t, so that the wave range, frequency range, their sources of production and
crosses the area A normally. Figure. Let uav be the average detections.
energy density of electromagnetic wave.
20. MAIN PARTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Je

The electromagnetic spectrum has been broadly classified

into following main parts; mentioned below in the order of
increasing frequency.

20.1 Radiowaves
@

Theses are the electromagnetic wave of frequency range

5 9
from 5 × 10 Hz to 10 Hz. These waves are produced by
The energy of electromagnetic wave (U) crossing the area
oscillating electric circuits having an inductor and
of cross-section at P normally in time ' t is the energy of
capacitor.
wave contained in a cylinder of length c ' t and area of
cross-section A. It is given by U = uav (c ' t) A Uses : The various frequency ranges are used for different
types of wireless communication systems as mentioned below
The intensity of electromagnetic wave at P is,
(i) The electromagnetic waves of frequency range from 530
U u av c ' t A kHz to 1710 kHz form amplitude modulated (AM) band. It is
I u av c
A 't A 't used in ground wave propagation.

1 (ii) The electromagnetic waves of frequency range 1710 kHz

In terms of maximum electric field, u av 0 E 20 , to 54 Mhz are used for short wave bands. It is used in sky
2
wave propagation.
1
so I 0 E 02 c 0 E 2rms c (iii) The electromagnetic waves of frequency range 54 Mhz to
2 890 MHz are used in television waves.
 EMI & AC

(iv) The electromagnetic waves of frequency range 88 MHz to
108 MHz from frequency modulated (FM) radio band. It is
used for commercial FM radio.
(v) The electromagnetic waves of frequency range 300 MHz
to 3000 MHz form ultra high frequency (UHF) band. It is
used in cellular phones communication.
20.2 Microwaves
Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves of frequency
range 1 GHz to 300 GHz. They are produced by special
vacuum tubes. namely ; klystrons, magnetrons and Gunn
diodes etc.
Uses :
(i) Microwaves are used in Radar systems for air craft
navigation.
The visible light emitted or reflected from objects around
us provides the information about the world surrounding
us.
20.5 Ultraviolet rays
The ultraviolet rays were discovered by Ritter in 1801. The
14 16
frequency range of ultraviolet rays is 8 × 10 Hz to 5 × 10
Hz. The ultraviolet rays are produced by sun, special lamps
and very hot bodies. Most of the ultraviolet rays coming
from sun are absorbed by the ozone layer in the earth’s
atmosphere. The ultraviolet rays in large quantity produce
harmful effect on human eyes.
Uses : Ultraviolet rays are used :
(i) for checking the mineral samples through the property of
ultraviolet rays causing flourescence.

ck
(ii) A radar using microwave can help in detecting the speed (ii) in the study of molecular structure and arrangement of
of tennis ball, cricket ball, automobile while in motion. electrons in the external shell through ultraviolet
(iii) Microwave ovens are used for cooking purposes. absorption spectra.
(iv) Microwaves are used for observing the movement of trains (iii) to destroy the bacteria and for sterilizing the surgical

a
on rails while sitting in microwave operated control rooms.
(iv)
instruments.
in burglar alarm.
cr
20.3 Infrared waves
(v) in the detection of forged documents, finger prints in
Infrared waves were discovered by Herschell. These are forensic laboratory.
11
the electromagnetic waves of frequency range 3 × 10 Hz
14 (vi) to preserve the food stuff.
to 4 × 10 Hz. Infrared waves sometimes are called as
e_

heat waves. Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies 20. 6 X–rays
and molecules. These wave are not detected by human
eye but snake can detect them. The X–rays were discovered by German Physicst W.
16 21
Roentgen. Their frequency range is 10 Hz to 3 × 10 Hz.
Uses :
Je

These are produced when high energy electrons are

Infrared waves are used : stopped suddenly on a metal of high atomic number.
(i) in physical therapy, i.e., to treat muscular strain. X–rays have high penetrating power.
(ii) to provide electrical energy to satellite by using solar cells Uses : X–rays are used :
@

(iii) for producing dehydrated fruits (i) In surgery for the detection of fractures, foreign bodies
(iv) for taking photographs during the condition of fog, smoke like bullets, diseased organs and stones in the human body.
etc. (ii) In Engineering (i) for detecting faults, cracks, flaws and
(v) in green houses to keep the plants warm holes in final metal products (ii) for the testing of weldings,
casting and moulds.
(vi) in revealing the secret writings on the ancient walls
(iii) In Radio therapy, to cure untracable skin diseases and
(vii) in solar water heaters and cookers
malignant growth.
(viii) in weather forecasting through infra red photography
(iv) In detective departments (i) for detection of explosives,
(ix) in checking the purity of chemcials and in the study of opium, gold and silver in the body of smugglers.
molecular structure by taking infrared absorption spectrum.
(v) In Industry (i) for the detection of pearls in oysters and
20.4 Visible light defects in rubber tyres, gold and tennis balls etc. (ii) for
testing the uniformity of insulating material.
It is the narrow region of electromagnetic spectrum, which
is detected by the human eye. Its frequency is ranging (vi) In Scientific Research (i) for the investigation of structure
14 14
from 4×10 Hz to 8×10 Hz. It is produced due to atomic of crystal, arrangement of atoms and molecules in the
excitation. complex substances.
 EMI & AC

(i) in the treatment of cancer and tumours.

20.7 J-rays
(ii) to preserve the food stuffs for a long time as the soft
J–rays are the electromagnetic waves of frequency range
18 22 J–rays can kill microorganisms easily.
3 × 10 Hz to 5 × 10 Hz. J–rays have nuclear origin.
These rays are highly energetic and are produced by the (iii) to produce nuclear reactions.
nucleus of the radioactive substances. (iv) to provide valuable information about the structure
Uses : J–rays are used : of atomic nucleus.

a ck
cr
e_
Je
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