Strength and Conditioning Journal Publish Ahead of Print

DOI: 10.1519/SSC.0000000000000458

1 Dynamic Correspondence of Resistance Training to Sport: A Brief Review

2 Dylan G. Suarez1, John P. Wagle1, Aaron J. Cunanan1, Robert W. Sausaman1, and Michael H.
3 Stone1
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4 Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education, Department of Sport, Exercise,
5 Recreation, and Kinesiology, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, USA.

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6 Dylan Suarez is a Master’s student in the Department of Sport, Exercise, Recreation, and
7 Kinesiology, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, USA

8 John Wagle is a PhD student in the Department of Sport, Exercise, Recreation, and Kinesiology,
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9 East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, USA
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11 Aaron Cunanan is a PhD student in the Department of Sport, Exercise, Recreation, and
12 Kinesiology, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, USA

13 Robert Sausaman is a PhD student in the Department of Sport, Exercise, Recreation, and
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14 Kinesiology, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, USA

15 Michael Stone is the Laboratory Director and PhD coordinator in the Center of Excellence for
16 Sport Science and Coach Education/ Department of Sport, Exercise, Recreation, and
17 Kinesiology, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, USA
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18

19 Corresponding author:

20 Dylan Suarez

21 East Tennessee State University

22 Department of Sport, Exercise, Recreation, and Kinesiology

23 1081 John Robert Bell Dr.

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24 Johnson City, TN, 37601

25 407-756-8151

26 dylangsuarez@gmail.com

27
28 Abstract
The proper application of the principle of specificity is essential to any

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30 strength and conditioning program. However, the transfer of resistance training to
31 sport is highly complex, difficult to predict, and challenging to assess. This brief
32 review examines the principle of dynamic correspondence as an aid towards better

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33 understanding and predicting an exercise or training method’s potential transfer to
34 sport. Practical training recommendations are given based on the research
35 reviewed.
36
37 Keywords
38 dynamic correspondence; specificity; resistance training; transfer; sport
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39
40 Introduction
41 Resistance training aims to exploit the immediate, accumulative, and long-
42 term delayed effects of imposed training demands (24, 43, 56, 61) to enhance
43 athletic performance potential. These long-term performance changes are specific
44 to the organization, sequencing, and manipulation of the training principles –
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45 overload, specificity, and variation (28, 29). As a means of preparation, resistance

46 training has demonstrated efficacy in improving athletic performance such as
47 sprint (3, 4), jump (57), throw (89), and change of direction (74) abilities. Such
48 adaptations are multifaceted and driven by many factors including genetics and
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49 nutrition (90). Though complex, transfer of training effects is of utmost importance

50 for strength and conditioning (S&C) coaches, as strength must be developed within
51 the context of the sport to maximize its effectiveness.
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52 Especially during the specific preparatory and competitive phases,

53 assessment of the transfer of training effects to sport becomes tremendously
54 valuable. Just as training moves from extensive to intensive regarding
55 considerations in workload, it also shifts from general to more specific. Even
56 within the principle of specificity, the S&C coach may be required to acknowledge
57 more nuanced factors of sport specificity beyond the potentially superficial
58 metabolic and mechanical aspects. In order to fully exploit training outcomes, a
59 deeper consideration was devised by Yuri Verkhoshansky in the early 1990’s –
60 termed dynamic correspondence (99). Verkhoshansky’s dynamic correspondence

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61 attempts to logically piece aspects of training specificity into more quantifiable,
62 directed components. These include the 1) amplitude and direction of movements,
63 2) accentuated regions of force production, 3) dynamics of effort, 4) rate and time
64 of maximum force production, and 5) regime of muscular work (99).

65 Though reasonable delineations, there has been no review of the concepts to

66 the authors’ knowledge. Therefore, the purposes of this paper were 1) to provide a
67 brief examination of the evidence pertaining to each facet of dynamic

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68 correspondence and 2) to provide practical recommendations in programming
69 considerations to manipulate the principle of specificity to maximize the transfer of
70 training effects to performance outcomes.

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71 AMPLITUDE AND DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT

72 Two of the most evident aspects of specificity, or dynamic correspondence,

73 are the amplitude and direction of movement. Amplitude refers to the range of
74 motion (ROM) or degree of displacement of a movement. For instance, rowing and
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75 bench pressing are movements with similar amplitudes but opposite directions
76 (99). The direction of an exercise is the most logical and widely accepted form of
77 specificity, but there has been some debate about force vector directions during
78 complex movements like sprinting. The notion of vertical or horizontal forces is
79 outside the scope of this discussion, but it is important to note that no matter which
80 direction the athlete moves, the execution of most sporting actions such as running,
81 jumping, or throwing requires high magnitudes of vertical ground reaction forces.
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82 Therefore, any exercise that is initiated differently (e.g. open chain exercises) may
83 not transfer to the same degree even if the muscle groups used are similar (8, 87).
84 Squatting and weightlifting movements for example likely increase vertical force
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85 producing abilities like those required in jumping, leading to an increase in jump

86 performance (9, 17). Contrarily, there is evidence suggesting that open chain
87 exercises do not develop these vertical abilities and therefore exhibit minimal
88 transfer (8, 12). Additionally, small changes in the direction of a movement such as
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89 bench pressing at different angles alters the activity of the muscle groups used (95)
90 which could affect the desired performance outcomes. This is partially supported
91 by a few studies which have examined direction specific adaptations when using
92 plyometrics to improve change-of-direction performance (26, 59, 63).

93 Research on the transfer of training with different ROMs is currently very

94 limited. However, exercises such as weightlifting derivatives and partial squats
95 share many similarities between the knee, hip, and torso angles to the respective
96 joint amplitudes that occur in athletic movements such as sprinting (14, 78). This

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 97 may explain why a study comparing the effects of squat ROM to jumping and
98 sprinting performance observed the most significant improvements coming from
99 quarter squats followed by half and then full (78). Therefore, partial ROM
100 exercises may be more specific to athletic movements such as running and
101 jumping, but the addition of exercises with larger amplitudes can offer benefit in
102 certain situations by augmenting the effects of mimicking more sport-specific
103 amplitudes (14). For example, full ROM seems to develop qualities such as muscle
cross-sectional area (CSA) and potentially strength to a greater degree than only

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105 partials (14, 65). These muscular adaptations can give athletes a greater ability to
106 develop force and therefore likely increase their potential to benefit from more
107 specific training in later phases. Research including both partial ROM squats in

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108 conjunction with full ROM squats has shown to be an effective strategy for
109 developing maximum strength (10) and likely maximizes the benefits of each.
110 Taken together, it is in the coaches’ best interest to use exercises that develop
111 ground reaction forces using both partial and full ROMs in training. Therefore,
112 training should logically progress from less specific to more specific amplitudes to
113 the sporting actions. In order to accomplish this, coaches must understand the joint
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114 angles and amplitudes most commonly used in their specific sport. Subsequently,
115 they may progress and manipulate exercise selection to maximize the respective
116 benefits of full and partial ROM training.

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118 ACCENTUATED REGIONS OF FORCE PRODUCTION

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119 Accentuated regions of force production refers to the specificity of muscular

120 effort and consequently force application throughout the course of a movement
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121 (99). Only one study has directly studied the diverse regions of force production
122 for different exercises (21), but this concept may be a possible explanation of why
123 certain exercises transfer to athletic movements more than others.
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124 One of the most effective modes of resistance training to improve athletic
125 performance appears to be explosive ballistic type training (41, 102). Ballistic
126 resistance training programs have been shown to increase vertical jump height in
127 elite volleyball players (72) and improve throwing and sprinting ability in baseball
128 players (64). The findings that ballistic training transfers well to athletic
129 performance may partly be due to similarities in the accentuated regions of force
130 production. For instance, accentuated regions of force production have been
131 observed during the stance phase of sprinting (18) and occur between the braking
132 and propulsive phases of jumping (66). Since ballistic exercises require

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133 acceleration of a mass throughout the entire range of motion (41, 73), it may share
134 more similar accentuated regions of force compared to traditional resistance
135 training that requires a deceleration at the end of the movement. In support of this,
136 comparisons of a ballistic bench throw and bench press indicated that the force and
137 velocity curves of the ballistic exercise were more similar to those demonstrated in
138 typical athletic movements (73). It is important to note that improvements in
139 athletic movements have also been observed from traditional resistance training
(47, 57). However, a combination of heavy non-ballistic and ballistic training tends

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141 to show greater increases than either in isolation, especially when dealing with
142 well-trained athletes (9, 34, 44, 71).

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143 In addition to the use of combination training, coaches and researchers alike
144 have sought different means of manipulating the accentuated regions of force
145 production with varied success. Direct manipulation of the accentuated region of
146 an exercise may be provided using band tension, chains, or weight releasers.
147 Elastic based resistance (EBR) is a training method that has been used previously
148 in an attempt to maximize strength adaptations by accommodating for natural
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149 strength curves. The greatest resistance when using EBR occurs at the very end of
150 the range of motion where the band is stretched the furthest, resulting in dissimilar
151 regions of force production compared to both the traditional exercise (25, 49) and
152 typical athletic movements (67, 87). For example, adding bands to a squat lowered
153 early concentric forces and significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased late concentric forces
154 when compared to squatting without a band (49). When examining the research on
the transfer of training with EBR, there has been no evidence that it increases jump
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156 performance although it has been found to increase measures of strength and
157 power (16, 25, 62). One possibility for this outcome is that the regions of force
158 production being developed when training with EBR are unlike those used during
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159 typical athletic movements, and may change the natural coordination of the
160 movement (67). Alternatively, manipulation of the accentuated regions of force
161 production may be affected positively by the use of accentuated eccentric loading
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162 (AEL). By overloading the eccentric phase of a movement and then removing the
163 load during the concentric, such as what occurs with the use of weight releasers,
164 early concentric force may be potentiated, and the accentuated region of force
165 production may be increased to a greater degree than in normal loading (83, 84,
166 100). The degree to which this translates to athletic performance remains to be
167 seen.

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170 DYNAMICS OF EFFORT

171 Athletic performance depends on the ability to apply or withstand varying

172 magnitudes of force at different movement velocities. The dynamics of effort
173 refers to the force-velocity characteristics of training means as they may relate to
174 specific athletic movements. Thus, the dynamics of effort of training should
175 encompass the force magnitudes as well as movement and contraction velocities
176 associated with specific sport movements.

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178 Evidence in support of this concept demonstrates that heavy-load resistance
179 training outperforms low-load resistance training regarding maximal strength (80).

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180 It is also worth noting that low-load high-velocity training may be necessary for
181 improving high-velocity athletic performance in more well-trained athletes (42,
182 102). Therefore, combined high-load low-velocity and low-load high-velocity
183 training seems to be the most effective strategy for improving performance in
184 athletic movements (22, 44). This is supported by research demonstrating both
185 force and velocity specific adaptations in baseball players using either high-load or
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186 low-load resistance training (52). However, high-load resistance training may be
187 more effective at improving many athletic performances in weaker athletes than
188 high-velocity training (11, 23), suggesting that a foundation of strength may be
189 necessary to optimize high-velocity athletic performance. Certain periodized
190 training models (e.g., block periodization) seek to accomplish this through the use
191 of phase potentiation (6, 29) where specific athletic qualities such as endurance,
strength, power, and speed vary in emphasis and are sequenced in a manner aimed
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192
193 at enhancing subsequent phases.
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195 Examples of training methods that exploit force and velocity specific
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196 adaptations include the use of weightlifting movements, cluster sets, and contrast
197 or complex training (CCT). There is some evidence that superior improvements in
198 jumping and sprinting can occur from a training program that includes
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199 weightlifting movements in addition to strength training when compared to

200 combined strength plus plyometric training (96). Since weightlifting exercises
201 involve moving heavy loads as rapidly as possible, the movements and their
202 derivatives serve as beneficial tools in maximizing both force and velocity specific
203 adaptations (92). Cluster training is an additional tool that maximizes velocity and
204 power output of an exercise by using inter-repetition rest periods (39). These rest
205 periods have shown to cause several beneficial acute alterations to the exercises
206 used (27, 40). There is currently a paucity of literature investigating the chronic
207 effects of cluster set training on athletic performances, but it is likely an effective
208 and novel stimulus for enhancing the transfer of training by permitting athletes to

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209 train at higher work rates. Similarly, there is evidence that CCT - which involves
210 alternating sets of resistance training exercises with explosive or plyometric
211 exercises in an attempt to induce a post-activation potentiation effect (46) - also
212 results in beneficial acute alterations to training stimuli (5, 19, 104). This training
213 method may have greater outcomes on athletic performances than combined
214 training (15) but has been suggested to be most useful for athletes who are already
215 highly trained (30, 32). CCT at the very least has been shown to be equally as
effective compared to regular combined resistance and plyometric training (68), so

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217 it may also serve as a means of increasing training economy (31).
218 In addition to actual movement velocity, the intent to move quickly also
219 plays an important role in force and velocity improvements (54, 91). Greater

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220 improvements in load lifted as well as bar speed have been found when using
221 maximal pushing speed compared to self-selected speed in the bench press with
222 matched loads (75). Additionally, maximum concentric acceleration training has
223 demonstrated to not only improve the exercise used, but also resulted in more
224 significant improvements in throwing performance from football players (53).
225 Therefore, athletes should execute exercises with the intention to move as rapidly
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226 as possible, especially if an increase in movement velocity is the desired goal.
227 Particular attention should also be placed on performing warm-ups and down-sets
228 with maximum intent. This results in maximizing the stimulus of both heavy and
229 light loads in addition to various forces and velocities within a single training
230 session without any change to the overall training volume.
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232 RATE AND TIME OF MAXIMUM FORCE PRODUCTION

233 Success in many sports scenarios is determined by the ability to maximize

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234 force production during critical time intervals. In such cases, performance
235 improvement results from the ability to generate greater force within a certain time
236 frame (i.e., increased rate of force development). Therefore, training should seek to
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237 improve rate of force development (RFD) and use tasks that may have similar time
238 constraints to sports specific movements. For example, different jump tasks may be
239 characterized by their ground contact times as utilizing either a slow or fast stretch-
240 shortening cycle (SSC) (36), which may differ mechanistically (55). Thus, coaches
241 should be discerning in their selection of training methods to ensure carryover to
242 athletic movements. Ground contact time and SSC duration may also reflect
243 kinematic differences that may affect performance outcomes (18, 36), indicating
244 that coaches should also focus on the technical execution of training to promote
245 correspondence of rate and time of force application. Furthermore, the shape of the
246 force-time curve may be related to sprint and jump performance (18, 86),

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247 suggesting that precision is necessary to ensure the development of an appropriate
248 kinetic profile corresponding to sports specific movements. Therefore, coaches
249 may wish to consider factors such as ground contact time, movement duration, and
250 exercise technique when addressing the correspondence of the rate and time of
251 force application.
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253 Despite strong correlations between strength and power parameters and
sprinting performance (82, 85), a stronger body of evidence supporting transfer of

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255 training effects from resistance training to jumping exists (44, 57, 102, 103). One
256 possibility for this finding is that even low load resistance training such as jump
257 squats typically involve ground contact times in excess to those typical of sprinting

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258 (79, 103). Since it has been observed that faster running speeds occur due to
259 greater ground reaction forces (101) the development of RFD becomes especially
260 crucial for coaches seeking to improve running performance in well-trained
261 athletes. Coaches must consider the multiple adaptations that may contribute to
262 improvements in RFD. A recent review by Maffiuletti et al. (60) highlights neural
263 and muscular determinants of explosive strength (RFD) showing that both heavy
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264 resistance, as well as plyometric training, can produce favorable changes in motor
265 unit recruitment and discharge rates that contribute to RFD. Additionally, rapid
266 ballistic contractions produce favorable adaptations in motor neuron discharge
267 rates that contribute to increases in the early rise of RFD (60). Heavy resistance
268 training appears to be effective at improving RFD partly due to the hypertrophy of
269 type II muscle fibers and morphological changes of whole muscle (1). Increases in
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270 tendon stiffness may also increase force transmission leading to a greater RFD.
271 Additionally, different modes of training may differentially affect adaptations in
272 the tendons of the lower limb (e.g., patellar and Achilles tendons) that may affect
273 running performance (97). Therefore, in order to fully leverage this aspect of
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274 dynamic correspondence, the coach must be aware of the scalability of the training
275 process – programming for long-term adaptations to support a greater effect when
276 transitioning to a similarity in force production.
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277 REGIME OF MUSCULAR WORK

278 The regime of muscular work denotes the type of muscular action. For
279 example, regimes may be classified as concentric, isometric, or eccentric. The
280 regime of muscular work is also inclusive of stretch-shortening cycle (SSC)
281 actions, which may or may not include rhythmic, cyclical action, as is the case in
282 sprinting. Only in consideration of the SSC is the typical nature of athletic actions
283 considered, as the descriptions of muscle action (i.e., concentric, isometric,
284 eccentric) rarely happen in isolation in sport.

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285 The importance of specificity for different types of muscle contraction is
286 well-established (20, 45) and discussed in previous sections. However, there are
287 unique aspects and potential implications for subsequent adaptation between
288 concentric and eccentric actions (2). For example, greater mechanical efficiency
289 and energy dissipation have been observed in eccentric contractions compared to
290 concentric contractions (55, 98). Furthermore, differing structural adaptations have
291 been observed between concentric and eccentric contractions. Muscle hypertrophy,
linked to a variety of performance outcomes, appears to differ depending on

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293 contraction type. For example, eccentric training appears to influence the distal
294 portion of the muscle to a greater degree, but concentric training appears to have
295 greater influence on the muscle belly (37). Additionally, eccentric training has

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296 been shown to increase fascicle length, while concentric training has been more
297 associated with increases in pennation angle (37, 77, 81). These changes in
298 morphology can influence subsequent physical capabilities and are important
299 considerations for coaches when designing programs. When considered separately,
300 it appears that concentric actions are more sensitive to the specificity of kinetic and
301 kinematic properties of contraction (2). However, eccentric training appears to
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302 have a broader effect on a spectrum of force outputs and velocities (2). This likely
303 means that differing adaptations take place between concentric and eccentric
304 actions (33).

305 This presents a unique situation when considering SSC and complex athletic
306 actions. Coaches need to consider the respective mechanisms at play with each
type of contraction independently, as well as together. Although most studies
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308 support sequential motor unit recruitment (35, 48) the potential for eccentric
309 actions to violate the size principle has been demonstrated (70), meaning that while
310 clear and predictable activation patterns may exist concentrically, something
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311 unique may be happening eccentrically. When pairing eccentric and concentric
312 actions together, as is typical in the training and actions of athletes, a complicated
313 sequence of neural control strategy is likely at play within a given movement (33).
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314 This is further demonstrated by differing discharge rates and activation thresholds
315 of motor units involved in eccentric contraction compared to concentric (76, 94).

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317 Though it may be logical then, to regularly program complex SSC

318 movements that look similar to sporting action, the coach must also consider that
319 the physical structure (i.e., involved muscles, tendons, etc.) must be robust enough
320 to handle the high-stress nature of such actions. Therefore, a physical preparation
321 program may exploit this aspect of dynamic correspondence across a spectrum of

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322 emphases. Early in general preparation, the coach may choose to exploit
323 contraction-specific mechanical loading to make targeted changes to the muscles
324 and tendons (69, 105). As training progresses, the coach may then aim to turn
325 attention towards the uniqueness of neural strategies and adaptations to maximize
326 sport potential and minimize the risk of an injury to the athlete (88).

327 CONCLUSIONS AND PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

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328 Practical applications for each of the criteria of dynamic correspondence are
329 summarized in Table 1. In addition to the five criteria discussed in this review,
330 Goodwin and Cleather (38) suggested adding a sixth, which can be referred to as

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331 segmental interrelation. This additional criterion suggests coaches must account
332 for the complex interrelations between global (i.e. body), segmental (i.e. joint), and
333 muscular actions during athletic movements. Coaches must consider the criteria of
334 dynamic correspondence both at these individual levels as well as collectively to
335 best develop training programs that transfer to sport. Additional considerations
336 should also be given to the type of transfer to sport. Training methods can directly
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337 transfer by improving running, jumping, throwing, or change of direction
338 performance or they may indirectly transfer by developing a more durable athlete
339 that is less prone towards injury or fatigue (7, 13, 51, 58), and more likely to
340 benefit from training (93).

341 < INSERT TABLE 1>

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342 Coaches must develop a keen understanding of the kinetic and kinematic
343 associations concerning certain training methods and athletic performances to
344 effectively exploit Verkoshansky’s principle of dynamic correspondence. Use of
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345 this principle must also take into account the general training principles of
346 overload, specificity, and variation (28, 29). For instance, certain exercises may fit
347 a majority of the criteria covered, but if they are not correctly loaded, varied, and
348 sequenced, they may not result in a positive transfer of training effect. One
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349 commonality observed when examining the research is that exercises that are more
350 specific to sport movements such as ballistic and plyometric training tend to
351 transfer to a greater degree in stronger athletes (50). Therefore, sacrificing heavier
352 loads to make an exercise more specific to certain sports may decrease the
353 potential transfer of training effect, especially in athletes that are relatively weak or
354 are not well-trained. With the continued emergence of both old and new training
355 tactics with limited quality research examining their effects on sport performance,
356 it is vital for coaches to be able to critically analyse and determine if they may be
357 of benefit to their athletes. Therefore, coaches can use these criteria of dynamic

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358 correspondence as an aid in evaluating what training methods may be the most
359 beneficial, and how they should be sequenced into the training plan.

360

361

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 Table 1. Summary of practical applications
Criteria Practical Applications
- A majority of the training plan should consist of closed-chain
exercises aimed at developing ground reaction forces.
- During general preparation phases, a greater focus should be placed
Amplitude and
on full range of motion exercises like squats, presses, and pulls to
direction of
build and develop the musculature most relevant to the sport.
movements
- Shift training emphasis to exercises with more similar ranges of

D
motion to sporting actions like partial squats and weightlifting
derivatives during specific and competitive preparatory phases.
- Supplement traditional resistance training with ballistic exercises
such as jump squats and bench throws during specific and

TE
competitive phases.
Accentuated
- With weaker athletes, a larger emphasis should be placed on the
regions of force
development of general strength before including ballistic training.
production
- The addition of bands or chains to traditional resistance training
exercises should be avoided when the primary goal of a training
phase is maximizing the transfer of training effects.
EP
- Both high-load low-velocity and low-load high-velocity training
should be used in every training phase.
- Training should be sequenced so that a greater emphasis on high-
velocity movements occurs closer to competition.
Dynamics of
- Weightlifting movements, cluster sets, and contrast/complex
effort
training can be used throughout different phases of training to
maximize both force and velocity specific adaptations.
C

- Exercises should be performed with maximal intent during the

concentric portion.
- Development of sport-specific rate of force development should be
a primary focus of the training process.
Rate and time
C

- Combined strength and plyometric training should be used to

of maximum
develop rate of force development.
force
- Coaches attempting to develop sprinting performance should
production
include explosive exercises that consist of short ground contact
A

times.
- Exercises consisting of both eccentric and concentric portions should
make up a majority of the training plan in order to develop the
stretch-shortening cycle.
Regime of
- A focus on eccentric loading during certain phases can be used to
muscular work
make targeted changes to the size and architecture of the muscle.
- Muscular actions should shift from general to more specific as
training progresses closer to competitive periods.

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