14/483

Testing of metal-
enclosed
switchgear
14 assemblies

Contents

14.1 Philosophy of quality systems 14/485

14.1.1 Quality assurance 14/485
14.1.2 Purpose of testing 14/485
14.2 Recommended tests 14/486
14.2.1 Type tests 14/486
14.2.2 Routine tests 14/486
14.2.3 Seismic disturbances 14/486
14.2.4 Field tests 14/486
14.3 Procedure for type tests 14/487
14.3.1 Electrical measurements 14/487
14.3.2 Verification of insulation resistance 14/487
14.3.3 Verification of dielectric properties for LV systems 14/487
14.3.4 Verification of dielectric properties for HV systems 14/489
14.3.5 Verification of temperature rise limits
(or rated continuous current capacity) 14/490
14.3.6 Verification of short-circuit strength 14/495
14.3.7 Verification of momentary peak or dynamic current 14/499
14.3.8 Verification of the protective circuits 14/500
14.3.9 Verification of clearance and creepage
distances 14/500
14.3.10 Verification of degree of protection 14/500
14.3.11 Verification of mechanical operation (LV and HV) 14/501
14.3.12 Internal arc test 14/501
14.3.13 EMC (immunity) and EMI (emission) tests 14/501
14.3.14 Glow wire test 14/506
14.4 Procedure for routine tests 14/506
14.5 Procedure for field tests 14/506
14.6 An introduction to earthquake engineering and testing methods 14/507
14.6.1 Seismic disturbances 14/508
14.6.2 (i) Recording an earthquake 14/510
(ii) Tsunami warning system 14/515
14.6.3 Constructing the RRS 14/516
14.6.4 Theory of testing a system for
seismic effects 14/517
14.6.5 Test response spectrum (TRS) 14/521
14.6.6 Test requirements 14/521
14.6.7 Test equipment 14/522
14.6.8 Test procedure 14/523
14.6.9 Preventive measures 14/525
Relevant Standards 14/526
Further Reading 14/528

14.1 Philosophy of quality systems
This has been covered in Section 11.1.
14.1.1 Quality assurance
To fulfil quality requirements, the material inputs going into
the making of assemblies, such as MS sheets (for their
surface finish, thickness and bending properties), hardware
(for their correct sizes, quality of threads and tensile strength
etc.), busbars and cables (for their area of cross-section,
conductivity and quality of insulation in case of cables),
insulators and supports (for their sizes and quality of SMC,
DMC or any other material used (see ‘environment friendly
substances’ below)), and all other switchgear components
such as breakers, contactors, switches, fuses, CTs, VTs
and meters etc. (for their ratings, duty class, class of accuracy
(where applicable) and specifications etc.) must be properly
checked and recorded, according to the manufacturers’
internal quality checks and formats. This should be carried
out before they are used in assemblies to eliminate any
inconsistency in material or component.
Similar stage inspections are necessary during the course
of manufacturing to assure quality at every stage and
eliminate any mistakes in construction, assembly or
workmanship during the course of manufacturing. Thus,
can be ensured a product of desired specification and quality.
Use of environment friendly substances
There are now restrictions on the use of certain hazardous
substances (RoHS) in the manufacture of electrical and
electronic equipment (EEE) and their waste management
(WEEE) – collection, treatment, recycling and disposal
under controlled conditions. One may note that household
appliances generate millions of tonnes of hazardous wastes
year in and year out. Their disposal is a challenge to
save environment and subsoil water. The present
restrictions are an effort to contain these wastes at the
source itself as much as possible.
RoHS is a new environmental requirement promulgated
by directive 2002/95/EC dated 27 January, 2003 of
Table 14.0 Restricted hazardous substances
Substance Possible use in electrical and electronic
equipment
Lead (Pb) Solders, batteries, piezoelectric materials,
dielectrics
Mercury (Hg) Batteries, light sources, switches and
thermostats, X-ray machines, infrared
detectors
Cadmium (Cd) Electroplated switch contacts Ni-Cd
batteries, low melting point solders
Hexavalent Plating, etching of plastics
chromium (Cr+6)
Poly-brominated
biphenyls (PBB) ¸Ô Cables – connectors and insulations,
Poly-brominated diphenyl ˝ PCBs
ethers (PBDE) ˛Ô
Testing of metal-enclosed switchgear assemblies 14/485
European parliament and has become mandatory
especially for the European manufacturers to comply
with, with effect from July, 2006. USA has adopted this.
Other countries are also following suit.
These substances can be toxic, corrosive, irritant, strong
sensitizer, flammable or combustible, generate pressure
through decomposition, heat or other means and can be
health hazardous for man and animal. They may also be
environment unfriendly. Presently, about 245 substances
have been identified falling in this category, the major of
which are listed in Table 14.0 just for general information
to the reader. For the limits of restrictions in their use
and more environment-friendly substitutes one may refer
to the said directive. The thrust now is on more rigorous
R & D in this front, to identify other hazardous substances
and their environment-friendly substitutes.
Presently RoHS is restricted to electronic equipment
and devices only but gradually as the awareness
promulgates amongst the users and the manufacturers
and more substitute substances are researched, it may
become applicable on switchgear components and
assemblies also. Accordingly, leading manufacturers and
researchers worldwide are working rigorously to invent
substitutes to hazardous substances and experimenting
alternative materials to make the equipment using such
materials free from health hazard without affecting their
performance and longevity. Mitsubishi Electric have
explored possible solutions to lead-free soldering,
chromium-free substances and cadmium-free current
carrying contacts. Sn-Ag-Cu as a lead-free soldering
material and silver-cadmiumoxide (Ag-CdO) contacts
as permissible substitute to cadmium-free current carrying
contacts. For more details see reference 23 under Further
Reading.
14.1.2 Purpose of testing
The purpose of testing a switchgear or a controlgear
assembly is to assure its compliance with the design
parameters, material inputs and manufacturing
consistency. Here we discuss this for a switchgear
assembly only. For tests on a controlgear assembly, the
Type of health hazard
Pollutes drinking water, toxic by ingestion and inhalation, affects
the nervous system, blood, lungs and kidneys
Bio-accumulative and persistent, the vapours cause respiratory
problems, ingestion damages the kidneys and intestines,
neurological disorders, affects hearing, speech and nerve
conduction
Accumulates in soils and groundwater, toxic and also suspect
carcinogen, poisoning from inhalation of dust or fumes
(Cr+6), also known as chromate is toxic, a known carcinogen
Degrades and accumulates slowly in the environment, impairs
memory and learning, change in behaviour and reduction in
activity
14/486 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook
relevant tests may be chosen from those prescribed for a
switchgear assembly.
14.2 Recommended tests
The following are the recommended tests according to
IEC 60439-1 for LV, IEC 60694, IEC 62271-200 for HV
and ANSI C-37/20C for LV and HV switchgear assemblies
that may be carried out on a completed switchgear
assembly. For brevity we note down only the main tests.
For full details on type and routine tests one may refer to
the Relevant Standards as noted.
14.2.1 Type tests
Type tests are conducted on the first enclosure of each
voltage, current rating and fault level to demonstrate
compliance with electrical and constructional design
parameters. The tests provide a standard reference for
any subsequent enclosure with similar ratings and
constructional details. The following tests may be
conducted to demonstrate verification of the following:
1 Insulation resistance or measurement of leakage
current, both before and after the dielectric test (no
longer a prescribed test but can be retained as an in-
house screening test to prevent personnel from
shocks)
2 Dielectric properties:
• Control and auxiliary circuits
• Power frequency voltage withstand or HV test on
power circuits as well as control and protective
circuits
• Impulse voltage withstand test for all LV and HV
system voltages
3 Temperature rise limits (or rated continuous current
capacity)
4 Short-circuit strength
5 Momentary peak or dynamic current
6 Protective circuits
7 Clearance and creepage distances
8 Degree of protection:
• Enclosure test
• Weatherproof test
• Mechanical impact test
9 Mechanical operation
10 Internal arc test (also see Section 13.7.2 III)
11 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) or Immunity
test and Electromagnetic interferences (EMI) or
Emission test.
12 Glow wire test
14.2.2 Routine tests
Routine tests are conducted on each completed assembly,
irrespective of voltage, current, fault level and
constructional details and whether it has already undergone
the type tests. The following steps will form routine tests:
1 Checking for any inadvertent human error during
assembly.
This check may be carried out both at the works,
after final assembly, and at the site after the installation
before conducting routine tests or energizing the
assembly. The checks can be carried out at a lower
voltage to detect any shorting links or spanners left
inadvertently on live terminals, weak insulation or
insufficient clearance or creepage distances between
the phases or phase to ground conductors. In the case
of a defect the same must be rectified immediately.
2 Inspection of the switchgear assembly to check the
following:
• General arrangement and appearance
• Checking adequacy of safety and maintenance
separations (Section 13.7.2 II)
• Mechanical operation of all movable parts and
interlocks
• Random checking of bolted current carrying
connections for proper jointing and tightening. The
test may be used to measure the contact resistance
of the breakers, contactors and draw-out contacts
for their making proper surface to surface contacts.
• Generally all important requirements as discussed in
Section 13.4 that may have been required in the speci-
fications of the switchgear or controlgear assembly.
3 Inspection and verification of electrical wiring:
• For power connections
• For controls, metering and sequential operations if any
• For protective circuits
• For grounding of instrument transformers
• For checking the insulation of the control wiring
• For a polarity test of CTs.
4 Verification of insulation resistance or measurement
of the leakage current, both before and after the
dielectric test. This routine test is applicable only on
partially type tested LV assemblies.
5 Verification of dielectric properties on power as well
as control and protective circuits similar to item 2
under type tests.
14.2.3 Seismic disturbances
In Section 14.6 we provide a brief account of these distur-
bances as well as the recommended tests and their proce-
dures to verify the suitability of critical structures, equipment
and devices for locations that are earthquake-prone.
14.2.4 Field tests
Generally the following tests may be carried out at site
after installation and before energizing an assembly:
1 Checking for any human error as described in Section
14.2.2.
2 Visual inspection of the switchgear assembly
3 Inspection of electrical wiring (see Section 14.2.2)
4 Verification of insulation resistance or measurement of
the leakage current, both before and after the dielectric
test, when an HV test is being conducted at site.
5 Verification of dielectric properties, limited to power
frequency voltage withstand test. This test is neither
mandatory nor recommended, but may be required if
a modification is carried out in the switchgear assembly
at site.
 Testing of metal-enclosed switchgear assemblies 14/487

14.3 Procedure for type tests
Below we outline the procedure for conducting the above
tests at the manufacturer’s works. We have provided only
brief guidelines to conduct the prescribed tests. For detailed
procedures and acceptance criteria one must refer to the
Relevant Standards.
14.3.1 Electrical measurements
Selection of testing instruments
The instruments used for electrical measurements must
conform to IEC 60051-1. Instruments with the following
accuracies must be used:
• For routine tests: class 1.0 accuracy or better, and
• for type tests: not below class 0.5 accuracy.
The current transformers and potential transformers must
conform to IEC 60044-1 and IEC 60044-2 respectively.
Instrument transformers with the following accuracies
must be used.
• For routine tests: Class 1 accuracy
• For type tests: Class 0.5 accuracy
14.3.2 Verification of insulation resistance
No longer it forms a part of regular type or routine tests
– but can be used on a new switchgear or controlgear
assembly as a screening test before putting it to dielectric
tests, to detect any untoward short-circuit within the
assembly due to some tool left on busbars, links or the
power or control terminals. The test is however, covered
under field tests, Section 14.5(4).
14.3.3 Verification of dielectric properties for LV
systems
The test may be conducted only on such parts that are
not already type tested and on such assemblies that are
to be totally type tested (TTA) and not on partially type
tested assemblies (PTTA). The test voltage must be as
close to a sine wave as practicable and frequency as
noted in column 3 of Tables 14.1 and 14.2, for series II
and Table 13.2 for series I voltage systems.
In the latest IEC specifications two types of tests are
prescribed on LV assemblies.
(i) When the manufacturer has not specified the impulse
voltages (system is not surge protected)
In this case power frequency voltage withstand test
shall be conducted as per Table 14.3. The test voltage
must be as close to sine wave as practicable and
frequency the rated power frequency,
1. If relays, instruments and other auxiliary apparatus,
have a voltage other than the main voltage, they
should be disconnected from the main circuit, while
conducting this test and tested separately, according
to their voltage rating as shown in Table 14.3.
2. All the CT (current transformer) secondaries must
be shorted and grounded while conducting the
test on the main circuit. This condition is redundant
while conducting test on the auxiliary circuits.
3. VT (voltage transformer) windings must be
disconnected by removing the control fuses from
its both sides.
The test voltage at the moment of application should
not exceed 50% of the rated test value and raised
gradually but rapidly and then maintained at the test

Table 14.1 For range I series II voltage systems (as per IEC specifications)
Insulation levels, power frequency and impulse withstand voltages for metal-enclosed switchgear assemblies

Nominal system Rated maximum One-minute power frequency voltage withstand Standard lightning impulse
voltage (Vr) system voltage at a frequency not less than the rated 60 Hz (1.2/50 ms) voltage
(Vm) (phase to ground) withstand (phase to ground)
1 2 3 4

*kV (r.m.s) kV (r.m.s.) kV (r.m.s.) kV (r.m.s.) kV (peak)

a
Dry (1 min.) Wet (10 s)

List I List II List I List II List I List II

4.16 4.76 19 19 – – 60 60
7.20 8.25 26 35 24 30 75 95
13.80 15.0 35 50 30 45 95 110
23.0 25.8 50 70 45 60 125 150

34.5 38.0 70 95 60 80 150 200

– 48.3 120 120 100 100 250 250
69.0 72.5 160 160 140 140 350 350

Based on IEC 60694

Notes
For still higher voltages refer to IEC 60694.
For impulse withstand voltages across the contact gaps of an interrupting device, refer to IEC 60694 and IEC 62271-200.
a
Wet or dew test is a weatherproof test (Section 14.3.10) and is meant for outdoor assemblies.
*For new voltage systems as per IEC 60038 see Introduction.
14/488 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

Table 14.2 For range I series II voltage systems (as per ANSI specifications)
Insulation levels, power frequency and impulse withstand voltages for metal-enclosed switchgear assemblies

Nominal system Rated maximum One-minute power frequency Standard lightning impulse One-minute d.c. voltage
voltage (Vr) system voltage voltage withstand at a (1.2/50 ms) voltage withstand withstand (phase to
(Vm) frequency not less than the (phase to ground) ground)
rated 60 Hz (phase to ground)
1 2 3 4 5

*kV (r.m.s.) kV (r.m.s) kV (r.m.s.) kV (peak) kV

b c b c b c

0.48 0.508 2.2 – – – 3.1 –

0.6 0.635 2.2 – – – 3.1 –
4.16 4.76 19.0 19 60 60 27 27
7.2a 8.25 36.0 26.0 95 75 50 37
13.8 15.0 36.0 36.0 95 95 50 50
14.4 15.5 – 50.0 – 110 – 70
23.0 25.8 – 60.0 – 125 – –
34.5 38.0 80.0 80.0 150 150 – –
69.0 72.5 – 160.0 – 350 – –

Based on ANSI C-37/20C

a
ANSI C-37/20C specifies this rating only for metal-clad switchgear assemblies and not for metal-enclosed bus systems.
b
With breaker assemblies
c
With isolator assemblies
*For new votage systems as per IEC 60038 see Introduction.
Notes
1 (a) The procedure for a d.c. test is same as for a.c. Due to variable voltage distributions when conducting d.c. tests, the ANSI Standard
recommends that the matter may be referred to the manufacturer for system voltages 25.8 kV and above.
(b) For a power frequency voltage withstand test, the d.c. test is generally not recommended on a.c. equipment, unless only d.c. test
voltage is available at the place of testing. The d.c. test values, as provided above, are therefore for such cases only and are
equivalent to power frequency a.c. voltage withstand test values.
2 Power frequency tests after erection at site, if required, may be conducted at 75% of the values indicated above. Also refer to field tests
(Section 14.5, Table 14.8).

Table 14.3 Dielectric test voltages for control and auxiliary circuits (ii) When the manufacturer has specified the impulse
(For LV systems when no impulse voltage tests are prescribed) voltages (system is surge protected)
Nominal auxiliary/power One-minute power frequency – Dielectric test on control and auxiliary circuits
voltage (Vr) voltage withstand at any – Dielectric test on power circuits
frequency between 45 and
65 Hz (between phases and When the system is surge protected and manufacturer
ground) has specified the value of the rated impulse voltage,
the impulse and power frequency withstand voltage
Control and auxiliary circuits tests will be conducted as in Table 14.3(a). When
1 Where the rated insulation 1000 V (r.m.s.) over-voltages are not surge protected refer to IEC
voltage does not exceed 60 V 60364-4-44 for protection against voltage disturbances
2 Where the insulation voltage (2 Vr + 1000) volts with a and EM interferences.
exceeds 60 V minimum of 1500 V (r.m.s.).
– The impulse test voltage shall be applied three times
Power circuits for each phase and ground and other two phases at
3 For voltages between 300 2500 V (rms) an interval of minimum 1s.
and 660 V – Similarly for the control and auxiliary circuits
As in IEC 60439-1
between main circuit and control and auxiliary
circuits.
– For fixed assemblies.
• Between phase to phase and each phase to
level for 5s (for routine test 1s) reduced rapidly up to ground with the switching devices in the closed
50% and then disconnected. During the test, one pole position.
of the testing transformer should be connected between • Between phase to phase and each phase to ground
each phase one by one and the other to the ground with the switching devices in the open position.
and the frame of the assembly. The test is considered This test is to be conducted on both line and
successful if there is no puncture or flash-over. load sides of the switching device.
 Testing of metal-enclosed switchgear assemblies 14/489

Table 14.3a Impulse and power frequency withstand test voltages for LV power circuits

Circuit under test Nominal voltage Standard lightning impluse (1.2/50ms) Power frequency withstand voltage
phase to ground voltage withstand at 2000m1
(maximum)
Phase to Across the open contacts Phase to Across the open contacts for
ground for withdrawable parts in ground withdrawable parts in the
the isolated position isolated position
Vr a.c. rms kV a.c. rms kV a.c. rms kV a.c. rms kV
Control and £ 60 0.33 1.5 0.23 1.06
auxiliary circuits > 60 £ 100 0.50 1.5 0.36 1.06
>100 £ 150 0.80 1.5 0.57 1.06
Power circuits 300 1.5 2.0 1.06 1.42
600 2.5 3.0 1.77 2.12
Based on IEC 60439-1
1
The impulse test voltage can be raised at altitudes lower than 2000 m
Note
For control and auxiliary circuits fed directly from the main circuit, same test voltages would apply as for the power circuits.

Table 14.3b Dielectric test voltages for control and There are two procedures,
auxiliary circuits (for HV systems) (i) With two test voltage sources (to be out of phase
with each other). The rated power frequency voltage
Dielectric tests Test voltage of one source is applied to one pole of a phase and
(peak) the ground (all other phases connected to ground)
and the second source that is out of phase, to the
(i) Impulse voltage 5kV
other pole of the same phase and the ground. Both
withstand test (IEC 60255-5)
(ii) Power frequency 2kV for 1 minute
voltages are applied simultaneously from a low value
withstand test (IEC 61180-1) (for routine test – 1kV for 1s)
preferably one-third and gradually raised to the full
test voltage and maintained for one minute. The
test is repeated on all phases one by one.
• Between the line and the load terminals of each (ii) The second procedure is a non-preferred method
phase, the main switching devices being in the when only a single source of test voltage is
open position. available. This method is usually applied when
– For draw-out assemblies (Section 13.3.2). The the voltage between phases, phase to ground and
trolley in test position and the main switching device across the switching poles is the same (such as a
in the closed position. single phase or a d.c. system). Now the test voltage
• Between phase to phase and each phase to ground can be applied between each pole and the ground
on both line and load side fixed terminals. with all the other poles connected to ground.
The tests are considered successful if there is no disrup-
There will be no disruptive discharge in any of the above tive discharge. If during a wet test a disruptive discharge
tests. occurs the test can be repeated and considered successful
if no further disruptive discharge occurs. The test shall
14.3.4 Verification of dielectric properties for be conducted under dry or wet condition when Vm £
HV systems 245 kV and for only dry condition when Vm > 245 kV.

(a) Verification of dielectric properties for control
and auxiliary circuits
The test shall be conducted as per Table 14.3(b). It shall
be performed between the control and auxiliary circuits
connected together and the frame of the switching device.
The circuit and apparatus connected to it shall remain
operational after the test.
(b) Verification of power frequency and impulse
voltage withstand tests
Procedure for testing
– Power frequency voltage withstand tests (for Vm £
245 kV and also Vm > 245 kV). All dielectric tests
shall be conducted as per IEC 60060-1.
– Impulse voltage withstand tests
Now also there are two procedures,
(i) With two test voltage sources – The rated impulse
voltage of one source is applied to one pole of a
phase and the ground and the other source with
opposite polarity connected to the opposite pole
of the same phase and the ground (all other phases
connected to ground). The test is repeated on all
phases one by one.
(ii) The second procedure is also similar to as for the
power frequency test noted above.
Fifteen consecutive lightning or switching impulses
shall be applied for each phase. The tests are considered
successful if the disruptive discharges do not exceed
two for each series of 15 impulses.
14/490 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook
– Lightning impulse (1.2/50 ms) voltage test (for Vm
£ 245 kV and also Vm > 245 kV) – The test will be
conducted under dry condition only.
– Switching impulse (250/2500 ms) voltage test (for
Vm > 245 kV) – The test can be conducted under
dry condition for indoor and under wet condition
for outdoor assemblies.
As per ANSI the impulse voltage is applied as shown in
Table 14.2 for series II voltage systems, with a full wave
standard lightning impulse 1.2/50 ms (Section 17.6.1) – a
front time equal to or less than 1.2 ms and the crest value
equal to or more than the rated full wave impulse withstand
voltage. According to ANSI C-37/20C, three positive and
three negative impulses must be applied without causing
damage or flashover. Should a flashover occur in only one
or any group of three consecutive tests, three more tests
are allowed to be conducted. If the equipment passes the
second group of three consecutive tests, it should be
considered as acceptable. The flashover which occurred
earlier may be considered as random and irrelevant.
Additional test requirements for outdoor HV
assemblies
The following are a few additional test requirements for
outdoor HV assemblies,
Wet test While an indoor type switchgear or controlgear
assembly requires only a dry power frequency voltage
withstand test, the outdoor type assembly calls for a wet
test also under wet conditions to check the internal
insulation. For the test procedure refer to IEC 60060-1.
Artificial pollution test The purpose of this test is to
provide information on the behaviour of the external
insulation while operating in polluted conditions. The
test may be performed only if thought necessary, depen-
ding upon the degree of contamination at the place of
installation. For the test procedure refer to IEC 60060-1.
Test results Any disruptive discharge or electrical
breakdown during the application of high voltage should
be considered as a dielectric failure.
14.3.5 Verification of temperature rise limits (or
rated continuous current capacity)
The test must be carried out indoors, reasonably free
from draughts. Thermocouples should be used to measure
the temperature, and the ambient temperature can be
measured by thermocouples or thermometers.
Measurement of ambient temperature
The ambient temperature should be measured during the
last quarter of the test by at least three thermometers or
thermocouples placed equally around the switchgear
assembly, at almost the centre level and at about 1 metre
from the body of the enclosure. The ambient temperature
to be considered must be the average of these readings
and should be within 10-40∞C. To ensure that the ambient
temperature is unaffected by magnetic field, alcohol
thermometers must be used and not mercury thermometers.
Measurement of temperature of enclosure,
insulation and current-carrying parts
The thermocouples or RTDs should be located such as
to measure the hottest spot, even if this means drilling a
hole in the current-carrying parts.
Procedure
1 The test may be conducted on a completed assembly
of a switchgear or a controlgear or a part of it,
whichever may be regarded as a complete section.
The purpose is to achieve a near-service condition.
To do this in a multi-section switchgear or controlgear
assembly it is advisable to test at least three vertical
sections joined together and measuring the temperature
rise on the middle section. This is to restrict the extra
heat dissipation, through the sides, except natural
heat transfer, and also to simulate the influence of
heat transfer to this section through other sections in
actual operation.
2 The test must be conducted at the rated* current, at a
frequency with a tolerance of +2% and -5% of the
rated frequency and the voltage in a sinusoidal
waveform, as much as practicable. See also Section
11.3.2. The test is carried out until the temperature
reaches almost a stable state, i.e. when the variation
does not exceed 1∞C per hour. To shorten the test
duration, the current may be enhanced during the
initial period to reach a fast, stable state.
3 Since it may not be practical to create the actual opera-
ting conditions at the place of testing, normal practice
is to simulate these conditions on the following basis.
The heat generated by a current-carrying component
or conductor is its watt loss and is expressed by I 2R,
where I is the current and R the resistance of the circuit
under consideration. The watt loss of each current-
carrying component installed in the test assembly is
estimated and added to arrive at the approximate watt
loss during the actual operation. Based on this loss is
calculated of the total heaters required. These heaters
are then suitably located in the test assembly to represent
all the incoming and outgoing feeders, their power
cables and any other current-carrying component.
Sources generating heat
1 Power circuits
• Interrupting devices – switches, breakers, MCCBs,
power contactors and fuses
• Thermal elements of the over-load relays
• Incoming and outgoing power contacts.
In these circuits the watt loss is ascertained, by mea-
surement of the resistance of their conducting paths.
2 Control and auxiliary circuits
Coils of the power contactors
Coils of the auxiliary contactors (relays)
Coils of the timers
Control fuses
*All the circuits may carry current based on the diversity factor.
The loads may be substituted by space heaters.
 Testing of metal-enclosed switchgear assemblies 14/491

Coils of the measuring instruments (A, kWh and kW
meters etc.)
Wattage of the indicating lights
VA burden of the instrument and control transformers
and control terminals etc.
The VA burden and the corresponding p.f. of all such
components are provided by their manufacturers. VA
cosf is the content of watt loss. For more details see
Section 15.6.1(iii).
3 Power connections and control wiring The loss
within such components is measured by their resistance,
which, in the case of cables, is a function of their size
and length. The loss in the external power cables is
calculated similarly, parts of which run inside the
assembly to connect the various feeders, by measuring
their average length inside the assembly.
Calculating the resistance of each current-carrying
component separately is a very cumbersome and lengthy
procedure, in addition to being not very accurate due
to the large number of approximations. Some of the
joints and components may still have been omitted
from these calculations. The easier and more often
recommended procedure is to measure the resistance
between the extreme ends of each feeder in its ON
condition by an Ohm-meter. This resistance will also
include the contact resistance of each terminal and
joint.
With the rating of each feeder and the resistance
so obtained, the I 2R loss of each feeder can be calculated
and totalled. This is the loss at the ambient temperature
at the test place. It may be corrected to the operating
temperature of the assembly as shown in Table 14.5.
For sample calculations, we have considered it to be
90∞C. Table 14.4 provides a step-by-step procedure
for estimation. The total watt loss of the assembly so
determined is an estimate for the required heaters
that may be installed inside the assembly, to achieve
almost a true replica of the watt loss, as during actual
operation. These heaters are located within the
assembly under test to circulate heat uniformly to all
parts to reach a rapid thermal equilibrium. To provide
heaters for individual feeders is very cumbersome
and serves no purpose. The operating conditions are
simulated similarly in the adjacent panel sections and
heaters are provided there also. If the bus rating of
these sections is different from the rating of the section
under test, then the heating effect of these busbars
should also be estimated and the rating of the heaters
altered to account for this.
Main busbars (horizontal and vertical)
During the test the main busbars are fed at the rated
current, for which the switchgear assembly is designed.
They are heated naturally and therefore no resistance of
the main bus need be measured. The busbars are shorted
at one end and the current is fed from the other through
a variable-current injection set at a reduced voltage of
3-10 V, or enough to achieve the rated current. The
arrangement saves on power requirement and

Table 14.4 Computation of heat losses for temperature rise test (single-line diagram, Figure 14.1)

Sr. Component No. of Feeder Component Watt loss (I2R) at room Watt loss at operating
no. feeders rating, (I) resistance per pole temperature temperature of 90∞C
A R mW/pole (32∞C) Wr watts Wo watts

(A) Power circuits

1 55 kW DOL feeder, 1 110 Circuit resistance 1 ¥ 3 ¥ 1102 ¥ 0.33 ¥ 10–3 Since W µ R and
comprising; between I/C and = 11.98 R90 = R32 [1 + µ20 (90 – 32)]
1 No. Switch – 250A O/G power \ Wo at 90∞C,
3 Nos. Fuses – 200A terminals covering = Wr · [1 + µ20(90 – 32)]
1 No. Relay – 90–50A all components and = 11.98 [1 + 3.93 ¥ 10–3(58)]
power wiring or = 14.71
metallic links and (µ20 for copper from
their contact Table 30.1
resistances, = 3.93 ¥ 10–3 per ∞C)
including end
terminations. By
measurement
= 0.33
2 5.5 kW DOL feeders, 2 12 As above = 0.52 2 ¥ 3 ¥ 122 ¥ 0.52 ¥ 10–3 0.45 [1 + 3.93 ¥ 10–3 (58)]
each comprising = 0.45 = 0.55
1 No. Switch – 63A
3 Nos. Fuses – 25A
1 No. Contactor – 16A
1 No. Relay – 9 – 14A
3 SFU feeder comprising; 1 32 As above = 0.46 1 ¥ 3 ¥ 322 ¥ 0.46 ¥ 10–3 1.41[1 + 3.93 ¥ 10–3 (58)]
1 No. Switch – 63A = 1.41 = 1.73
3 Nos. Fuses – 32A
Total loss in power = 16.99 W (A)
circuits
(Contd)
14/492 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

Table 14.4 (Contd.)

(B) Control circuits

1 Component 55 kW feeders 5.5 kW feeders 63/32A SFU feeders

a a
Qty VA Watt loss Qty VA Watt loss
Contactor coil 1 85 at 0.3 p.f. 25.5 1 15 at 0.35 p.f. 5.25
CT 1 7.5b 7.5 1 5b 5
Ammeter 1 5b 5.0 1 5b 5 NIL
ON light 1 7b 7.0 1 7b 7
Auxiliary contactor 1 15 at 0.35 p.f. 5.25 – – –
——— ———
Loss at 40∞C W40 Total 50.25 Total 22.25

(I) Loss at 90∞C W90 = W40[1 + µ20 (90 – 40)] W90 = 22.25[1 + 3.93 ¥ 10–3(50)]
= 50.25 [1 + 3.93 ¥ 10–3 (50)] = 26.62
= 60.12 (µ20 for copper) for 2 feeders = 53.24

2 Control cables, 2.5 mm2 @ 10 m/feeder @ 5 m/ feeder

(copper flexible).
∑ Cable resistance at 20∞C NIL
(Table 13.15) W/km 7.6 7.6
∑ Control circuit current less than 1A less than 1A
\ Watt-loss at 20∞C (For 1A) 10 ¥ 7.6 = 0.076 5 ¥ 7.6 = 0.038 per feeder
1000 1000

(II) Watt loss at operating

temperature (90∞C)
W90 = W20 [1 + µ20(90 – 20)] 1 ¥ 0.076 [1 + 3.93 ¥ 10–3(70)] 2 ¥ 0.038 [1 + 3.93 ¥ 10–3(70)] NIL
= 0.097 = 2 ¥ 0.048 = 0.096
Loss in control circuits (I + II) 60.22 53.34

Total loss in control circuits = 113.56 W (B)

If the loss in the control cables is small, this can be ignored for a quicker estimation of losses.

(C) Power cables (aluminium)

(mm2) 3 ¥ 95 3¥4 31/2 ¥ 25
∑ Average length from cable
gland to the power
terminals (m) 1.5 2.0 2.5
∑ Cable resistance at 20∞C
(Table 13.15) W/km 0.32 7.54 1.2
\Watt loss at 20∞C 1 ¥ 3 ¥ 110 ¥ 1.5 ¥ 0.32
2
2 ¥ 3 ¥ 12 2
¥ 2 ¥ 7.54 1 ¥ 3 ¥ 32 2 ¥ 2.5 ¥ 1.2
1000 1000 1000
= 17.42 = 13.03 = 9.22
Watt loss at operating
temperature (90∞C)
W90 = W20 [1 + µ20 (90 – 20)] 17.42 (1 + 4.03 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 70) 13.03(1 + 4.03 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 70) 9.22(1 + 4.03 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 70)
= 22.33 = 16.7 = 11.82
µ20 for aluminium from
Table 30.1
⯝ 4.03 ¥ 10–3 per ∞C

Total loss in power cables = 50.85 (C)

Total watt losses A + B + C = 181.40 W
\Heaters required for 180 W, which may be arranged in the sizes of 3 of 50 W each and 1 of 30 W (or as convenient) and located as shown
in Figure 14.2.
a
From manufacturers’ catalogues at 40∞C
b
We may consider these at unity p.f.
 Testing of metal-enclosed switchgear assemblies 14/493

Table 14.5 Temperature rise limits: for buses, bus connections and other parts of a switchgear assembly

Type of bus connection Limit of hottest spot temperature rise Limit of hottest spot total
above an ambient of 40∞C temperature
∞C ∞C

(A) 1 For busbars and busbar connections of 50 90

aluminium or copper
2 For busbars and busbar connections of 65 105
aluminium or copper silver plated or
equivalent
3 Terminals for external insulated cables 70 110

(B) For parts exposed to contact by a human body

1 Parts handled by operator
(i) of metal 15a 55
(ii) of insulation 25 65
2 External surfaces, covers
(i) of metal 30b 70
(ii) of insulation 40 80

Based on IEC 60439-1 and 2

Note
For details of temperature rise of various parts and materials of an HV switching device refer to IEC 60694.
[The above guidelines are generally followed in industry and may not be strictly in accordance with IEC 60439]. Also see Section 28.5.
a
Parts that are not frequently handled, may be allowed a higher temperature rise.
b
Parts that are exposed but need not be touched during a normal operation, may have higher temperature rise by 25∞C for metal surfaces
and 15∞C for insulating surfaces.

1000A ACB

1000A Bus

OCR OCR OCR

A A A

1 2 3 4
55 kW 1 ¥ 63/32A
2 ¥ 5.5 kW SFU

Figure 14.1 Single-line diagram for an assembly under a heat run test

consumption. If the ratings of the main bus and the
sectional bus (vertical bus feeding a group of feeders)
are different, as in large switchgear assemblies, then two
separate current sources may be used, one to feed the
main bus and the other the sectional bus. The sectional
bus can now be detached from the main bus as shown in
Figure 14.2, and applied with the appropriate diversity
factor, as shown in Table 13.4, to simulate the test condition
to obtain almost the operating condition. For the purpose
of illustration, we consider the single-line diagram of a
power distribution circuit shown in Figure 14.1. The
general arrangement of its switchgear assembly is
illustrated in Figure 14.2.
Locate the RTDs at the likely hot spots, as at the joints
of the busbars. Figure 14.2 illustrates the likely locations
of the RTDs. The test may be carried out as noted earlier
and temperature readings tabulated at 30-minute or 1-
hour intervals, whichever is more appropriate. The
14/494 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

Remove the links and

Main short the vertical View-A
busbars bus separately

Shorting
links
1 2 3 4
+ + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + +

Main busbars Shorting links

+ + + + + + + + +
+ + + 5 + + + + + +

4 63/
32A
6

7
3 5.5
kW
2000 A

View-A
2 55
kW
8 Vertical sectional bus 200A
[(sum of all the vertical feeders
of this row) ¥ (diversity factor).
A 55 But considered as min 200A]
1 kW
A

A
A A A
H H H

H H H H H H

Variable current injection Variable current injection

set for the main bus Dummy panel Panel under test Dummy panel set for the vertical bus
0–2000 A, 3–10 V 0–1000A, 3–10 V
Note : Dummy panels are also heated simultaneously, Location of RTDs
the same way, as the panel under test
H Location of heaters

Figure 14.2 Temperature rise test on a switchgear assembly

temperature rise q h, estimated with the highest temperature will not exceed the hot spot temperature rise as
recorded by any of the RTDs, would refer to the ambient recommended in Table 14.6.
temperature of the test location and may be corrected to 2 For busbars and busbar connections: the highest
the desired ambient temperature at which the assembly temperature rise will not exceed the hot spot
is likely to operate. The temperature thus obtained is the temperature rise as recommended in Table 14.5.
temperature rise that the assembly would attain during 3 Other parts of the switchgear assembly and the
continuous operation. The corrected temperature rise must
fall within the limits prescribed in Table 14.5.
Table 14.6 Temperature limits for insulating materials as used
If qr = temperature rise estimated at the test location in a switchgear assembly
qo = ambient temperature at the test location
q h = highest temperature recorded by any of the Class of Limit of hottest spot Limit of hottest spot
RTDs insulating temperature rise above total temperature
qa = ambient temperature at the place of installation material an ambient of 40∞C ∞C
Then
Y 50 90
q r = q h- q o A 60 100
E 80 120
and corrected temperature rise = qr + (qa - qo) B 90 130
A successful test will ensure: F 115 155
1 For insulating materials: the highest temperature rise H 140 180

auxiliary components, for which limits have been
specified, will not exceed the hot spot temperature
rise, as recommended in Table 14.5.
General notes on testing procedure
• The main bus through its entire length is fed with its
rated current, while in operation it would carry a
diminishing value after every feeder or a sectional bus.
• The sectional bus is fed similarly.
• If a control bus is also used add for its heat loss. A
third current source may be required if a temperature
rise in this bus is also desired.
• Keep the control circuits energized if possible, to further
save on calculations and to obtain more accurate results.
In the sample calculations as shown in Table 14.4 we
consider this in a de-energized condition for the sake
of more clarity.
• Each feeder is considered at its optimum rating, based
on the current rating of the motor or the rating of the
power fuses in a SFU or FSU feeder while the current
may be much less in actual operation.
If the temperature rise, as determined above, exceeds
permissible limits it will be desirable to provide extra
louvres, a forced cooling arrangement, larger busbars or
a change in their configuration whichever is more
convenient and easy to implement.
The test conditions as noted above may over-estimate
the rise in temperature during actual operation. Some
latitude may therefore be considered while analysing the
final results if the temperature rise thus estimated exceeds
the prescribed limits only marginally.
14.3.6 Verification of short-circuit strength
This test is conducted to verify the suitability of the
equipment to withstand a prospective short-circuit current
that may develop on a fault. It may also be termed the
steady state symmetrical fault current Isc or the short-
time (withstand current) rating of the equipment. When
the equipment is an interrupting device, it is referred to
as its symmetrical breaking current.
It is permissible to test just one panel of a multi panel-
assembly so long as the construction of other panels is
similar and busbar arrangement and supports are the same.
The value of the prospective short-circuit current may
be determined from a calibrated oscillograph. The test
current in any phase should not vary by more than 10%
of the average in the three phases and must be applied for
a predetermined time of 1 or 3 seconds. Unless specified
otherwise, this should be considered as to be 1 second.
The oscillogram must reveal continuity of the current
during the test period. The frequency of the test circuit
can have a tolerance of up to 25% of the rated frequency
for LV and 10% for HV assemblies. Figure 14.3 illustrates
a general arrangement for such a test.
Simulating operating conditions
Presently most Standards stipulate the type tests to be
conducted in any sequence and on any sample of the
same type. The Standards are also silent on the temperature
of busbars at the instant of conducting short circuit test.
Testing of metal-enclosed switchgear assemblies 14/495
Neither the test sample accounts for the effects of ingress
of foreign matters, fly ash, coal dust, moisture and
hazardous gases and vapours that may settle on the
conducting parts or are present in their surroundings in
actual service depending on the site conditions.
Accumulation of coal dust and fly ash on conducting
parts may restrain their heat dissipation, over-heat the
busbars and other conducting parts that the heat run test
on a new sample shall not be able to simulate. Similarly
the hazardous gases and vapours may cause an explosion
inside the equipment while in service and this also the
heat-run test will not be able to reveal and caution the
user in advance. Also, busbars at ambient temperature
are hard and soften at operating temperature. The
temperature rise during a short circuit test may hardly
rise by a few degree Celsius say, 1-4∞C depending on the
cross-sectional area of busbars (typically 2∞C for 1600A
busbars) and may not influence the test findings as such
but the ingress of foreign matters, moisture, vapours and
gases may render the equipment vulnerable to yield much
before the supply parameters reach the test values. The
short circuit test at ambient temperature and on a new
sample shall not be able to simulate these conditions and
provide factual test results.
To simulate actual operating conditions of busbars,
their surroundings, supports and mounts, it is suggestive
that all three inter-related tests-temperature rise, degree
of protection and short circuit are conducted in quick
succession to establish near service conditions and provide
more authentic test results at least for critical installations
laden with dust and moisture or hazardous gases and
vapours.
To simulate somewhat real service conditions in a lab
the tests may be coordinated such that the degree of
protection test concludes just before the final readings
of the temperature rise test. And short circuit test follows
immediately after the temperature rise test supply is
isolated. It can be achieved by interlocking the two
breakers, one for the temperature rise and the other for
the short circuit test, such that the short circuit breaker
closes immediately after the heat-run breaker trips. The
short circuit test connections can be made beforehand.
The test results now obtained will be more realistic and
authentic. This may call for re-orientation of the existing
test labs. But it may be a worthwhile proposition to obtain
more realistic test results. Presently ERDA (Electrical
Research and Development Association, India) have been
able to partly comply with this requirement and have
conducted the temperature rise and short-circuit tests in
quick succession within a gap of about 1 minute. The
time gap may be achieved up to the tripping time of
heat-run test breaker plus the closing time of short circuit
test breaker, i.e. within 100 ms. It is possible to coordinate
the test setup such that all these tests are conducted in
quick succession as noted.
Inference from the oscillogram
From the oscillogram, shown in Figure 14.4 one can
easily determine the average r.m.s. value of the short-
circuit current, Iav, its duration and the momentary peak
current. For easy evaluation, this oscillogram has been
14/496 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

2 4 9
1 5 6 7
3 8

L R
1 Short circuit generator 10
2 Circuit breaker
11
3 H.V. transformer
4 Master breaker
To isolate the circuit after the test is over and to also interrupt the test in
between, in case the test piece fails. The breaker must possess an
instantaneous capacity of more than the test current and the short-
circuit MVA of the feeding generator. To achieve the desired voltage it
must be suitable to perform the duties of repeated short-circuit tests.
5 Switch (to perform the making and breaking duties during the test) IR I Y I B VR V Y V B
12
6 Source side reactance ‘L’ (to control the magnitude of the test current)
7 Source side resistance ‘R’ (to control the p.f. as per the test requirements)
8 High current step down transformer
9 Test object
10 Current shunt
11 R–C voltage dividers
12 Recording instruments:

EMO: Electro-magnetic oscillograph, to record power frequency quantities CRO: Cathode ray oscillograph, to record voltages of a
such as short circuit average and peak currents in each phase, transient nature. For instance, re-striking voltages
voltage across each phase during and after the test, generator (TRVs), whose frequency of oscillations is beyond
voltage and time duration of test, as recorded in Figure 14.4 the response range of EMO.

Figure 14.3 General arrangement of a power circuit to conduct a short-circuit test

(58 completed cycles)

1.16 sec.

*39.6 kA(rms)
IR

UR

*47.2 kA(rms)

IY

UY First major peak 110.6 kA (peak)

*41.2 kA(rms)
IB

UB

*Just for illustration as the variation in phase currents should not be more than 10% of the average current as per IEC 60439-1

Figure 14.4 Oscillograms of an actual short-circuit test carried out on a power distribution panel (Courtesy: ECS)
 Testing of metal-enclosed switchgear assemblies 14/497

C3 Momentary peak or making current (I M ), Table 13.11

Asymmetrical peak current envelopes

Asymmetrical average fault current, I av.

C 1 I0 DC component

I1
B1 IM I2
I3 C4
I4
I5
I6 I7 I8 I9 I10
C2
2 ◊Ir
A1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 A2
D1

D2 D3

Sub-transient state Transient state Steady state

Duration of fault

Note The curves C1 C2 and C3 C4 are considered symmetrical after the first few cycles say 4 to 5. For better clarity, these 4 cycles are
redrawn in an enlarged form in Figure 14.6

Figure 14.5 Determining the average r.m.s. value of the short-time current Isc from the oscillogram obtained during a short-circuit test

divided into ten equal parts (1 to 10) and is redrawn in
Figure 14.5 for more clarity. The short-circuit commences
at point D1 and concludes at point A2, A1A2 being the
original zero axis. At the instant of short-circuit, the
zero axis shifts to B1A2. D1B1 is the initial d.c. component
that decays to zero at A2 at the conclusion of the test.
I0, I1, ..., I10 etc. are the r.m.s. values of the a.c.
components of the asymmetrical fault current at instants
1, 2, ... , 10 as indicated. They diminish gradually and
reach their steady-state condition about the original axis,
A1A2, in about three or four cycles of the short-circuit
condition (Section 13.4.1(8)).
The values of I0, I1, ..., I10 can be calculated from the
d.c. components and the r.m.s. values of the symmetrical
a.c. components, Iac0, Iac1, ..., Iac10 at the instants of 1, 2,
..., 10 at which are referred the values I0, I1 ..., I10.
Say, for I0, if Iac0, is the r.m.s. value of the symmetrical
component of the a.c. fault current and I dc0 the
corresponding d.c. component on a B1A2 curve then
2 2
I 0 = I ac0 + I dc0 (since Iac0 and Idc0 are almost 90∞ apart).
The values of I1, I2, ..., I10 can be determined along
similar lines. The curve C1C2 defines the asymmetrical
average fault current Iav.
If Iav is the average r.m.s. value of the asymmetrical
short-circuit current, then by using the Simpson formula,
Iav can be calculated by using
1 [ I 2 +4( I 2 + I 2 + I 2 + I 2 + I 2 ) + 2 ( I 2 + I 2 + I 2 + I 2 ) + I 2 ]
I av =
7
30 0 1 3 5 9 2 4
This is also known as the asymmetrical breaking current
and tends to become the symmetrical r.m.s. value of the
fault current Isc after almost four cycles from the instant
of fault initiation, as discussed in Section 13.4.1(8).
For more clarity and a better understanding of the
oscillogram and also to determine Iac0 and Idc0 more
accurately, a few cycles of the first section of the
oscillogram are shown in Figure 14.6. The d.c. component
is assumed to decay quickly and approach zero by the
instant B 2, i.e. within the first section of the test
oscillogram. The asymmetrical fault current envelope
C3C4 will also approach an almost steady state about
its original axis A1A2 by B2. O1 and O2 are considered
arbitrary instants of current zeros on the asymmetrical
current wave.
If Iac0 and Iac4 are the peak symmetrical a.c. components
of the fault current at these instants as noted in Figure
14.6 and Idc0 and Idc4 the corresponding d.c. components
then
I ac0 I
and ac4
2 2
will represent the symmetrical r.m.s. short-circuit current
(or symmetrical breaking current (Isc) of an interrupting
device) at the instants O1 and O2 respectively, and
2
Ê I ac0 ˆ 2
Á ˜ + I dc0
Ë 2 ¯
6 8 10
14/498 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

specially braced to withstand repeated voltage transients

and is mounted on a resilient base to minimize the
C3 mechanical shocks transmitted to the base. If the generator
is motor driven it is disconnected just before creating the
short-circuit condition, otherwise the generator may have
to feed the motor and be subject to extra stress. The
Iac0 stator has low reactance to give maximum short-circuit
Decay of d.c. output and has two windings per phase as illustrated in
component Figure 14.7. These are arranged so that they can be
Iac4 connected in series or parallel, in star or delta etc., to
B1 IM provide four basic three-phase voltage systems as follows:
C4
Stator connections Nominal voltage
1 Parallel delta 6.35 kV
O1
2 Parallel star 3 ¥ 6.35 = 11.0 kV
O2 3 Series delta 12.7 kV
A1 A2 4 Series star 3 ¥ 12.7 = 22 kV
B2

Testing of the main circuits (with short-circuit

protective devices)
Idc0
Idc4 D3
• For a switching device (which has not been previously
Time
tested for a short-circuit test). This should be closed
and held in the normal service position. The test voltage
Sub-transient state (that would generate the required level of fault current)
(period of asymmetry)
may be applied on one set of terminals, the other
Figure 14.6 Illustration of asymmetry during a short-circuit terminals being shorted. The test may be continued
until the short-circuit device operates to clear the fault,
but in no case for less than 10 cycles. In LV assemblies
will represent the asymmetrical (subtransient) r.m.s. short- the point where the short-circuit is created should be
circuit current at the instant O1 (it serves the basis to 2 ± 0.4 m from the nearest point of supply.
determine the asymmetrical making current (IM ) of an • For a switching device having no protection (e.g.
interrupting device). an Isolator). The required test current may be applied
Notes
1 The d.c. component, Idc, at any instant should be a minimum of R Y B R Y B
50% that of the corresponding peak value of the a.c. component Vᐉ ÷3 · Vᐉ
of the symmetrical fault current Iac0, Iac1, ..., Iac10. That is, at any
instant, during the period of the short-circuit condition, Idc should
be > 0.5 Iac0, Iac1 . . . Iac10. Otherwise the asymmetry may be
ignored, being insignificant.
2 The peak value of the asymmetrical fault current determined
for the first maximum peak may be considered as the momentary
peak value of the fault current IM.
3 The oscillogram also reveals the following vital information for
an interrupting device, if used in the circuit, to make or break
on fault: (i) Parallel delta (ii) Parallel star

Symmetrical breaking current (Isc )

This is the steady-state symmetrical fault current, which R Y B R Y B
the faulty circuit may almost achieve in about three or 2Vᐉ ÷3 · 2Vᐉ
four cycles from commencement of the short-circuit
condition at point D1 (Figure 14.5) and which the
interrupting device should be able to break successfully.

Making current (IM)

This is the same as the momentary peak value of the
fault current I M and defines the capability of the
interrupting device to make on fault.

Short-circuit generator (Figure 14.3) (iii) Series delta (iv) Series star

Since this equipment is short-circuited repeatedly it is Figure 14.7 Arrangements of windings in a test generator
 Testing of metal-enclosed switchgear assemblies 14/499

for the necessary duration (1 or 3 seconds) and the

dynamic and thermal strengths should be verified.
• For the main busbars
– In LV assemblies, when the test is conducted on
busbars, the length of busbars should be minimum
2 m. If it is less than this, short-circuit may be
created at the ends of the busbars.
– If the busbars consist of more than one section in
cross-section, or different distances between the
supports or the busbars, the test may be conducted
separately on each section.
• Test results
– A successful test should reveal no undue
deformation. Slight deformation of busbars is
acceptable provided that the clearance and the
creepage distances, as given in Tables 28.4 and
28.5, are maintained. The insulation of the
conductors and the mounting supports should show
no sign of deterioration. The degree of protection
will not be impaired.
– For withdrawable parts, such as a draw-out breaker
or a draw-out chassis, proper movement of the
movable parts and making of the contacts should
be ensured. To verify this requirement, the chassis
may be moved in and out for at least 50 times.
– Clearance and creepage distances must be
maintained in the service, test and isolated positions.

14.3.7 Verification of momentary peak or

dynamic current
This test is carried out to verify the mechanical fitness of
the buses, their inter-connections, other current-carrying
parts and the mounting structure to withstand the
electrodynamic forces developed during a fault. It is
measured by the first major peak (IM) of the oscillogram
as discussed above and is obtained during the course of
the short-time rating test (Section 14.3.6). The value
obtained will not be less than those specified in Table
13.11. For more details see Section 13.4.1(8). The test
procedure and the test current are generally the same as
for the short-time rating test, except that when the test is Figure 14.8 A motor control centre (MCC) after short-circuit
being conducted exclusively to determine the momentary test at CPRI
peak current, the duration must not be less than 0.3 second,
i.e. 15 cycles for a 50 Hz system as in IEC 60694. Referring 2 Test current I R = 39.6 kA
to the oscillogram of Figure 14.5, the momentary peak I Y = 47.2 kA
value of the fault current of the first major loop, after I B = 41.2 kA
commencement of the fault condition at instant D1, is
indicated as IM. Referring to the original oscillogram, Highest of the above exists in phase Y at 47.2 kA
(Figure 14.4), it occurs in phase Y. \ equivalent current rating of the equipment under test for

1 second = 47.2 · 1.16

Example 14.1
For more clarity we have reproduced in Figure 14.3 an actual
test circuit and in Figure 14.4, the oscillograms of the test Ê t1 ˆ
Á since I 1 ◊ t 1 = I 2 ◊ t 2 , \ I 2 = I 1 ◊
2 2
results of a short-circuit test successfully carried out on an Ë t 2 ˜¯
LV power distribution panel (Figure 14.8) for a system fault
level of 50 kA for 1 second, at CPRI (Central Power Research = 47.2 ¥ 1.077
Institute). From a study of these oscillograms (Figure 14.4),
we can infer the following test results: = 50.836 kA
3 The maximum peak current also appears in phase Y and
1 No. of completed test cycles = 58
measures at 110.6 kA at the first loop of the current wave.
This loop is 110.6/50, i.e. 2.21 times the test current and
\ duration of test for a 50 Hz system = 58 = 1.16 second
50 satisfies the requirement of Table 13.11.
14/500 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook
Analysis of the test results
As discussed above we establish two basic parameters
from a short-time withstand test, i.e.
1 Thermal capability of the equipment under test, i.e.
Isc and its duration
2 Mechanical compatibility through the peak making
current, IM, as in Table 13.11.
Before creating a fault condition, to obtain the required
Isc the impedance of the test circuit is adjusted so that the
required fault current is obtained in all the phases on
creating a short-circuit. To provide the required thermal
effect ( I sc2 ◊ t ), the duration of test, t, is then adjusted
accordingly. The relevant Standards therefore stipulate
that the test current may be higher or lower than required
and can be compensated by adjusting its duration, t.
However, due to the minor variations in the phase
impedances, all the phases may not be subjected to
identical severity of faults. For instance, in the above
test each phase has recorded a different fault current. To
evaluate the fault level from these test data, the general
practice has been to consider the phase that has recorded
the highest fault current as the base, which may occur in
any of the phases. In the above test, it has occurred in
phase Y. For this fault current, the test duration is adjusted
to achieve the required severity of fault in terms of thermal
effect (502 ¥ 1 in the above case).
Some users/consultants, however, are of the opinion
that by this method the other phases are not subjected to
the same severity. Accordingly, they prefer to consider
the phase that is subjected to the least fault current as the
base. Accordingly, the test duration should be adjusted.
for this phase. In the above case, the minimum severity
has occurred in phase R, with only 39.6 kA. According to
this philosophy the test duration should be enhanced to
50 2 ¥ 1 or 1.59 s as against 1.16 s in the above test.
(39.6) 2
Even then it is essential, that the peak making current,
IM, of the required magnitude is achieved during the test.
This is one parameter that cannot be established by
hypothesis. It is therefore imperative that the minimum
peak current according to the multiplying factor, shown
in Table 13.11, is obtained during the course of the test
itself, for example a minimum of 2.1 ¥ 50, i.e. 105 kA in
the above test. The multiplying factor will correspond to
the specified fault current (50 kA) and not the test current,
e.g. 47 kA in the above test. If during the course of the
test, the peak making current is less than this, the test
will be considered invalid.
14.3.8 Verification of the protective circuits
All protective circuits must be checked for continuity
and the operational and sequential requirements, if any,
in addition to the following:
• Checking for the grounding of instrument transformers
by means of a low-voltage source (10 V or so) using
a bell, buzzer or a light.
• Control wiring insulation test, as in Table 14.3.
• Polarity test: to check the connections through the
potential transformer to ensure that the connections
between the transformer and the meters or relays
have a correct relative polarity. Otherwise the meters
would show erratic readings, while the relays would
transmit wrong signals. This test may also be
conducted with a low-voltage source of 10 V by
observing the deflection of the instruments.
14.3.9 Verification of clearance and creepage
distances
These distances are influenced by,
– Impulse voltages
– Degree of pollution
– Altitude (higher the altitude, higher will be the
clearance and creepage distances)
– Material group depending upon the comparative
tracking index (CTI) (see IEC 60439-1)
Usually all these aspects get verified during the dielectric
impulse and power frequency withstand tests and no
other tests are usually necessary. The distances and method
of their determination are provided in the relevant
Standards.
14.3.10 Verification of degree of protection
Enclosure test
The types and degrees of enclosure protection are generally
the same as defined for motors in Section 1.15, Tables
1.10 and 1.11. The testing requirements and methods of
carrying out such tests are also almost the same as for
motors, and as discussed in Section 11.5.3.
Weatherproof test
This test is applicable to all outdoor metal-enclosed
switchgear and controlgear assemblies, as in IEC 60529,
IEC 60694 and ANSI C-37/20C. The enclosure to be tested
should be complete in all respects including its mounts,
bushings (for HV switchgear assemblies, 1 kV and above)
and wiring. One or more vertical units can be tested
simultaneously as may be convenient, but not more than
3 m panel width can be tested at a time. For a multiple
unit switchboard, however, at least two vertical units should
be tested together to check the joints between the units.
Procedure
All surfaces of the enclosure must be tested uniformly
for 5 minutes each. The water will be impinged on the
surface of the enclosure from a distance of not more
than 3 m from all sides through a square shaped nozzle
of a capacity of 30 ᐉ/min ±10% at a pressure of 46
N/cm2 ±10% and a spray angle of 60-80∞. (See Figure
14.9.) The rate at which the water is impinged on the
surface under test should be almost 5 mm per unit surface/
minute. Standard nozzle designs are also available which
can ensure the desired quantity of water at a pressure of
46 N/cm2 ±10%. Refer to IEC 62271-200.
For a uniform spray on the entire test surface more

60∞–80∞
A
A functioning of mechanical parts, such as switching devices
Nozzles
Enclosure
Platform
GL D These should be operated 50 times and removable parts
B
C
A ⯝ 2.0 m
B ⯝ 1.0 m
C ⯝ 2.5 to 3.0 m
D Minimum height above floor level
Figure 14.9 Arrangement for weatherproofing test
nozzles may be employed. Normally, surfaces of up to a
width of 3 m may be tested at a time. For larger widths
the test may be conducted in two steps. Normally, only
one vertical surface is tested at a time. Besides the vertical
sections, the test will also be conducted on:
• The roof surface, from nozzles located at a suitable
height
• The floor outside the enclosure for a distance up to
1 m in front of the switchgear assembly, the assembly
being in its normal position.
Figure 14.9 illustrates the above requirements.
Test results
The test may be considered successful if
• No water droplets can be observed on the insulation
of the main and auxiliary circuits
• There are no water droplets on the electrical
components or mechanism of the equipment
• There is no significant accumulation of water on any
part of the structure or other non-insulating parts.
This requirement is to minimize corrosion.
Mechanical impact test
The test is not essential and will be a matter of agreement
between the manufacturer and the user. For test procedure
refer to EN 50102 or IEC 62262 (see also Section 13.7.2
I). After the test there will be no marks of breakage or
deformation that may hamper normal operation of the
equipment, reduce insulation gaps or degree of protection
Testing of metal-enclosed switchgear assemblies 14/501
etc. Non-functional damage (like peeling of paint) is
immaterial.
14.3.11 Verification of mechanical operation
(LV and HV)
This test is conducted to establish the satisfactory
and their interlocks, shutter assembly, draw-out
mechanisms and interchangeability between identical
draw-out modules. A brief procedure to test these features
is as follows.
Switching devices
inserted and withdrawn 25 times each.
Mechanical interlocks
The interlocks should be set in the intended position to
prevent operation of the switching device and insertion
or withdrawal of the removable parts. Fifty attempts must
be made to operate the switching device and removable
parts inserted and withdrawn 25 times each.
The test may be considered successful if the operations
of the interrupting mechanism, the interlocks and other
mechanical features after the test are found satisfactory.
14.3.12 Internal arc test
It is not a type or compulsory test rather a special test
and shall be governed by an agreement between the
manufacturer and the user. The purpose of this test is to
ensure safety to personnel from internal arc and is
conducted to ensure the following,
– Doors and covers do not force open
– Inside parts do not fly off
– Indicators (pieces of black cloth used as a test material)
do not ignite
– Arcing does not cause any hole in the enclosure
– Equipment bonding remains effective after test.
For details on test procedure refer to IEC 62271-200 for
HV and IEC 61641 (guidelines) for LV switchgear
assemblies.
14.3.13 EMC (immunity) and EMI (emission) tests
These tests fall under type tests for both LV and HV
switchgear assemblies as noted below.
I. LV switchgear and controlgear assemblies
– For the purpose of testing, CISPR and IEC have
classified EM environments as ‘high EM’ interference
or ‘least EM’ interference environments as noted in
Table 14.6(a) for switchgear and controlgear
assemblies. Similarly is classified the equipment under
test as noted in the table. The manufacturer has to
specify the class of his equipment for the purpose of
testing and so also the user has to specify the class of
EM environment to which the equipment must
14/502 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

Table 14.6(a) Test requirements for LV switchgear and controlgear assemblies for EMC (immunity) and EMI (emission) tests

Environment EM Type of Applicable Test requirements

class environment assembly Standards

A Industrial or A *CISPR-11 EMC (immunity) and EMI (emission) tests are not necessary when
highly afflicted Class A, group electronic equipment and devices incorporated in the assemblies
with strong EM 1 and IEC conform to their relevant EMC/EMI requirements. Or the internal
interferences 61000-6-4 installation and wiring of such devices is carried out as per EMC/
EMI requirements such as screening (Section 13.3.6), grounding
(Section 6.13.3) and using Faraday Cages (Section 23.18).
Similarly assemblies not incorporating electronic equipment and
devices are also not required to be EMC/EMI tested.
Other assemblies shall be tested for emission and immunity.
(i) Emission (EMI) tests for environments A and B: These tests
are conducted for
– Radiated emissions and
– Conducted emissions
For different radio frequencies, the EM environment level (emission)
is determined in terms of dB(mV) and dB(mV/m) and that should
be within prescribed limits. For EMI limits and test methods one
may refer to CISPR-11.
(ii) Immunity (EMC) tests for environment A and B – They are
conducted for
– Radiated immunity test and
– Conducted immunity test and as noted below
1. Electrostatic discharge immunity IEC 61000-4-2
2. Radiated radio-frequency IEC 61000-4-3
electromagnetic field immunity at 80 MHz to
1 GHz and 1.4
GHz to 2 GHz
3. Electrical fast transient/ IEC 61000-4-4
burst immunity
4. 1.2/50 ms and 8/20 ms IEC 61000-4-5
surge immunity
5. Conducted radio-frequency IEC 61000-4-6 at
immunity 150 kHz to 80 MHz
6. Immunity to power-frequency IEC 61000-4-8
magnetic field
7. Immunity to voltage dips and IEC 61000-4-11
interruptions
8. Immunity to harmonics in the supply IEC 61000-4-13

B Residential areas, B CISPR-11 class (i) Emission (EMI) tests: For test voltages for different frequency
offices, theatres B group 1 and ranges and acceptance criteria (limits of emission) in terms of
and other public IEC 61000-6-3 dB(mV) or dB(mV/m) one may refer to CISPR-11.
places with least (ii) Immunity (EMC) tests: These remain same as noted above for
EM interferences environment class A.

* CISPR – International special commission on radio interferences.

conform. Table 14.6(a) provides a brief description of
the EMC/EMI test requirements for LV switchgear
and controlgear assemblies. For switchgear and
controlgear components refer to IEC 60947.
Test procedure
These tests are conducted at different voltages (to produce
the desired EM effects) for different types and levels of
EM fields.
Below we provide a brief introduction to EMC/EMI
testing to give a feel of the subject. For details of test
equipment, test setup and layout of test piece and procedure
of testing, one may refer to the relevant Standards. Figure
14.9(a) shows a general view of an EMC lab.
Test requirements
The test results shall be classified on the basis of operating
conditions and functional performance as per the
specifications of the equipment under test as noted below,
unless different requirements are underlined by product
specifications:

Figure 14.9(a) View of an EMC lab (Courtesy: Central Power
Research Institute)
– Normal performance within the specified limits
– Temporary impairment or loss of function or
performance which is self-recoverable
– Temporary impairment or loss of function or
performance which may require operator intervention
or system reset
– Impairment or loss of function which is not recoverable
due to damage of equipment (component), or software
or loss of data
– Equipment shall not become dangerous or unsafe as
a result of application of tests
1. Electrostatic discharge (ESD) immunity test
Static electric discharges can occur from a charged human
body to a nearby object as noted in Section 23.18. These
discharges can be quite severe and cause considerable
EM interferences and influence adversely the operation
of electrical and electronic equipment and devices
operating in the vicinity. The tests ensure adequate EM
compatibility of susceptible equipment and devices to
operate under such environmental pollutions.
Discharge into equipment may occur through direct
contact (contact discharge method) or just prior to contact
(air discharge method) as noted in Table 14.6(b).
For air discharge method the environmental conditions
depend essentially on the installation conditions,
particularly the type of floor and climate (air humidity).
Four environment levels are prescribed as shown in the
table.
Table 14.6(b) Electrostatic discharge (ESD) severity test levels
Contact discharge Air discharge
Level Test voltage Level Environment – Relative Test voltage
(kV) humidity as low as % (kV)
1 2 1 35 (Antistatic material) 2
2 4 2 10 (Antistatic material) 4
3 6 3 50 (Synthetic material) 8
4 8 4 10 (Synthetic material) 15
Xa Special Xa Special
Source: IEC 61000-4-2
a a
As may be necessary for the product requirements.
Testing of metal-enclosed switchgear assemblies 14/503
Test Procedure For characteristics of ESD generator refer
to the said Standard. An electrostatic discharge simulator
is shown in Figure 14.9(b).
No. of discharges : 10 positive, 10 negative
Test points : Direct discharge (user accessible
points) and
Indirect discharge (through
horizontal coupling plane (HCP)
and vertical coupling plane (VCP))
2. Radiated radio frequency electromagnetic
(EM) field immunity test
For sources of radio frequency fields see Section 23.18.
The following environment levels are prescribed,
i. Low level EM radiations, such as fields produced by
local radio/television transmitters located at more than
1 km and fields produced by low-power transceivers.
ii. Moderate EM radiations, such as fields produced by
portable transceivers (<1 W) not in close vicinity of
the equipment.
iii. Severe EM radiations, such as fields produced by
high power transceivers (2 W or more) used in close
vicinity of the equipment but not less than 1 m.
The severity test levels are shown in Table 14.6(c).
3. Electrical fast transient / burst immunity test
For sources of fast transients see Section 23.18. The main
characteristics of these transients are considered as,
Figure 14.9(b) Electrostatic discharge simulator (up to 30 kV)
(Courtesy: Central Power Research Institute)
Table 14.6(c) Radiated radio-frequency EM field severity test
levels (Frequency band: 80 MHz to 1 GHz, with AM 80% depth,
1 kHz sine wave)
Level Test field strength (V/m)
1 1
2 3
3 10
Xa Special
Source: IEC 61000-4-3
As may be necessary for the product requirements.
14/504 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

– Series of pulses of 15 ms burst duration

– Total burst duration – 300 ms
– Impulse rise time – 5 ns (10% to 90%)
– Impulse duration – 50 ns (50% value)
– Low energy
– High repetition rate
Electronic equipment and devices are tested for fast
transients to ensure their continued reliable operation
during occurrence of such transients when in service.
The following environment levels are prescribed,
i. Well-protected environment. The computer room may
be representative of this environment
ii. Protected environment. The control room or terminal
room of industrial and electrical plants may be
representative of this environment
iii. Industrial environment. The area of industrial process Figure 14.9(c) Three phase electrical fast transient simulator
(up to 8 kV) (Courtesy: Central Power Research Institute)
line, the public distribution networks, relay room,
sub-station areas may be representative of this
environment.
iv. Severe industrial environment. The outdoor area of Class 1 – Partly protected electrical environment. All
industrial process line and open-air HV substation incoming cables are provided with primary
switchyards may be representative of this environment. surge protection. Electronic equipment having
a separate supply system from the main
The severity test levels for different environment levels system. Surge voltage may not exceed 500 V.
are shown in Table 14.6(d). Class 2 – Electrical environment where the cables are
Figure 14.9(c) shows a fast transient simulator. well separated and grounded at a separate
Polarity – Positive & negative ground. Surge voltage may not exceed 1 kV.
Duration of test – minimum 60s. Class 3 – Where the power and signal cables run
together. Surge voltage may not exceed 2 kV.
4. Surge immunity test Class 4 – Where the same cables are being used for
power and electronic circuits. Surge voltage
For sources of switching and lightning surges see Section may not exceed 4 kV.
23.18. The test level is based on condition of installation Class 5 – Where the electronic equipment connected
and exposure of equipment or device to the arriving surges. to telecommunication cables and overhead
The condition of installation (electrical environment) can power lines exist in a thinly populated area
be one of the following, and are provided with primary surge
Class 0 – Well protected electrical environment. All protection. Now the interference voltages due
incoming cables are provided with primary to ground faults can be very high.
and secondary surge protections and an The severity test voltages for different environment levels
isolated ground or safe ground system are shown in Table 14.6(e).
(Section 6.13.3). Surge voltage may not exceed
25 V. 5. Conducted radio-frequency immunity test
The source of disturbance is basically an EM field induced
Table 14.6(d) Electrical fast transient/burst immunity severity
from RF transmitters, that may act on the whole length
test levels of cables connected to an installed equipment. The basic

Level On power supply port On I/O (input/output) signal,

data and control ports Table 14.6(e) 1.2/50 ms and 8/20 ms surge immunity severity
test levels
Voltage Repetition Voltage Repetition
peak (kV) rate (kHz) peak (kV) rate (kHz) Level Open circuit test voltage ±10% kV

1 0.5 5 0.25 5 1 0.5

2 1 5 0.5 5 2 1.0
3 2 5 1 5 3 2.0
4 4 2.5 2 5 4 4.0
Xa Special Special Special Special Xa Special

Source: IEC 61000-4-4 Source: IEC 61000-4-5

a a
As may be necessary for the product requirements. As may be necessary for the product requirements.

method is to inject the unwanted signal into a lead. The
lead may be a signal, control or a mains lead. There are
two variants of the method. BCI method is used to assess
immunity to common mode (asymmetrical) signals, while
the voltage injection CDN method is used to assess
immunity from differential mode (symmetrical) signals.
In general current injection is performed as a minimum
since that mode is most vulnerable to radiated RF
environments.
(i) Bulk current injection (BCI) method
The purpose of BCI testing is to determine the immunity
of an equipment under test (EUT) to the complex
waveforms of bulk cable current induced. The BCI method
simulates continuous wave (CW) currents developed in
electrical conductors of equipment being evaluated.
(ii) Coupling de-coupling network (CDN) method
The use of CDN is to apply the disturbing signal to one
cable at a time, keeping all other cables non-excited.
The CDN is used to couple RF continuous wave
(CW) and modulated voltages into equipment being
evaluated.
The following environment levels are prescribed,
(i) Low level – It can be low power transceivers and
where radio or television stations are located at a
distance of more than 1 km.
(ii) Moderate level – Low-power portable transceivers
(<1 W rating), but with restrictions on use in close
vicinity to the equipment (representing a typical
commercial environment).
(iii) Severe level – Portable transceivers (2W and more)
placed relatively close to the equipment but not
less than 1 m. High-powered broadcast transmitters
are in close vicinity to the equipment and ISM
equipment may be located closeby (representing a
typical industrial environment).
The severity test voltages for different environment levels
are shown in Table 14.6(f).
Note
For other tests one may see the specifications noted in Table 14.6(a).
Table 14.6(f) Conducted radio frequency immunity severity test
levels
Frequency range 150 kHz–80 MHz
Voltage level (e.m.f.)
Level Test voltage (dB (mV)) Test voltage (V)
1 120 1 equipment and devices installed in the secondary system.
2 130 3 The following tests are prescribed,
3 140 10
Xa Special Special
Source: IEC 61000-4-6
a
As may be necessary for the product requirements
Testing of metal-enclosed switchgear assemblies 14/505
II. HV switchgear and controlgear assemblies
To meet EMC/EMI requirements in case of HV
switchgear and controlgear assemblies, it is not the main
assemblies that are required to be tested for EM
interferences, rather their secondary system installed
within or in its close vicinity. Such as electronic
equipment and devices, control and auxiliary circuits,
measuring and protection terminals of CTs, VTs and
CVTs and also EM susceptible devices installed for
monitoring and diagnostic purposes.
The electronic equipment and devices, instruments
and other EM sensitive devices in the secondary system
shall be able to withstand the following EM interferences
(RIVs) during normal operation, including a switching
or interrupting sequence without damage or erratic
behaviour,
For normal severity class – 1.6a kV
For reduced severity class – 0.8a kV
a
RIV test is a test to verify the emission level of the primary
system (switchgear and controlgear assemblies) and is discussed
below. It ensures that these values are not exceeded.
Note
EMC severity defines the exposure of the secondary system’s
(equipment and devices as noted) interfaces and ports (terminals)
to EM fields in the vicinity. When the interfaces and ports are
situated close to the primary system it is considered to be severe
(normal), and when situated within an enclosure (like a Faraday
Cage) and not in close vicinity of the primary system, it is considered
to be protected or with reduced EMC severity.
Radio Influence Voltage (RIV) test
This test is applicable for switchgear and controlgear
assemblies having a rated voltage of 123 kV and above.
For test procedure see IEC 60694. The test is considered
successful under normal conditions without causing a
switching or interrupting sequence, if the RI level at
‘1.1 Vm/÷3’ does not exceed 2.5 mV. Switching operations
or interruptions on fault are short duration incidents and
may affect the secondary system only momentarily, and
are considered to be part of a normal operation only and
do not call for a special test.
EMI (emission) and EMC (immunity) tests
(on secondary system)
(i) Emission (EMI) test
Electronic equipment and devices – same as for class A
group 1 equipment and devices noted in Table 14.6(a)
(ii) Immunity (EMC) test
These tests simulate the transient conditions and are
required to be conducted only when there are electronic
– Electric fast transient or burst test – The test simulates
the conditions caused by switchings in the secondary
circuit. The test is conducted as per IEC 61000-4-4 as
shown in Table 14.6(d) for all likely interfaces for
14/506 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook
power lines, control lines, communication lines
(unshielded and shielded) and ground terminal etc.
– Oscillatory wave immunity test (now IEC 61000-4-
12 shall apply). The test simulates the conditions caused
by switchings in the primary system. The test is
conducted for interfaces for power lines, control lines,
communication unshielded and shielded lines and
ground terminal etc.
– Electrostatic discharge (ESD) immunity tests – are
required only on electronic equipment and devices
that are to be installed in the secondary system and
not the secondary system as such. The test is conducted
as per IEC 61000-4-2 as shown in Table 14.6(b).
The secondary system shall withstand the tests as
prescribed with permissible damage. For more details
see IEC61000-4-1 and IEC61000-6-5.
14.3.14 Glow wire test
This is a compulsory type test for the manufacturers of
switchgears and their assemblies to assess the suitability
and hence the selection of the most suitable material for
the various applications to avoid a probable fire risk
under abnormal and fault conditions. Components such
as ABS, polyamide, neoprene, PBT(polybutylene
terephthalate), polycarbonate, SMC(sheet moulding
compound), SAN(styrene acrylonitrile), polyacetal are
commonly used for protective shieldings, covers,
separators, partitions, insulations and supports for busbars,
current carrying components and terminals. Under
abnormal or fault conditions they may attain temperatures
high enough to deteriorate their own properties and also
render the nearby components vulnerable to ignitions or
fire hazards. The test reveals thermal stresses that such
materials may produce on the components in the vicinity.
The test may be conducted on samples of materials,
components or sub-assemblies using them. For details
see IEC 60695-2/10-13.
14.4 Procedure for routine tests
The tests against step numbers 1, 2 and 3 in Section
14.2.2 are of a general nature and no test procedure is
prescribed. The rest are similar to the tests covered under
type tests (except where noted). The procedures of tests
and requirements of test results will remain the same as
discussed earlier.
14.5 Procedure for field tests
1, 2, 3. The tests against step numbers 1, 2 and 3 are of
general nature (see Section 14.2.4) and no test
procedure is laid down for that.
4. Verification of insulation resistance or
measurement of the leakage current
The purpose of this test is to check for proper insulation
of all the insulated live parts and components and to
ensure protection of a human body against electrical shocks
while the equipment is energized and is in operation.
The test detects weak insulation, if any, and this must be
rectified before putting the equipment into service.
This test should be conducted both before and after
the HV test if this test is to be carried out. The test before
the HV test ensures the quality of insulation and the test
after the HV test checks that this has not deteriorated
after the HV test. If the insulation resistance is found to
be lower each circuit and component must be checked
separately to identify the weak area and corrective steps
taken to improve the resistance to the required level. The
test can be conducted in two ways.
Insulation resistance method
The insulation resistance can be checked with the help
of an appropriate ohm-meter (MW-meter), as
recommended by IS 10118-3, and shown in Table 14.7.
According to this, for an LV system, an insulation
resistance of 1 MW with a 1 kV ohm-meter for a completed
switchboard, irrespective of the number of outgoing
circuits, is considered to be safe. With this insulation
resistance, the switchboard can be put to an HV test or
actual use. The values of insulation resistances for higher
system voltages and the recommended rating of ohm-
meter are indicated in Table 14.7.
IEC 60439-1 recommends the minimum insulation
resistance for an LV system to be 1 kW/V per circuit
referred to the rated voltage to the ground.
Leakage current method
The leakage current is measured as in IEC 62271-200.
This method is generally applicable to an HV system by
applying the full rated voltage between the insulating
surface, say, between a phase and the ground. The leakage
current thus measured should not exceed 0.5 mA.
Illustration
1 Referring to Table 14.7, the recommended insulation value
will ensure the following leakage current for an LV system:
Table 14.7 Insulation resistance for different voltage systems
System voltage Minimum insulation Type of ohm-
resistance meter
MW kV(d.c.)
1 Auxiliary and control 1 for one or more Manual, 0.5
circuits (all secondary circuits
wiring circuits)
2 For a completed 1 Manual, 1.0
switchboard of up to
1000 V with a number
of outgoing circuits
3 Above 1000 V and 100 Motorized,
up to and including min. 2.5
33 kV
4 Above 33 kV 1000 Motorized,
min. 2.5
As in IS 10118-3

System voltage – say, 415 V
Insulation resistance = 1 MW = 106 W
\ Maximum leakage current = 415 A
10 6
= 0.415 mA
If the system had been 660 V, this current would exceed
0.5 mA, which is permissible for an LV system.
2 For an 11 kV system, the recommended insulation resistance
according to the same table = 100 MW = 100 ¥ 106 W
\ Maximum leakage current = 11 ¥ 10 6 A
3
100 ¥ 10
= 0.11 mA
and for 33 kV = 0.33 mA
The values thus shown in Table 14.7 take cognisance
of the recommendations of IEC 62271-200 to maintain
the leakage current at less than 0.5 mA for all HV
systems.
5. Verification of dielectric properties
The dielectric test may be limited to a power frequency
voltage withstand test. This test is considered neither
necessary nor advisable at site if already conducted at
the manufacturer’s works unless there is a major
modification or repairs at site in the existing switchgear
assembly. Repeated application of a high voltage may
degrade the properties of the insulation system used. If
such a test becomes necessary at site, it may be carried
out at a reduced test voltage of 85% for LV systems as in
IEC 60439-1 and at 80% of the test values for HV systems
as prescribed in note 2 of Table 32.1(a) as in IEC 62271-
200, for series I voltage systems or at 75% as prescribed
in note 2 of Table 14.2 for series II voltage systems, as
in ANSI C 37.20C.
When the required test voltage is not available at site,
the reduced voltage power frequency withstand test may
be carried out at still lower test voltages, depending upon
the voltage availability at site. Then the duration of the
test must be increased as shown in Table 14.8, and IS
10118-3 and BS 159.
In this case also verification of insulation resistance
or the measurement of leakage current will be carried
out before and after the HV test.
Table 14.8 Duration for dielectric test at reduced test voltages
Rated test voltage % Test duration in minutes
100 1 Our present discussions relate only to the laboratory
83.5 2 testing of safety-related secondary systems, as are
75 3 employed in critical areas such as areas of emergency
70 4 power supply and reactor power control supply etc. of a
66.6 5 nuclear power plant (NPP) according to IEEE 344 and
60 10
57.7 15
Testing of metal-enclosed switchgear assemblies 14/507
14.6 An introduction to earthquake
engineering and testing
methods
The consequences of an earthquake on life and property
have caused increasing concern amongst the scientists,
engineers and educational institutions. Everybody is
becoming more conscious about preventive measures
for buildings and critical installations against possible
earthquakes to mitigate, if not eliminate, their devastating
effects. It is becoming common practice to conduct seismic
studies on a region where a large and/or critical project
is to be located before commencing work and locating
the more important buildings and projects at seismically
safer areas. Buildings, structures and important machines
are then designed to withstand earthquakes of magnitudes
commensurate with the seismology of that area. Analytical
methods and laboratory test facilities have also been
developed to demonstrate the suitability of structures to
withstand seismic events.
Supporting information on newer aspects on the
behaviour of the earth during an earthquake is obtained
on a regular basis. This is possible through the
seismographs and accelerographs installed at the various
strategic locations throughout the world (see Section
14.6.2(i)). Availability of additional information on
aspects on the behaviour of the earth’s body is making
it possible to update and improve the below mentioned
test methods and facilities. With such information, it is
hoped that our scientists may soon be able to predict an
earthquake, its intensity and location well in advance.
The likely ‘responses’ of buildings, structures and
installations to seismic events are now available based on
past earthquakes. These help us study earthquakes and
their effects more closely and enable us take more authentic
and appropriate preventive measures at the design stage.
We offer an introduction to this subject with a view to
make the students and the engineers more conversant with
and aware of these geological phenomena and to be more
concerned about safety for life and property. A few such
properties may be houses, buildings, hospitals, industrial
plants, power generating and distributing systems, dams,
bridges and handling of hazardous materials. These and
other structures should be given constructional and design
considerations to make them reasonably safe against such
events. In further discussions we consider only the
secondary systems that are supported on the primary system
and consist mainly of the electrical and mechanical
machines, devices and components. The primary systems,
which include houses, buildings and main structures
(columns, beams, trusses, floors, walls), dams and bridges
etc., fall within the purview of civil and structural
engineering and are not discussed here.
IEC 60980. There are other codes also but IEEE 344 is
referred to more commonly. Basically, all such codes
are meant for an NPP but they can be applied to other
14/508 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

critical applications or installations also that are prone to Temperature of the

Rigid plates (⯝ 20 Nos.) deepest parts of the
earthquakes and can cause a catastrophe. floating on the mantle in crust can go up to
It would be noted in subsequent discussion that the the lithosphere 870∞C
design of structures and foundations for machines and
Molten mantle
equipment play a vital role in absorbing or magnifying (C) (sphere of
seismic effects. A proper design consideration in such hot rock and
areas at the initial stage can save the primary (and, in all metal)
probability the secondary) systems from such effects to
a large extent. Testing may be essential only for the critical
equipment, such as being used in the critical areas of an
NPP like the reactor or similar, more critical installation.
Crust (E)
14.6.1 Seismic disturbances
Random vibrations, such as those caused by an earthquake,
cause shocks and ground movements and are termed
seismic disturbances. Shocks and turbulence caused by
a heavy sea, landslides and volcanic eruptions are also
examples of shocks that may cause vibrations and result
D
in tremors, not necessarily earthquakes. Nevertheless, D
they may also require design considerations similar to
those for an earthquake, depending upon the application E C B A A B C E
(e.g. naval applications, hydro projects, dams and bridges), ⯝ 6490 km
and their vulnerability to such effects. Our present ⯝ 12980 km
discussions relate to shocks and vibrations caused by
earthquakes and laboratory testing of equipment mounted
on primary systems against such effects, particularly those
required for critical areas of an NPP. Temperature
Section of Approx.
Name of the
the earth thickness
section Outer part Inner part
Causes of seismic disturbances body

Scientists suggest different theories for the causes of an

A Inner core 1300 km up to 5000∞C
earthquake. One of many such theories is the Elastic
Rebound Theory. This suggests that with the evolution B Outer core 2250 km up to up to
of the earth, several tectonic processes have been taking 2200∞C 5000∞C
place within it. These processes have caused severe
deformations in the crust and have resulted in the formation C Molten core 2900 km up to up to
of ocean basins and mountains. These impose elastic 870∞C 2200∞C
strains on the earth’s crust. These strains build up with
the passage of time, and eventually overcome the resilience D Lithosphere 70 km to 870∞C
of the earth’s crust and result in its rupture. The rebound 150 km
of the ruptured crust causes an earthquake. Geologists E Crust 8 km (under Below the crust
and seismologists have explained this theory more the oceans) up to 870∞C
to 40 km
comprehensively through the Plate Tectonic Theory which (under the
can be briefly explained as follows. continents)
The outer shell of the earth, consisting of the upper
mantle and the crust (Figure 14.10), is formed of a number Figure 14.10 Construction of the earth
of rigid plates. These plates are about 20 in number and
are shown in Figure 14.11. Of these, six or seven are and mountains and also the consequent earthquakes and
major plates, as can be seen in the map. The edges of volcanic eruptions.
these plates define their boundaries and the arrows indicate The movement of these plates carries with it continents,
the direction of their movement. These plates contain ocean basins and mountains. Scientists believe that
the continents, oceans and mountains. They almost float convection currents are generated as a result of great
on the partially molten rock and metal of the mantle. heat within the earth, as illustrated in Figure 14.10. Below
The outer shell, known as the lithosphere, is about 70 to the crust, the hot rocks and metal in liquid form rise to
150 km thick. It has already moved great distances below the crust, cool and sink into the mantle causing a turbulence
the earth’s surface, ever since the earth was formed and through heat convection. The hot rocks become hardened
is believed to be in slow and continuous motion all the at the surface of the mantle and push the crust which is
time. The plates slide on the molten mantle and move part of the hug plates that are afloat the mantle. This
about 10 to 100 mm a year in the direction shown by the movement of plates can cause the following:
arrows. The movement of plates is believed to be the
cause of continental drifts, the formation of ocean basins 1 When the plates move away from each other, the

Figure 14.11 Map showing tectonic plates and their boundaries. The arrows indicate the direction of their movements
(Source: World Book Encyclopaedia)
molten rock from the mantle fills the gaps between
them to form ocean basins.
2 While moving away from one plate, they will be
moving closer to another and may collide. One plate
may pile up over the other and form mountains.
3 If the plates pull-down, they would sink into the mantle
and melt to form ocean basins. Some of the molten
rock of these plates may travel to the earth’s surface
through the crevice so formed due to heat convection
and cause a volcano.
4 When the plates slide past each other, they cause
stresses at the edges of the crust. The stresses may
build up and at some stage exceed the resilience of
the earth’s crust and cause a fault, i.e. cause the crust
to rupture and shift. When this occurs, it causes an
earthquake in the form of violent motion of the earth’s
surface and/or large sea waves. Major earthquakes
and tsunamis occur because of this phenomenon.
Magnitude and quantum of energy released
The magnitude of shocks and vibrations caused by an
earthquake is the measure of energy released (E) at the
focal point in the form of seismic waves. Most commonly
used and classical measure of magnitude of earthquake
is Richter Scale (also called as local magnitude ML). An
American seismologist called Charles Richter suggested
that the magnitude of an earthquake can be expressed by
M = log A
where
M = magnitude of the earthquake
A = maximum amplitude, as recorded by the Wood
Anderson seismograph in microns at a distance of
100 km from the epicentre.
Since the distance of the instrument from the
epicentre will usually not be exactly 100 km, a
distance correction must be applied to obtain the
magnitude of the earthquake, defined as,
M = log A - log A0. Distance correction curves
between epicentral distance of the seismograph
versus log A0 (which are also sometimes referred
to as attenuation curves) are used for this purpose.
Testing of metal-enclosed switchgear assemblies 14/509
One standard attenuation curve is shown in Figure
14.12(a)
This definition of the magnitude of earthquake is used
for the records of Wood Anderson type torsion
seismograph which has a damping equal to 80% of the
critical, natural period of 0.8 second and a magnification
of 2800. The value of M is determined from seismograph
records at different locations and a mean value is obtained
to define the magnitude of the earthquake. Nowadays,
more reliable definition of magnitude of earthquake like
body wave magnitude (Mb), surface wave magnitude (Ms)
and moment magnitude (Mm) are being used which are
determined from ground motion records of modern digital
6
5
Distance correction (–log A0 ) in magnitude
4
3 For near
earthquake
2
1
0
1 10 100 1000
Distance in km
Note Amplitude recorded by Wood Anderson Seismograph ‘A ’ is in
mm.
Figure 14.12(a) Distance correction curve for determining the
magnitude of an earthquake
14/510 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook
instruments. The minimum value of M which may cause
appreciable damage is considered to be about 5. The
extent of damage caused by a higher magnitude will
depend upon the depth of focus, the distance and the soil
stratification. Generally, an earthquake can have a focus
varying from 5 to 150 km from the earth’s surface. It is
generally seen that an earthquake of M = 5 may be felt
up to a radius of 150 km and can cause substantial damage
within a radius of up to 8 km while an earthquake of M
= 7 may be felt up to 400 km and can cause damage up
to a radius of 80 km. An M = 8 may be felt up to 800 km
and can cause damage up to a radius of 250 km. At
Koyna (India), for instance, an earthquake having M =
6.5 was felt up to a radius of 400 km and caused destruction
up to 60 km or so*. The energy thus released is
considerable and can be gauged by its magnitude as shown
in Table 14.9.
To obtain an idea of the energy that may be released
and the destruction that it can cause, one may compare it
with the energy of 8 ¥ 1020 ergs released during the
atomic explosion at Hiroshima, Japan, in 1945. This is
equivalent to an earthquake of M = 6.33. The extent of
destruction may be equivalent to an explosion of 10 such
bombs if M is 7.0 and many times more at yet higher
magnitudes.
The intensity of an earthquake is a subjective
assessment of its effects on the primary systems and
inhabitants in surrounding areas and is measured on the
Mercalli scale. As noted above, this decreases with distance
from the epicentre while the magnitude remains the same.
For details refer to DD ENV 1998. Generally, the
magnitude and intensity of an earthquake at a location
are interrelated.
The energy so released propagates in the form of
waves and travels through the stratification of the earth’s
crust in all directions, longitudinal (X axis), transverse
(Y axis) and vertical (Z axis) at the same instant, with
varying magnitudes subjecting to vibrations whatever
stands in its way on the earth’s surface, such as buildings
and trees etc. These waves are recorded in the form of
irregular broad bands, i.e. multi-frequency waveforms,
composed of many sine waves of different frequencies,
similar to a harmonic waveform, discussed in Section
23.5.2 and as shown in Figure 23.7.
Duration of an earthquake
An earthquake may last for 4-6 seconds only for M =
Table 14.9 Likely energy released at different magnitudes of
an earthquake
M 5.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
E(1020 ergsa) 0.08 2.5 14.1 80 446 2500
a
An erg is the unit of work in the cgs system and is equal to the
energy required by a force of 1 dyne to move an object 1 cm (1 erg
= 10–7 joule).
*The recent earthquake (2001) with its epicentre at Bhuj (India)
was felt up to >1000 km and caused destruction up to >400 km. It
was measured as M = 8.1 and lasted for about 45–50 seconds.
5.5 or less and for over 40 seconds for M > 7.5. The
greater the magnitude, longer will be the duration. An
earthquake of M > 6, for instance, may last for 15-30
seconds and produce a maximum horizontal ground
acceleration of the order of 0.1 g to 0.6 g (98 cm/s2 to
590 cm/s2) and higher, inflicting maximum damage in
the first 5-10 seconds only, and a frequency band between
1 and 33 Hz (IEEE 344).
Figure 14.12(b) represents an actual time history of
the earthquake that occurred in Chamoli, India, on 29
March 1999. It had a peak ground acceleration of nearly
0.15 g and a predominant frequency of about 2 Hz.
It is also accepted that after such an event, the ruptured
earth surfaces may try to settle down again. It is possible
that during the course of such a realignment there may
still remain pockets of energy between the two plates
until they finally settle. These may develop into releases
of stresses once again, leading to occasional tremors or
earthquakes even for several days after a major earthquake
or volcanic eruption. The earthquakes in Turkey are
examples where two equally devastating earthquakes
occurred between September and November 1999.
14.6.2(i) Recording an earthquake
This is carried out with the help of an instrument known
as a seismograph which amplifies and records small
movements of the earth’s surface and helps to identify
the epicentre and focal depth and determines the magnitude
of an earthquake.
More than a thousand earthquakes with a magnitude
of at least 2 (corresponding ground acceleration, < 0.01
g to 0.02 g) occur daily. But earthquakes less than M =
5 are considered minor, as they are generally harmless.
Earthquakes of the same magnitude may cause varying
amounts of damage at different locations, depending upon
the soil stratification and design considerations of the
primary systems. Conventional seismographs are not
suitable for recording major ground movements and go
off-scale (and sometimes are even damaged) when severe
earthquakes occur in their vicinity. For recording
significant ground movements, strong motion
accelerographs are used. Records of accelerographs are
called accelerograms. They are basic requirements for
seismic analysis, to design earthquake-resistant structures
and buildings and for other engineering applications. Large
numbers of accelerograph or seismic stations have been
established at vulnerable locations throughout the world
to record seismic waves for further research and to take
preventive measures by improving design practices.
Geologists and scientists make use of these data to
determine the magnitude of an earthquake and analyse
the source mechanism to further their quest to predict an
earthquake more accurately, while design engineers use
them for developing earthquake-resistant systems,
structures and equipment etc. So far these records have
proved insufficient to provide required forecasts about
an earthquake’s location, time of occurrence and
magnitude. Nevertheless, with continued efforts in this
direction, it is hoped that one day it will be possible to
predict an earthquake in advance more accurately.
 Testing of Metal-enclosed Switchgear Assemblies 14/511

200

Acceleration (g) cm/sec 2

0.15g
(153.73 cm/sec2)
–200
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time in seconds

Peak ground acceleration
0.15 g *This can be determined by drawing a Fourier spectrum, which
Predominant frequency*
2 Hz would identify the dominant frequencies that build up the multi-
frequency spectrum.
(a) Acceleration
10
Velocity (cm/sec)

–10
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time in seconds
(b) Velocity

10
Displacement (cm)

–10
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time in seconds
(c) Displacement
Figure 14.12(b) Time history of earthquake at Chamoli, India, which occurred in March 1999

Prediction of earthquake at present is a grey area where
scientists all over the world are working tirelessly to get
a breakthrough. Prediction of earthquake implies answers
to questions (a) when (b) where and (c) of what magnitude.
For answers to these questions, till about a decade back,
scientists were concentrating their research on correlation
of occurrences of earthquakes with precursors, like release
of radon gas, earthquake swarms, temporal changes in
topography and seismicity of an area etc. However, all
these studies require dense instrumentation, which could
only be located at specific sites and for specific durations
– thus have limited spatial and temporal aperture.
However, last decade has been satellite based
communication revolution. Scientists can now study any
part of world at any instant of time using satellite cameras
and sensors. Thus, sitting in their laboratory, scientists
now have access to data in regard to temporal and spatial
variations of various parameters of any part of the world.
14/512 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook
Recently some interesting results have been obtained by
correlating occurrences of several major earthquakes of
world with changes in topography using satellite based
interferometer system. Similar results were found by
correlating occurrences of major earthquakes with changes
in land surface temperature (LST) using thermal satellite
data sets. Some details of these studies are given below.
Radar interferometry system
Radar interferometry is a technique for measuring
interference phenomena with the use of a device called
interferometer. Interferometer separates out a beam of
light by means of reflection in two beams to produce
interference pattern to measure wavelength, index of
refraction and astronomical distances to map the contour
of the land. We have seen that the movement of tectonic
plates gives rise to stresses on the earth’s surface
surrounding the epicentral region prior to an earthquake.
These stresses depending upon the severity of earthquake
cause changes in location of crust, perturbations in the
atmosphere, dielectric changes in the soil and surface
configuration. These geo-physical changes can be recorded
by remote sensing devices through satellites orbiting in
the space and fitted with hyper-spectral sensors like
interferometer. Such a system can perform the remote
sensing round the clock under all weather conditions.
This geo-physical technique calculates the interference
pattern caused by the difference in phases between two
images obtained by a radar at two distinct times. The resultant
interferogram is a contour map of the changes in distance
between the ground and the radar instruments. The data
obtained from various satellites in the orbit can be transferred
through real time state-of-the-art serial data transmission
system (Section 24.11.5) to a central processing and analyzing
seismic station to analyze and interpret the geo-physical
measurements. It can also help in forecasting expected heights
of the oncoming tsunami waves.
Thermal remote sensing technique
The stresses on the earth’s surface prior to an earthquake
also change the land surface temperature (LST) as
analyzed through the various satellite data sets collected
for major earthquakes that occurred in various parts of
the world. The LST has provided yet one more avenue to
the researchers in the field to work in this direction to
learn the behaviour of an earthquake and utilize the LST
phenomenon to predict an impending earthquake.
It is observed that rocks under high pressure emit
positive charge, travel to the earth’s surface, and release
electromagnetic (EM) radiations causing land surface
temperature (LST) to rise (a corollary to charging of
clouds during lightning (Section 17.5)).
This temperature is seen to be rising 4–10∞C depending
upon the intensity of the earthquake, depth of the
hypocentre and the stratification of soil. The release of
this enormous heat causes sort of a greenhouse effect as
the surface gases rising to the atmosphere cause localized
heating of the atmosphere and hence, a thermal anomaly
in the region. This anomaly is utilized as LST anomaly,
and is being made use of in predicting an impending
earthquake by a few hours or days. Data collected from
open terrain locations of earthquakes are seen to be more
accurate and reliable for assessing the extent of anomaly
for better predictions. For details and research work (see
Further Reading, ref. 22)
These technologies using mathematical computer
models has been in practice since last few years by seismic
research centres worldwide to predict an impending
earthquake or tsunami waves well in advance. Closer study
of geo-physical changes calls for better understanding
and cooperation amongst member countries to exchange
vital information and work jointly for better and more
accurate predictions. If we can decipher these changes
as soon as such changes show up, compared to under
normal condition, we may predict a likely earthquake or
a tsunami before its occurrence. It is expected that one
day an accurate prediction of a future earthquake or
tsunami will be possible and that day may not be far. For
more study on the subject refer to the research work
conducted by many agencies, scientists, geologists and
physicists etc. over the years. Some such references are
provided under Further Reading.
There might be many more ways to predict an
impending earthquake and many scientists have been
working on such alternatives also at different seismic
centres worldwide. Some such references where research
work is going on with reasonable degree of reliability
are provided under Further Reading.
Response spectrum (RS)
A response spectrum (RS) is analytically determined by
calculating the peak response (also called the spectral
response) of a linear single degree of freedom system
with different natural periods and damping for a given
acceleration time history of ground movements recorded
during an earthquake. It forms a part of seismic studies
carried out for a particular area, and provides information
about responses of different types of structures during
an earthquake. It takes cognisance of the fact that an
earthquake can be expressed indirectly in the form of a
response spectrum. This spectrum is the peak response
of a linear single degree of freedom system on the
occurrence of an earthquake, as a function of its natural
frequency (periods) for different dampings. They are in
the shape of a curve, natural frequency or natural period
versus peak amplitude of vibrations of the system, as
illustrated in Figure 14.13. They have a broad band as
noted later and can be expressed in any of the following
forms for different damping levels:
1 Ground displacement response spectrum in terms of
spectral displacement versus natural period of
oscillations (Figure 14.14).
2 Ground velocity response spectrum in terms of spectral
velocity versus natural period of oscillations (Figure
14.15).
3 Ground acceleration response spectrum in terms of
spectral acceleration, g, versus natural period of
oscillations (Figure 14.16).
These spectra represent the nature of peak displacement/
velocity/forces and their magnitudes that may generate
 Testing of Metal-enclosed Switchgear Assemblies 14/513

1.80

1.50

1.20
Acceleration (g)

Damping %
0.90
1
2

0.60 3
4
10

0.30

0.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60
Period in seconds (T)

Figure 14.13 Typical broad band floor response spectra showing the floor acceleration at different damping levels

40 10% and frequency in the range of 1-33 Hz for systems

Damping – 5% at ground level and 0.5-10 Hz for floors above the ground
35 level, due to filtration, discussed later. It is, however,
observed that most of the vibrating bodies fall in a
EL Centro – Sd frequency range of 2-15 Hz.
30 (USA) Any of the three RS noted above is adequate to derive
a time history of an earthquake to simulate test conditions
in a laboratory. This, however, being a complex subject,
25
assistance must be obtained from experts in the field for
constructing an RS for laboratory testing, preparing a
Displacement (cm)

20 Koyna–Sd mathematical model for analytical assessment or deciding

Chamoli
15
10
5
0 •
0.4 0.8
Period in seconds (T)
Figure 14.14 Ground displacement response spectra of the
Koyna (India), Chamoli (India) and EL Centro (USA) earthquakes
in a vibrating system of different damping levels and
periods on the occurrence of an earthquake. They form
the basis of equipment design and their seismic testing
and are provided by the user to the equipment
manufacturer.
In the above instance, the response spectra shown in
Figures 14.14-14.16 are for 5% damping. The damping
levels described here are generally in the range of 1-
(India)
(India)
the level of ground movement and frequency of excitation
etc. To assist those in the field, the International
Association of Earthquake Engineering (IAEE) has
prepared a world list, coding the various countries on
the following basis:
• Seismic zones
• Seismic coefficient
• Expected acceleration of ground motion ( ˙˙ x)
• Expected velocity of ground motion ( ẋ ) , and
Expected displacement of ground (x).
1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
The above factors must be taken into consideration while
constructing an RS.
Floor response spectrum (FRS)
Some equipment will be on the ground, and some on
floors above the ground in which case floor movement
must be considered rather than ground movement. Floor
movement is different from ground movement because
of structural behaviour, characteristics and filtration of
ground frequencies. Filtration of ground frequencies may
lead to resonance and quasi-resonance conditions and
magnify the floor movements, compared to ground
movements.
14/514 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

100
Damping – 5%

EL Centro – Sv
80

Chamoli
Spectral velocity cm/sec

60

Koyna – Sv
40

20

0
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 3.0
Period in seconds (T)

Figure 14.15 Ground velocity response spectra of the Koyna (India), Chamoli (India) and EL Centro (USA) earthquakes

1.4 as shown in Figure 14.13. The RRS that is more

Damping – 5%
appropriate for the test object is chosen. The damping
level will be assessed as noted earlier, otherwise 5%
1.2
damping may be considered.
ZPA • Artificial broadening of the spectral accelerations at
1.0 the peaks of RRS: If we refer to an RS such as that
shown in Figure 14.16 we will notice a few peaks
EL Centro
which, in fact, represent the resonance or quasi-
0.8 resonance conditions. The RS may drop sharply
Acceleration (g)

immediately before or shortly after such peaks. It is

ZPA possible that during an earthquake, the corresponding
0.6 peaks may occur shortly before or shortly after the
peaks considered in the RS as it may not be possible
Chamoli to estimate the frequency of the structure so accurately,
0.4
ZPA at the time of constructing the RS. Since the test
conditions will only trace back the RRS, it is possible
0.2 that the object is not sufficiently loaded for such periods
Koyna and may fail during an earthquake while the test may
not be able to detect it and the object may successfully
0 withstand the test. To overcome such an uncertainty,
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
Period in seconds (T) it is normal practice to artificially broaden the
spectral acceleration in the peak regions of the RRS
Figure 14.16 Ground acceleration response spectra of the
Chamoli (India), Koyna (India), and EL Centro (USA) earthquakes by ±15% T or so (T being periods of peaks). The
broadened spectral peaks are illustrated in Figure 14.17.
Required response spectrum (RRS)
Zero period acceleration (ZPA)
• This is the response spectrum, constructed for a
particular location, for a future earthquake. It is based The maximum ground or floor acceleration, as a result
on seismic studies conducted for that region and past of an earthquake, can be obtained from a given RRS. It
seismic records of and around that region, if available. corresponds to acceleration at high frequency, i.e. more
It forms the basic parameters for the design and testing than 33 Hz. This is illustrated in Figure 14.18, and
of an object. represents the peak ground or floor acceleration of a
time history of an earthquake, from which the RRS is
• The RRS is defined for different levels of damping, developed. During a test, the peak acceleration of the

1.80
1.50
1.20
Acceleration (g)
0.90
0.60
0.30
0.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80
Period in seconds (T)
Figure 14.17 Broadening of the spectral peaks of RRS
shake table motion (ZPA) should be at least 10% greater
than the ZPA of RRS, according to IEEE 344, to account
for any likely severity in the event of an earthquake.
14.6.2(ii) Tsunami (Japanese word for storm
waves) warning system
Tsunamis are seismic sea waves caused by seaquakes
that are earthquakes having epicentre below the seabed.
Tsunami waves are like ripples caused by a pebble thrown
into a pond. They can also be caused by volcanic eruptions.
A tsunami can be more catastrophic than an earthquake.
An earthquake is localized, while seismic waves travel
at extremely fast speed of about 560 km per minute and
inflict a geographical area commensurate to their
magnitude. A very severe earthquake of a magnitude of
about 8 can be felt up to about 1000 km and cause
destruction up to 400 km or so. Tsunamis travel at much
slower speeds compared to seismic waves. Yet they travel
at speeds as high as 640–800 km per hour at the source
(epicentre in deep seas) and about 300–400 km per hour
in the shallow seas. Their energy release can be enormous
depending upon the intensity of the earthquake and could
cause catastrophe to coastal habitation that may be spread
over thousands of kilometres and cover many
neighbouring countries. The catastrophe can be more
disastrous in developing or under-developed countries
where about 40% and more of their population inhabits
at the coastlines. At present about 40% of the total world
population inhabits in this fashion. Tsunamis therefore
can engulf vast geographical areas as compared to
earthquakes and inflict more devastation.
A tsunami is made up of a series of very long waves
travelling outwardly on the surface of the ocean in all
directions. The period of tsunami waves (time between
Testing of Metal-enclosed Switchgear Assemblies 14/515
Towards rigidity Towards flexibility
(≥15 Hz) (<15 Hz)
acceleration g ¢
Spectral
Response spectrum
ZPA
0
0.03 sec 1 sec
1 1 Hz
Periodic (sec) t =
ZPA Zone f
33 Hz f, frequency (Hz)
1.00 1.20 1.40 ZPA = Peak ground or floor acceleration as recorded by the
(Zero period time history. The rest is a response record.
acceleration)
Figure 14.18 A ground or floor response spectrum
two successive waves) can be 5 minutes to 90 minutes or
so depending upon the severity of the seaquake. This
means the tsunami wave crests can be 50-1200 km long
and at a coastline there can be successive crests. We can
visualize its catastrophic force if we consider a huge
cauldron full of water. If someone shakes its base with a
big force it shall spill-over its water all around with an
equal force, recede after spilling and rebound after a
while, somewhat with a damped force until its turbulence
attenuates, similar to the damping of seismic waves due
to the stratification of soil through which they propagate.
A tsunami does not relate to seismic testing, neither
can any alteration in the civil structures or machines can
help in mitigating this oceanographic phenomenon. We
are providing a passing reference to this highly catastrophic
phenomenon as this too is due to a quake and equally
vital for geologists, scientists and engineers working in
the field of earthquake engineering to mitigate their effects,
save the mankind and safeguard their property as much
as possible.
The possibility of forewarning of an earthquake is
almost negligible as destruction takes place within a few
seconds from the commencement of earthquake and there
is hardly any time to plan a rescue programme. Never-
theless, it has been found possible to shut down very
critical installations (like the reactor of a nuclear plant)
within this duration also, with the help of strong motion
instruments and prompt warning signals and shutdown
commands via radars and satellites. But a forewarning is
surely possible in case of tsunamis as they may take a
few minutes to a few hours to hit an island or a coastline
depending upon the epicentre of the seaquake and the
distances of coastlines or islands in its vicinity. There
are many agencies worldwide that are relentlessly working
in this field also such as, US Geological Survey, Federal
14/516 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook
Emergency Management Agency, USA, (FEMA) and
International Tsunami Information Centre (ITIC) a UN
Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) body. But a forewarning system on a global
scenario has yet not become a reality as to pass on a
forewarning message to the likely to be affected areas
and countries. A recent severe seaquake of magnitude
9.3 that occurred in South Asia off Northern tip of Sumatra
island of Indonesia in the Indian Ocean on Dec. 26, 2004
is an example of this. It caused tidal waves up to 30 m
high, killing more than 250 000 persons, wounding and
dislodging millions in many countries including Indonesia,
Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, India, Sri Lanka, Maldives
and many more (Figure 14.18(a)).
The tsunami took about one to four hours from the
instant of seaquake to reach different coastlines. With
the help of seismic instruments it was possible to assess
the magnitude of seaquake, its epicentre and likely
coastlines it could hit and forewarn the countries that
were to be affected. But this did not happen. It is a matter
of grave concern. A forewarning in this case would have
given some lead time to the local authorities of a country
to evacuate the coastal inhabitants, holiday-resorts and
warn the tourists and the fishermen as far as possible
and save thousands of innocent lives caught totally
unaware.
It therefore calls for urgent and more concerted efforts
worldwide on installing prompt forewarning systems to
save the mankind. UN can take the lead to implement
the same. Efforts are now being made by most countries
exposed to such catastrophes to establish a round the
clock public information system (radio, TV, SMS etc.)
Figure 14.18(a) A geographical view of Tsunami (sea waves) – 2004 (Source: The Economist)
to send out warnings promptly to the general public and
media in the event of a forthcoming tsunami.
14.6.3 Constructing the RRS
Seismic analysis is carried out for all important engineering
structures such as dams, bridges and nuclear power plants.
For regions where these are to be located the likely
expectations of an earthquake as well as the extent of its
magnitude must be assessed on the basis of the seismic
history and the earthquake records of the region (Figures
14.12 to Figure 14.16). Based on these and other factors
such as soil stratification, site dependent response spectra
are determined. These are the RRS for equipment mounted
on the ground. However, for equipment mounted on the
floors of buildings, the floor spectra are determined. To
do this from ground movements the building/structure is
analysed and the response time history at various floors
is determined. From these time histories the FRS for
different floors is established. The floor response spectrum
(FRS) so obtained is used as the required response
spectrum (RRS) for floor-mounted equipment. The test
conditions are developed to simulate floor spectra. They
must also be regarded as the basis of the design response
spectra for all critical equipment and devices.
The following are the main parameters that must be
considered to arrive at the most appropriate response
spectra:
1 Magnitude of the earthquake, hypocentral distance
and soil stratification.
2 Based on above peak value of ground acceleration,
duration and frequency range.

Building/
structure
Foundation
Depth of
*Alluvial
foundation
soil
GL
Depth of hard rock
Crust 8–40 km
*Alluvial soil formed of a number of layers of non-uniform
non-homogeneous soil of different stratifications
Figure 14.19 A typical stratification of soil
Hypocentre
This defines the focus, i.e. the point of source within the
earth’s body, from where the stored energy is released. It
causes an earthquake and travels outwards in the form of
seismic waves to the earth’s surface.
Epicentre
This identifies the part of the earth’s surface directly above
the hypocentre and where it produces the most severe
ground movements. Away from the epicentre, the accelera-
tion and the intensity of ground movements diminish.
Soil stratification (rocky, alluvial or sedimented etc.)
From their focal point to the earth’s surface seismic waves
travel through the earth’s crust and the soil. The
stratification of soil, i.e. the earth’s layers above the crust,
play an important role, as the intensity and frequencies
of an earthquake, as felt on the earth’s surface, will depend
upon the type of soil strata.
It is observed that as a result of damping of soil, the
soil may absorb some or most of the energy produced
during an earthquake, depending upon the thickness and
type of strata. Hence this may help to diminish, to a
great extent, ground vibrations, i.e. ground acceleration,
velocity and displacement. Further studies on the subject
have revealed the following:
Testing of Metal-enclosed Switchgear Assemblies 14/517
• Bedrock Ground displacement in bedrock is less and
hence there is no or only a small settlement of a structure
built on this rock. But since the seismic forces act
directly on the structure, there is no damping of these
forces or filtration of frequencies. The structure resting
on such rock therefore should be adequate to absorb
and sustain all the energy of an earthquake. Rock,
however, forms a solid part of the earth’s crust and
provides a stable foundation for a building or a
structure. It is least affected during a seismic event,
as there is very little settlement. But in many places,
the rock may be deep below the earth’s surface and
it may not be practical or economical to build the
foundations on such rock. The universal practice,
generally, is to rest the foundations on shallow soil
layers only (Figure 14.19).
• Small or moderate thickness of soil Where there
is some soil, ground displacement will be greater
and seismic waves will pass through the soil. There
may be some settlement of the structure due to soil
compaction. While the structure will now be less
subject to seismic forces, this may prove to be a
worse case, as in addition to the structure being subject
to almost the full intensity of the earthquake, there
may also be settlement of the soil, which may result
in settlement of the structure and cause it to collapse
or develop cracks.
• Reasonable depth of soil When the soil is deeper
there may be considerable settlement before seismic
waves reach a structure. This soil consolidation may
cause a substantial differential settlement of the
structure and damage it. Although the intensity of the
shock and ground movements will now be less damage
may be severe as a result of settlement rather than the
intensity of the earthquake, as most of the energy will
be absorbed by the soil. At an increasing distance of
the structure or object from the focal point of the
earthquake, ground movements will diminish.
• Greater depth of soil When there is a deep layer of
soil, the intensity of the earthquake will reduce. The
greater the distance from the focal point, the smaller
will be ground movements. In such cases it is seen
that the settlement of the soil below the structure may
be negligible as it would have already settled by the
time the shock reached the surface, and hence damage
to the structure would be reduced.
Soil does not provide as solid a base as rock. The
strength of a foundation built on soil and its ability to
withstand an earthquake will therefore depend upon
the quality and depth of soils which may be formed
of a number of soil layers of different stratifications
and depths. Sandy soil or soil with sedimentary
deposits, for instance, will have less strength and will
provide a weaker base, as such soils may settle more
during a ground movement.
14.6.4 Theory of testing a system for seismic effects
A study of seismic effects on a structure, equipment or
device will reveal its worthiness to withstand an earthquake
without appreciable damage and perform satisfactorily
during and after sudden shocks and vibrations. It is possible
14/518 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook
to study their performance through prescribed seismic
withstand tests. Where a test is not possible, due to the
size and/or weight of the object, performance can be
assessed through mathematical analysis. Seismic testing
is a complex subject. To provide the full details here is
neither possible nor the purpose of this text. We have
covered this subject only broadly to provide an introduction
to the applicability of earthquake engineering to more
constructive use, particularly to take safety measures in
the initial stages when commencing a new project. For
those in this field and who are seeking more details/
clarifications on the subject, references have been provided
at the end of this chapter. Whatever minimum information
is considered necessary to familiarize an engineer with
this subject are provided below. National and international
specifications on rotating machines, switchgears and
switchgear and controlgear assemblies and bus systems
as discussed in Chapters 11, 14 and 32, respectively, do
not normally require such tests. They become vital when
such equipment are installed in a nuclear power plant and
where, by virtue of their failure or malfunctioning during
or after such a disturbance, may cause a process
destabilization. Such a destabilization may jeopardize the
safety and integrity of the main plant, and result in an
accident or radioactive radiation beyond critical limits.
The radiation may cause a catastrophe to the inhabitants
in the vicinity. The NPPs are therefore designed to fulfil
the following three basic safety requirements to minimize
the radiological emissions during an earthquake to
minimize loss of life and property,
– Means to shutdown the reactor safely and maintain it
in the safe shutdown condition
– Means to remove residual heat from the core after the
reactor is shut down
– Means to reduce the potential for release of radio
active materials and to ensure that any release is within
permissible limits.
The prime objective is to minimize loss of life and
property. It is therefore mandatory worldwide to design
NPP facilities for highest possible even least probable
earthquakes.
Seismic tests with different intensities are advisable
even for machines, devices and components that are to
be installed in other critical areas, such as a refinery, a
petrochemical project, handling and filling areas of
inflammable liquid, gas or vapour where also as a result
of failure of such machines system process or control
may be jeopardized, cause serious accidents, and result
in heavy loss of life and property. The seismic worthiness
relates more to the primary system than to the secondary.
For a secondary system, it applies only to safety-related
equipment or devices installed in critical areas as noted
above. The suitability of primary systems is verified
through analytical means only, as laboratory test for such
systems are not practicable.
Hydro projects, dams, bridges, ships, naval equipment
and any installations that are prone to continuous shocks
and vibrations also require their primary and secondary
systems to have a better design and operational ability to
withstand seismic effects or other ground/surface
vibrations. No specific tests are presently prescribed for
such applications. But response spectra can be established
even for such locations and the primary and secondary
systems analyzed mathematically or laboratory tested.
We define below some common terms in earthquake
engineering to clarify test requirements and methods:
• Ground acceleration This is the time history of
ground acceleration as a result of an earthquake, where
multiple frequency excitation predominates (Figure
14.12(b). A ground response spectrum (GRS) can be
derived from this history.
• Floor acceleration This is the time history of
acceleration of a particular floor or structure caused
by a given ground acceleration (Figure 14.16). It may
have an amplified narrow band spectrum due to
structural filtration, where single frequency excitation
and resonance may predominate, depending upon the
dynamic characteristics of the structure. A floor
response spectrum (FRS), as shown in Figure 14.18,
can be derived from this history. Consideration of
GRS or FRS will depend upon the location of the
object under test.
• Broad band This means multiple frequencies of
ground movements. During an earthquake these
assume multi-frequency characteristics, which are
represented by broad band response spectra (Figure
14.13). When, however, such a response is transmitted
to secondary systems and objects mounted on floors,
it becomes a narrow band, due to floor and structural
filtration, and the amplitude of vibration is magnified.
The magnification will depend upon the natural
frequency and damping of the secondary systems
and the objects. As normal practice, all systems and
objects, mounted on the ground or a floor, must
undergo multi-frequency tests. The shake table is
excited to achieve a movement that represents a broad
band waveform which will include all frequencies in
the range of 1–33 Hz.
• Natural frequency When an object is mounted in
situ (as in normal operation) and given an initial external
displacement or velocity in any direction and then
released, the body will oscillate about its initial position
in a decaying sinusoidal waveform as illustrated in
Figure 14.20. The amplitudes of oscillations will
depend upon weight, stiffness and configuration. The
record of these oscillations is known as free vibration
record. The rate of oscillations will determine the
natural frequency of the object. Figure 14.20 shows
one such free vibration record.
Damping is the characteristic of a vibrating system
which defines how fast the amplitudes of a freely vibrating
system will decay. The greater the damping of a system,
the faster the amplitude will decay and vice-versa. The
magnification of vibrations of a system, as a result of
ground movements, will depend upon its natural frequency
and level of damping.
Generally, all systems are flexible to some extent,
except a few that may be completely rigid. A flexible
system can be represented as shown in Figure 14.21,
where ‘resistance’ represents the restoring force developed
within the system, when applied with a force to displace
it from its original axis X-X¢ . It will try to regain its
 Testing of Metal-enclosed Switchgear Assemblies 14/519

x0 = 1.000

0.800

x1 = 0.600
Damping

x2 0.400

0.200
Amplitude

0.000

2.400
2.200
1.800

2.000
1.600
1.400
1.200
–0.200

1.000
0.800
0.600

–0.400
0.400

–0.600 Time (seconds)

–0.800
0.200

–1.000

0.208

Figure 14.20 A typical free vibration record (sine wave) illustrating natural frequency of vibration and level of damping of an object

F (t )
Force System response
F (t )
X X¢
Object (m)
Peak response
(spectral response)
M
Restoring force Damping force
(resistance) k (dashpot) Ground motion

Object mx ¢¢ kx cx ¢
mounted on (Inertia (Restoring (Damping
a shake table Peak acceleration (ZPA) force) force) force)
Free body diagram of mass
Figure 14.21 A single degree of freedom system

original shape and position and vibrate about its axis where
until it attenuates due to damping. Vibrations are caused F(t) = force applied to the object as a function of time
as the system (which may be any object) returns to its x = displacement of the object
original position and overshoots the original axis X-X¢ to x¢ = velocity of the mass attained when affected by
the other side. Thus vibrations of the system about its vibrations
axis, commence until they attenuate. The ‘dashpot’ x¢¢ = acceleration of the mass attained during the course
represents the resilient characteristic of the body that of restoring force.
would try to damp the oscillations thus developed and m = mass of the object
attenuate it. The following mathematical expressions c = coefficient of viscous damping
derive the properties of a system when excited by an k = coefficient of restoring force (or stiffness of the
external force F(t): foundation)
F(t) = mx¢¢ + cx¢ + kx This equation can also be rewritten as
14/520 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

F(t) viscous in nature, which means that the amplitude of a

= x ¢¢ + c x ¢ + k ◊ x vibrating body will decay exponentially, i.e.
m m m
If wn is the natural angular frequency of vibration of an x0 x x
object in rad/s, i.e. 2p f, f being the natural frequency of = 1 = 2 and
x1 x2 x3
vibration in Hz, then
x1 2p h
k = 2p f loge =
2 ph (for h to be too small)
wn = x2 1 – h2
m
x
or f = 1 k or h = 1 log e 1
2p m 2p x2
Since the natural time period for one full vibration (one For under-damped systems, 0 < h < 1
cycle), T = 1 3 Critically damped systems (Figure 14.22(c))
f
The object may just reach its original position. By
\ T = 2p m the time it does so, it loses all its restoring force due
k to damping and does not overshoot. Such systems do
not oscillate. For critically damped systems
and h = c
2 km h=1
4 Over-damped systems (Figure 14.22(c))
h is the fraction of the critical damping constant, then The damping strength of the object is such that it
may absorb most of its restoring force before it reaches
c = 2h km its original position. There are no oscillations. For
m m over-damped systems, h > 1.

= 2h k = 2h ◊ w
n
m Displacement
x0 x1 x2
F(t)
and x ¢¢ + 2 ◊ h ◊ w n ◊ x ¢ + w n2 ◊x = Original position
m x 0¢ x 1¢ x0 = x 0¢ = x1 = x 1¢
etc. h = 0
This is an important equation that defines the behaviour
One cycle
of a vibrating body under different conditions of applied (T ) t
force or motion F(t). From this it can be inferred that the (a) Undamped free vibrations
response or movement of object ‘x’ will depend upon h
and wn · h is termed the fraction of critical damping and
wn, the angular natural frequency of the system. With
the help of these equations, the response characteristics
of an object to a force F(t) can be determined. Damping
x0
Displacement

Damping characteristics x1
x2
Original position
An object can acquire the following four types of damping x 1¢
characteristics: x 0¢
x0 > x 0¢ >x1> x 1¢ etc.
1 Undamped systems (Figure 14.22(a)) Damping
1>h > 0
Where there is no damping force, such as friction or
air resistance, the object will continue to oscillate t
about its initial position for ever (but this does not (b) Underdamped free vibrations
happen as it is against the nature). Now
c =0
\h = 0 and
Displacement

Overdamped h >1
x0 = x1 = x2 etc. Original position x0
Critically damped h = 1
2 Under-damped systems (Figure 14.22(b))
Most systems fall in this category. As a result of the
t
restoring force, the object returns to its original position,
overshoots its original axis and goes to the other side (c) Critically and overdamped system (no oscillations)
and hence the oscillations commence. For mathematical Figure 14.22 Different damping levels of a free vibrating
convenience, it is generally assumed that damping is system
 Testing of Metal-enclosed Switchgear Assemblies 14/521

Resonance leading to negative damping magnify and must be avoided at the design stage. This
can be done by selecting suitable lengths of transmission
When the natural frequency of a system, or object lines between two poles, the height of poles or the lengths
Ê ˆ of suspension bridges or by carrying out constructional
w n , Á w n = k ˜ coincides with that of the ground or changes in the system to achieve a natural frequency
Ë m¯
floor, w, where resonance may occur due to a ground safe to avoid a possible resonance.
movement, this will cause magnification of vibration
amplitudes, which will rise in successive cycles and 14.6.5 Test response spectrum (TRS)
destabilize the system or object and render it highly
This is a response spectrum obtained during a test in a
vulnerable to failure. The maximum magnification occurs
laboratory while exciting the shake table with ground
at a ground or floor frequency, w, slightly less than the
movements as in the RRS. The test object is mounted on
natural frequency, wn. The magnification of vibrations is
the shake table. The test object should respond normally
a function of its damping characteristics, as noted earlier.
during such movements. The test conditions (i.e. TRS)
Figure 14.23 illustrates the influence of the natural
should closely overlap the required seismic conditions
frequency of the system or object on the magnification
(i.e. RRS) of Figure 14.25.
of its vibration amplitudes, as a result of a ground
movement (F(t)), having a frequency, w, for different
levels of system or equipment damping. 14.6.6 Test requirements
Similarly, a build-up of amplitudes and consequent To test large to very large objects such as primary systems,
higher swings (oscillations) are sometimes noticed in where a laboratory test is not practical, seismic checks are
transmission line conductors, tall poles or suspension established through analytical means. Similarly, for very
bridges due to strong winds at critical speeds. This is a large and heavy secondary systems such as turbines,
condition of negative damping, when the amplitudes alternators or transformers and reactors also their worthiness
is established through mainly mathematical analysis. Below
we briefly discuss guidelines for testing such objects that
h0 1 can be tested in a laboratory.
Now that it is possible to establish test facilities in a
h1 2 laboratory to simulate the time history of an earthquake
seismic tests are conducted by creating the ground
movements in the test object. Other methods, such as by
Magnification factor (of magnitude of vibrations)

analysis or by combined analysis and testing, are also

available. Refer to IEEE 344 and IEC 60980 for more
details. For this purpose a shake table, able to simulate
the required seismic conditions (RRS) is developed on
h2 3 which the test object is mounted and its performance
observed under the required shock conditions. Since it is
not easy to create such conditions in a laboratory, there
are only a few of these facilities available. The better
equipped laboratories are in Japan, the USA, the UK,
Greece, Germany, India and China. In India such shake
tables are in use at Earthquake Engineering Department,
h3 4 IIT Roorkee and at Central Power Research Institute
(CPRI), Bangalore.
The test object is mounted on the shake table and
subjected to movements at the desired level and frequency
in the horizontal and vertical directions simultaneously
and its performance is critically observed, recorded and
analysed during and after the tests. Where tests in all the
three axes are not possible, two axis tests (two orthogonal
horizontal and one vertical) are also permissible, which
w < 11 can also simulate the three axes conditions. For more
wn
frequency ratio
details refer to IEEE 344 or IEC 60980.
Note
1. The peak of all the curves represent the condition of resonance Free vibration test
that occurs when the system or equipment frequency wn is a little
w This is conducted to check the dynamic behaviour of the
higher than of the ground motions w or w is slightly less than 1.
n
2. Curve 1 represents a system that is undamped, Figure 14.22(a).
test object. It determines its natural frequency of
3. Higher the level of damping, lower will be the amplifications, oscillations, fn, and level of damping, h, under in-situ
h1 < h2 < h3. condition before conducting the seismic tests. The test
Figure 14.23 Amplification of vibrations versus frequency object is mounted rigidly on a platform as in its actual
ratio service position. It is then pulled by a collapsible string,
14/522 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

tied at the centre of the top of the object parallel to the
X–X ¢ axis. The string will snap at a certain force and
will make the object swing sinusoidally. A graph may be
plotted of amplitude versus time as shown in Figure
14.20, from which can be determined its fundamental or
natural frequency, fn, and the level of damping, h. From
Figure 14.20 it can be found that
peak ground movements should not be considered to
be less than 0.5 g (IEEE 344). In other words, equipment
conforming to this test is capable of safely shutting
down the whole plant and maintaining it in the event
of an earthquake of this intensity. It will also be able
to perform its duties when normal conditions are
restored. Such equipment is subjected to at least five

[ ]
OBE tests before applying the SSE test. The logic
f n
4.8 Hz f n = 1 , T
0.208 behind such a stipulation is a statistical study of
T
earthquakes which suggests a higher probability of
1 x0
h= ◊ log e = 1 log e 1 = 0.035 moderate-intensity earthquakes and a lower probability
2p x1 2p 0.6 for the most severe earthquakes. A small earthquake
Similar tests are conducted for other directions. may occur on more than one occasion for which the
test object must be suitable, whereas the most severe
earthquake may occur only once in lifetime.
Duration of testing
This is the duration sufficient to simulate seismic 14.6.7 Test equipment
conditions. It depends upon the algorithm used to find
time history from the required response spectrum (RRS). This is a shake table, dynamically balanced, consisting
The minimum duration of a strong movement, as of a platform on which the test object is mounted (Figure
recommended by IEEE 344, is 15 seconds as illustrated 14.24(a)). Special arrangements may be required to
in Figure 14.24(b). This will require a total duration of accommodate very large objects, such as rotating
the order of 20 seconds, including the movement’s machines, motors, generators, turbines and transformers,
times of rise and time of decay. A duration of 20.48 except extremely large machines, where it may be
seconds, as noted in the figure, is typical of a test impractical to establish such laboratory test facilities.
conducted at IIT Roorkee. The following tests may be IIT Roorkee, India, possesses a shake table of 3.5 m ¥
conducted: 3.5 m with a payload capacity of up to 20 tonnes. It is
provided with electrohydraulic actuators with feedback
• Fragility testing This is a proprietary test to provide controls suitable to develop the required one horizontal
future reference data about an object, on its worthiness and one vertical movement of the test table up to 3 g
to operate under certain seismic conditions. When (ZPA). The test is usually conducted for a time history
no seismic requirements are defined by the user or compatible with the RRS between a frequency range of
the manufacturer the object is tested for its optimum 0.2–50 Hz. The TRS is calculated conventionally at 74
capability. frequency points, as recommended by the United States
• Proof testing This is conducted when the seismic Nuclear Regulatory Commission (USNRC). The time
requirements in the form of floor response spectra duration, considered at about 20 seconds, will be adequate
(FRS) or required response spectra (RRS) have been for the attack and decay periods of the shake table. Of
pre-determined, and consequently test response spectra
(TRS) have been established. This test will verify
whether the test object can withstand an earthquake,
of this magnitude and characteristics.
The above tests are performed on the following basis:
1 Operating basis earthquake (OBE) test This is
defined by an earthquake that may be expected to
occur during the operating life of the object for which
it is designed. For the purpose of design, the peak
ground movements should not be considered to be
less than 0.1 g (IEE 344). The object should function
normally during and after the earthquake without
malfunctioning or affecting the safety and the integrity
of the nuclear plant throughout its operating life. All
the equipment installed in a nuclear power plant must
undergo this level of testing.
2 Safe shutdown earthquake (SSE) test This is
defined by the most severe earthquake that could
occur, producing the maximum vibratory ground
movements at the place of installation. Safety-related
machines, devices and components should remain
functional during an earthquake of this magnitude
and maintain the safety and integrity of the plant Figure 14.24(a) Panels mounted on a shake table during seismic
until a safe shutdown. For the purpose of design, the tests at IIT Roorkee

this, the duration of a strong movement is considered for
at least 15 seconds, as illustrated in Figure 14.24(b).
Time of rise, t1, is adjusted according to the shape of the
RRS. The data is acquired at 100 samples per second,
enough to meet the requirements of accurate recording
of frequency in earthquake movements.
14.6.8 Test procedure
Simulating an RRS in a test laboratory
Normally the user provides the nature of a probable
earthquake in the form of RRS, i.e. acceleration
characteristic curves, period versus spectral acceleration,
such as those in Figure 14.18. The first objective is to
generate a signal which should be able to produce a time
history, on a shake table, whose response spectra match
with those of the RRS.
The RRS is simulated on the shake table, generally
without the test object to protect it from repeated shocks.
This is done in all three directions, X, Y and Z, by shaking
the table in the respective direction and adjusting its
movement according to the relevant RRS. The maximum
acceleration of the table is kept higher than the spectral
acceleration corresponding to the ZPA of the relevant
RRS, subject to a minimum of 0.1 g for an OBE and
0.5 g for an SSE test, as discussed above. The movement
of the table is recorded as ‘time versus g’ (Figure 14.24(b)).
If the three directional facility is not available, the two
orthogonal RRS of the horizontal directions X–X¢ and
Y–Y ¢ can be superimposed on each other to obtain an
equivalent horizontal RRS analytically as shown in Figure
14.26. This is a permissible procedure. Equivalent
horizontal RRS is then translated into the shake system.
With the recording of the three RRS or two, as the case
may be, the table is now actuated in the respective
direction, according to the simulated RRS and the response
spectra of the history of table acceleration obtained, which
can be termed TRS and compared with the original RRS
(Figure 14.25). This is plotted for 74 frequency points,
0.2–50 Hz, as prescribed by the USNRC, most of which
100 samples/sec
Acceleration (g)
0.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 6.00
Rise time
Note The TRS will envelop the RRS by minimum 10%
Figure 14.24(b) Typical time history (RRS) of shake table movements during a laboratory test
Testing of Metal-enclosed Switchgear Assemblies 14/523
are concentrated in the range 1–15 Hz, as noted earlier.
The test response spectra should overlap the RRS by at
least 10% at most of the 74 frequency points, to be on
the safe side, as prescribed by IEEE 344 and illustrated
in Figure 14.25. The table is actuated to obtain an
acceleration equal to at least the ZPA of the respective
RRS as noted above. Shortcomings in the TRS, if any,
are compensated by readjusting the control signals to the
table actuators and the actual tests are carried out on the
test object as follows.
1 OBE test
Passive test The test object is mounted on the shake
table and subjected to both horizontal (X and Y )
movements or one cumulative orthogonal horizontal and
one vertical ground movement simultaneously.
Accelerometers are mounted on the shake table to measure
its movements and also on the test object at its most
vulnerable points. These points may be identified by the
manufacturer or the user to monitor the behaviour of the
object in such locations.
The test is conducted for nearly 20 seconds, of which
at least 15 seconds are covered for the strong movement
(Figure 14.24(b)) the remaining 5 seconds being for the
table pick-up and decay periods. Figure 14.25 illustrates
one test result, indicating the TRS exceeding the RRS by
at least 10% at most of the frequency points. The behaviour
of the object is assessed for its structural and mechanical
worthiness. The test is repeated in the following four
positions:
1 Equipment axis X–X¢ parallel to the X–X¢ axis of the
shake table (Figure 14.27 position 1).
2 Equipment turned by 90∞ from the first (position 2).
3 Equipment axis X–X¢ at 45∞ to the line of horizontal
actuator of the shake table (position 3).
4 Equipment turned by 90∞ from position 3 (position 4).
Objects symmetrical through their length and width and
by the distribution of their weight about the vertical axis
can be tested in position 1 only. The rest can be tested in
all four positions.
8.00 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0
Strong motion time (>15 sec.) Decay time
Time (Seconds)
14/524 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

10% at most of the periods

1.2g

Damping 5.00%

1.0g

0.8g
Acceleration (g)

Required response
spectrum (RRS)
0.6g

Test response
spectrum (TRS)
0.4g

0.2g

10.0 ms 100.0 ms 1.0 s 10.0 s

Natural period (seconds)

Figure 14.25 Comparison of the test conditions (TRS) with the required conditions (RRS). This is established in all three directions

Cumulative RRS of two

orthogonal horizontal RRSs Test object turned by 90∞
Y Y
RRS in X–X ¢ direction
X¢
RRS in Y–Y ¢ direction
Spectral Acceleration ‘g’

X¢ X
X¢ X X¢ X

Y¢ Y¢
ZPAx Position-1 Position-2

Shake table
ZPAy Test object
Test object turned by 90∞

X¢ X
.03 sec 1 sec
33 Hz Period t (sec) 1 Hz Fx Fy
Y
f, Frequency (Hz)
F F
Figure 14.26 Analytical construction of an equivalent horizontal
RRS Fy Fx
Y
X X¢
Accelerometer Accelerometer
• Testing under energized conditions Testing
equipment under energized conditions should be Position-3 Position-4
performed only after tests under passive conditions
have been conducted successfully. The same test in Figure 14.27 Mounting of test object and applying force

four different positions, under energized conditions,
should be conducted and the behaviour and
performance of the equipment assessed.
2 SSE test
In this test equipment in a passive state is tested first in
any of the four positions noted above for an OBE test.
When successful, it is tested for one SSE test. If these
tests are successful, then the following tests may be
conducted to complete seismic testing.
Five numbers – OBE tests one after the other.
One number – SSE test under passive state or energized
conditions as desired and the behaviour and performance
of the equipment assessed.
• Test results After each test, the test object is
subjected to visual and routine checks. For electrical
equipment, component and devices the test
requirements will generally remain those discussed
in Chapters 11, 14 and 32 for rotating machines,
switchgear and controlgear assemblies and bus
systems respectively, unless there is a specific
requirement for an additional test. If so, this must
be specified by the user. In a switchgear or a control
assembly in particular, the contacts of all breakers,
contactors, and moving and fixed power and control
contacts of a draw-out assembly should be monitored
during the course of seismic tests to ensure that
there is no chattering (bouncing), or breaking and
making of contacts that may destabilize the plant
functions or throw it out of control. The indicating
and measuring instrumentation and devices must give
correct indications and readings. Equipment having
to perform more complex duties, such as a process
control, flow control, or sequence control, or when
the control panel is also controlling and monitoring
many other drives or devices, must be monitored more
closely during seismic tests to detect malfunctioning
of any component that may jeopardize the safety and
integrity of the plant. The actual operating conditions
are simulated as far as is practical, before performing
such tests, to represent the behaviour of all
components and devices during the test and their
repercussions on the process they are controlling.
14.6.9 Preventive measures
In general, this discussion relates more to primary
systems, which include civil foundations and structures,
on which the whole building rests. Correct civil
foundations, structures, columns, beams and trusses are
major components in mitigating the effects of an
earthquake. All these must be capable of withstanding
the shocks and vibrations of an earthquake, according
to the response spectra constructed for that location. It
may be noted that at higher floor levels, the building
tends to act like a vibrating filter and may transmit to
the object frequencies close to the natural frequency of
the secondary structure. In other words, the multi-
frequency band of the ground movements may reduce
to a narrow frequency band, almost dominating the
Testing of Metal-enclosed Switchgear Assemblies 14/525
natural frequency of the secondary system and may
become a potential cause of a likely resonance with the
structure. Objects on upper floors may thus be subject
to higher accelerations, sometimes many times more
than ground accelerations. Hence the necessity to avoid
a resonance at the design stage itself. It is possible to
do this, by keeping the fundamental frequency of the
floor or structure, where the secondary systems are to
be mounted, away from the predominant frequency that
may filter out from the ground level.
More precautions in mounting the electrical or
mechanical machine, component and device on each floor
or structure would contain the magnification of seismic
effects to a large extent. For instance heavy equipment
like DG sets, pumps and compressors may be mounted
on a common bed plate and bonded rigidly with the rigid
structures of the building, so that in the event of an
earthquake the structure and the foundation move together
as a single unit. Special care need be taken to choose the
right size and grade of hardwares (bolts and nuts) to
make a rigid foundation. Past experiences have revealed
that major damage and toppling of equipment have
occurred due to failure of anchor bolts. Welding the base
with the foundation (Figure 13.48(a)) is considered to be
a good practice.
Critical machines and components then need be
designed with such a natural frequency that they do not
resonate with the filtered-out predominant frequency of
the structure or foundation. This is possible by suitably
modifying the method of mounting or making small
alterations in the construction of the object. It may be
noted that a resonance may take time to build up and an
earthquake may not last that long. The occurrence of a
resonance, therefore, may not be as significant as the
quasi-resonance (i.e. initial stages while the resonance
is still building up) and this is reflected by the jagged
peaks of the RS. The latest practice in the field of civil
and structural engineering is to build a resilient ground
floor rather than a rigid one, which can absorb the most
vibrations of a seismic event and filter out to the upper
floors only the frail motions. For more details, refer to
the works available on the subject, as mentioned in the
references.
By exercising these checks, most problems can be
averted at the installation stage. The remainder can be
taken care of in the design of mechanical systems/
construction of a machine rather than its electrical design,
even in the case of an electrical machine, to ensure their
required behaviour during an earthquake.
The following may be a few such design areas that
may be considered, in improving the performance of a
machine during an earthquake:
• Bearings and bearing housings in a rotating machine,
in view of the very small gap between the stator and
the rotor.
• Rigidity of doors, bus and wiring systems etc. in a
switchgear or controlgear assembly.
• Limiting the use of brittle metals such as ceramic or
porcelain. Although, avoiding the use of such materials
in some cases may not be practical, as in the case of
lightning arresters, bushings and insulators used in
14/526 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

an HV switchgear, instrument and power transformers
and reactors.
• It is mandatory to employ only static or
microprocessor-based relays, components and devices
wherever possible.
• Extra care on the quality of fasteners and the method
of jointing and bolting as noted above.
• Resilient but rigid foundations such as by providing
spring mounts or rubber pads for machines on the
floor or for components and devices mounted on the
machine so that they are able to absorb the vibrations,
caused by resonance and quasi-resonance effects, due
to filtered out narrow band ground movements. The
stiffness of the foundation (coefficient of the restoring
force, k) may be chosen such that it would make the
natural frequency of the equipment
wn = k
m
much less than the ground (exciting) frequency, w. It
is recommended to keep w > 2, to achieve an
w
effective vibration isolation. n
• The foundation and machine body/structure must
prevent internal resonance, which is possible by
slightly altering their designs.
The critical items may then be checked for the
required response spectra (RRS) as discussed above.

Relevant Standards

IEC Title IS BS

60044-1/2002 Specifications for current transformers. 2705-1/2002, BS EN 60044-1/1999 –

General requirements. 2705-2/2002,
Application guide for current transformers. 4201/2001
60044-2/2003 Application guide for voltage transformers. 4146/2001, BS 7729/1995, –
General requirements for voltage transformers. 3156-1/2002, BS EN 60044-2/1999
Measuring voltage transformers. 3156-2/2002
60044-6/1992 Protective current transformers. 2705-3/2002 BS EN 60044-6/1999 –
Protective current transformers for special purpose 2705-4/2002
applications.
60051-1 to 9 Direct acting indicating analogue electrical measuring 1248-1 to 9 BS 89-1 to 9 –
instruments and their accessories.
Definitions and general requirements.
60060-1/1989 High voltage test techniques. General definitions and test 2071-1/1999 BS 923-1/1990 –
requirement.
60060-2/1994 High voltage test techniques. Measuring systems 2071-2/2001 BS EN 60060-2/1997 –
60255-5/2000 Electrical relays – Insulation coordination for measuring – – –
relays and protection equipment. Requirements and test.
60364-4-41/2001 Electrical installations of buildings. Protection against – – –
electric shock.
60364-4-44/2001 Electrical installations of building. Protection against – – –
voltage disturbances and EM disturbances.
60439-1/2004 Low voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies. 8623-1/1998 BS EN 60439-1/1999 –
Requirements for type-tested and partially type tested
assemblies.
60439-2/2000 Low voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies. 8623-2/1998 BS EN 60439-2/2000 –
Particular requirements for busbar trunking systems.
60529/2003 Specification for degree of protection provided by – – –
enclosures (IP code)
60694/2002 Common specifications for high voltage switchgear and 12729/2000 BS EN 60694/1997 –
controlgear standards.
60695-2 Fire hazard testing part 2-10-Glowing/hot-wire based 11000 (part 2/sec 1) BS EN 60695-2 –
(10 to 13) 2000 test methods 2001 (10 to 13)
60890/1995 A method of temperature rise assessment by – – –
extrapolation for partially type tested assemblies (PTTA)
of low voltage switchgear and controlgear.
60898/1995 Electrical accessories: circuit breakers for over current 8828/2001 BS EN 60898/1991 –
protection for household and similar installations.
60980/1989 Recommended practices for seismic qualification of – – _
electrical equipment of the safety system for nuclear
generating stations.
61000-4-1/2000 Testing and measurement techniques. – – –
 Testing of Metal-enclosed Switchgear Assemblies 14/527

IEC Title IS BS

61000-4-4/2004 Part 4 – Testing and measurement techniques, Section 4 – – – –

Electrical fast transient burst immunity test.
61000-4-12/1995 Part 4 – Testing and measurement techniques, Section-12 – – –
– oscillatory waves immunity test.
61000-6-3/1996 EMC – Emission standard for residential, commercial – – –
and light industrial environments.
61000-6-4/1997 EMC – Part 6 – Generic standards, Section 4 – – – –
Emission standard for industrial environments.
61000-6-5/2001 Generic standards – Immunity for power station and – – –
substation environments. (For other standards see
IEC catalogue)
61117/1992 A method for assessing the short circuit withstand – – –
strength of partially type tested assemblies.
61180-1/1992 High voltage test techniques for LV equipment. – – –
Definitions, test and procedure requirements.
61641/1996 Enclosed low voltage switchgear and controlgear – – –
assemblies. Guide for testing under conditions of
arcing due to internal fault.
62262/2002 Degree of protection provided by enclosure for electrical – – –
equipment – required external mechanical
impact (IK code).
62271-200/2003 A.C. metal enclosed switchgear and controlgear for rated 12729/2000 BS EN 60298/1996 –
voltages above 1 kV and up to and including 52 kV.
CISPR-11/1999 Industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radio- – – –
frequency equipment. Electromagnetic disturbance
characteristics. Limits and methods of measurement.
– Criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures. 1893/1998 DD ENV 1998 –
(1–5) /1996
– Interconnecting busbars for a.c. voltage above 1 kV 8084/2002 BS 159/1992 –
up to and including 36 kV.
– Electrical protective relays used in seismic areas. 8714/1978 – –
– Methods of measuring temperature rise of 9678/1980 – –
electrical equipment.
– Code of practice for selection, installation and 10118-1 to 4/2001 – –
maintenance of switchgear and controlgear
up to 1 kV. Installation.
– Circuit breakers requirements and tests, sec 1, 13947-2/1993 – –
voltages not exceeding 1000 V a.c. or 1200 V d.c.

Relevant US Standards ANSI/NEMA and IEEE

ANSI/IEEE-37.81/1989 Guide for seismic qualification of class IE metal enclosed power switchgear assemblies.
ANSI/IEEE-308/1992 Criteria for class IE power system for nuclear power generating station.
ANSI/IEEE-323/2003 Qualifying class IE equipment for nuclear power generating station.
ANSI/IEEE-336/1991 Standard installation, inspection and testing requirements for power instrumentation and control equipment at
nuclear facilities.
ANSI/IEEE-344/1993 Recommended practices for seismic qualification of class IE equipment for nuclear power generating stations
(NPGS).
ANSI/IEEE-649/1992 For qualifying class IE motor control centers for nuclear power generating stations (NPGS).
ANSI/IEEE-693/1997 Seismic design of substation equipment.
ANSI-C37.51/1989 Switchgear metal enclosed low voltage a.c. power circuit breaker switchgear assemblies – conformance test
procedures.
ANSI-C37.55/1989 Metal clad switchgear assemblies. Conformance test procedures.
ANSI-C37.57/1990 Metal enclosed interrupter switchgear assemblies. Conformance test procedures.
NEMA/ICS-6/2001 Industrial controls and systems. Enclosures.
14/528 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

NEMA-250/2003 Enclosure for electrical equipment up to 1000 V. Test criteria and design tests.
DD ENV-1 to 5/1998 Eurocode 8 – Design provisions for earthquake resistance of structures.

Notes
1 In the table of relevant Standards while the latest editions of the Standards are provided, it is possible that revised editions have become
available or some of them are even withdrawn. With the advances in technology and/or its application, the upgrading of Standards is a
continuous process by different Standards organizations. It is therefore advisable that for more authentic references, one may consult the
relevant organizations for the latest version of a Standard.
2 Some of the BS or IS Standards mentioned against IEC may not be identical.
3 The year noted against each Standard may also refer to the year it was last reaffirmed and not necessarily the year of publication.

Further Reading Helliwell, R.A., Villard, Jr. O.G., Low-frequency magnetic

1 Agrawal, P.N., Engineering Seismology, Oxford and IBH
Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, India.
2 Basu, S., Kumar, A. and Lawama, K.K., ‘System identification
of a circuit breaker pole’. Proceedings of Tenth Symposium on
Earthquake Engineering, Roorkee, pp. 979–991 (1994).
3 Basu, S., Prajapati, G.I., Bandopadhyay, S., Kumar A. and
Arya, A.S., ‘Design and development of a shake table facility’,
Proceedings of the Eighth Symposium on Earthquake
Engineering, Vol. I. pp. 1 to 8 (1986).
4 Bressani, M., Bobig, P. and Secco, M., ‘A support experimental
programme for the qualification of safety-related medium-voltage
induction motors for nuclear power generating stations. Presented
at the International Conference on the Evolution and Modern
Aspects of Induction Machines, Torino, July (1986).
5 Gass, Smith, and Wilson, Plate Tectonics in Understanding
the Earth, Oxburgh, E.R. (ed.), pp. 263–285 (1973).
6 Krishna, J., Chandrasekaran, A.R. and Chandra, B., Elements
of Earthquake Engineering, South Asian Publishers (P) Ltd,
New Delhi, India.
7 Kumar, A. and Basu, S. ‘Isolation in a shake table system’,
Workshop Proceedings on Base Isolation, New Delhi, June,
(1989).
8 Majumdar, S., ‘Seismic qualification testing of switchboards’,
Siemens Circuit, 2/91, Vol. XXVI, April (1991) and 1/92, Vol.
XXVI, January (1992).
9 Pankaj, Basu, S. and Kumar, A., ‘Seismic qualification of
equipment – a need for greater understanding,’ Proceedings of
National Conference on Role of Continuing Engineering
Education in Industrial Restructuring, University of Roorkee.
February 1995, pp 157–162.
10 Shun Zo Okamoto. Introduction to Earthquake Engineering,
University of Tokyo Press, Japan (1973).
11 Symposium on Earthquake Effects on Plant and Equipment
(Vols I and II), Organized by BHEL energy system group
Hyderabad, India, and Indian Society of Earthquake Technology,
Roorkee, India (1984).
12 Fraser-Smith, A.C., Bernardi, A., McGill, P.R., Ladd, M.E.,
field measurements near the epicentre of the Ms 7.1 Loma
Prieta earthquake, Geoph. Res. Letts., 17, No. 9, 1465–1468,
1990.
13 Kellis-Borok, V.I., Knopoff, L., Kossobokov, V., Rotvain, I.,
Intermediate-term prediction in advance of the Loma
Prieta earthquake, Geoph. Res. Letts., 17, No. 9, 1461–1464,
1990.
14 Kirschvink, J.L., Earthquake prediction by animals: Evolution
and sensory perception, Bull. Seis. Soc. Amer., 90, No. 2, 312–
323, 2000.
15 Poitrasson, F., Dundas, S., Toutain, J., Munoz, M., Rigo, A.,
Earthquake-related elemental and isotopic lead anomaly in
a springwater, Earth and Planetary Sci. Lett. 169, 269–276,
1999.
16 Rikitake, Tsuneji, Earthquake Prediction, Developments in
Solid Earth Geophysics, Elsevier Scientific Pub. Co., No. 9,
1976.
17 Rikitake, T., Oshiman, N., and Hayashi, M., Macro-anomaly
and its application to earthquake prediction, Tectonophysics,
222, 93–106, 1993.
18 Suyehiro, Y., 1934, Some observations on the unusual behaviour
of fishes prior to an earthquake. Bull. Earthquake Res. Inst.,
University of Tokyo, Suppl., 1, 228–231, 1934.
19 Varotsos, P., Alexopoulos, K., Physical properties of the
variations of the electric field of the earth preceding earthquakes
I, Tectonophysics, 110, 73–98, 1984.
20 Varotsos, P., Lazaridou, M., Latest aspects of earthquake
prediction in Greece based on seismic electric signals,
Tectonophysics, 188, 321–347, 1991.
21 Changes in regional geo-chemistry (Poitrasson et al., 1999)
Geochemical methods.
22 K. Saraf, Arun, Thermal Remote Sensing Technique to detect
Pre-earthquake Thermal Anomalies, Department of Earth
Science, Sci-Tech, R&D Magazine of IIT Roorkee, Vol. 4, No.
1, 8, 2005.
23 Hosogai Setsuo and Ito Hitoshi, Responding to the RoHS
Directive and Technology for Low Voltage Circuit Breakers,
Mitsubishi Electric ADVANCE, June 2005.