Professional Documents
Culture Documents
NDT Notes PDF
NDT Notes PDF
Study Material
Unit No. Go to Unit (Click on)
ols
Unit - 1
UNIT - 1
To
Unit – 1
d
an
er
rit
W
Unit - 2 Unit - 2
ee
Unit – 2
Fr
ith
rw
ito
UNIT - 3 Unit - 3
Ed
Unit – 3
DF
ll P
Fi
PD
UNIT - 4 Unit - 4
Unit – 4
UNIT - 5 Unit - 5
Unit – 5
Non - Destructive Testing
Defectology
The aim of non-destructive inspection is to determine if the object being inspected is
l
to be accepted or rejected. During the inspection, the inspector looks for
ria
discontinuities in the object and idenefies their nature and size. Then, those
discontiouities are evaluated according to an acceptance criterion to determine if they
are considered to be defects (the presence of defects mans that the object will be
ate
rejected).
A Discontinuity is defined as an imperfection or interruption in the normal physical
characteristics or structure of an object (crack, porosity, inhomogeneity, etc.). On the
other hand, a Defect is defined as a flaw or flaws that by nature or accumulated effect
yM
ls
render a part or product unable to meet minimum applicable acceptance standards or
oo
specifications (defect designates rejectability).
dT
an
It should be clear that a discontinuity is not necessarily a defect. Any imperfection that
er
rit
is found by the inspector is called a discontinuity until it can be identified and
W
evaluated as to the effect it will have on the service of the part or to the requirements
ee
Fr
cases and not a defect in some other cases because the defenetion of defect changes
rw
with the type of component, its construction, its materials and the specifications or
ito
Types of Discontinuities
Fill
Service discontinuities
Li
INHERENT DISCONTINUITIES
This group refers to the discontinuities that originate during the initial casting process
(when the metal is casted into ingots for further processing) and also it includes the
discontinuities that are produced when metal is casted as parts of any given shape. The
initial casting discontinuities are usually removed by chopping the ingots but some of
Page No. 1 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Defectology Page 1 of 12
Non - Destructive Testing
them remain and further change their shape and nature during the subsequent
manufacturing operations.
l
Cold Shut
ria
Cold shut occurs usually during the casting of parts because of
imperfect fusion between two streams of molten metal that
converged together. It could be on the surface or subsurface. It
ate
could be attributed to sluggish molten metal, surging or
interruption in pouring, or any factor that prevents the fusion of
two meeting streams.
Pipe
yM
ls
oo
During solidification of molten material it shrinks causing an
dT
inverted-cone shaped cavity in the top of the ingot. It could be
an
on the surface or subsurface. If this defected region is not cut
er
rit
out completely before further processing (rolling or forging) it
W
will show up in the final product as an elongated subsurface
ee
Fr
ud
discontinuity. Also, pipe could occur during extrusion when the
ith
Shrinkage Cavities
F
PD
casted parts. They are caused by the lack of enough molten metal
PD
Micro-shrinkage Cavities
Micro-shrinkage cavities are aggregates of subsurface discontinuities that are found in
casted parts. They are usually found close to the gate and they occur if
br
metal at the gate solidifies while some of the metal beneath is still
molten. Also, micro-shrinkage could be found deeper in the part when
molten metal enters from the light section into heavy section where
Li
metal could solidify in the light section before the heavy section.
Hot Tears
Hot tears occurs when low melting point materials segregate during
solidification and thus when they try to shrink during solidification
Page No. 2 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Defectology Page 2 of 12
Non - Destructive Testing
cracks and tears will develop because the surrounding material has already solidified.
Also, hot tears occur at the joining of thin
l
sections with larger sections because of
ria
the difference of the cooling rate and thus
solidification.
Blowholes and Porosity
ate
Blowholes and porosity are small rounded cavities found at the
surface or near surface of castings and they are caused by the
entrapped gasses that could not escape during solidification.
Blowholes are caused by gases released from the mold itself
yM
ls
(external gases) while porosity is caused by gases entrapped in the
oo
dT
molten material (internal gases). During subsequent manufacturing
an
operations these gas pockets get flattened or elongated or fused
er
shut.
rit
W
Nonmetallic Inclusions
ee
Fr
ud ith
nature therefore they serve as stress raisers that limit the ability
ill
Segregation
ary
This group refers to the discontinuities that originate during hot or cold forming
processes (extrusion, forging, rolling, drawing, welding, etc.). Also, some of the
inherent discontinuities in the material could propagate and become significant.
Defectology Page 3 of 12
Non - Destructive Testing
Seams
Seams are elongated surface discontinuities that occur in bars
l
during rolling or drawing operations. They result due to under-filled
ria
areas that are closed shut during rolling passes. Those under-filled
areas may result because of blowholes or cracks in the material.
Also seams may result from the use of faulty, poorly lubricated or
oversized dies.
ate
Lamination
Laminations are thin flat subsurface separations that are parallel to the surface of
plates. They may result from inherent discontinuities (pipe, inclusions, porosity, etc.)
yM
ls
that are flattened during the rolling process.
oo
dT
Stringers
an
er
rit
Stringers are elongated subsurface discontinuities that are found in bars (they run in
W
the axial direction). They result from the flattening and lengthening of nonmetallic
ee
Cupping
rw
ito
Cooling Cracks
Cooling cracks may occur on the surface of bars after rolling operations due to stresses
developed by uneven cooling. They run in the axial direction (similar to seams) but
unlike seams, they do not have surface oxidation.
br
Defectology Page 4 of 12
Non - Destructive Testing
l
at excessive temperatures due to presence of
ria
inherent discontinuities that are pulled apart by the
tensile forces developed during the forming
operation.
ate
External bursts occur when the forming section is too severe or the sections are thin.
Slugs
Slugs are surface discontinuities found on the inner surface of
yM
seamless (extruded) tubes. They occur when some metallic
ls
oo
pieces that are stuck on the mandrel, are torn and fused back
dT
on the inner surface of the tube.
an
er
Gouging rit
W
ee
Hydrogen Flakes
St PD
F
temperatures above 200° C. Hydrogen flakes are thin subsurface discontinuities that
ary
develop during cooling of large size parts produced by forging or rolling because of the
entrapment of hydrogen resulting from rapid cooling.
Welding Discontinuities
br
Several types of discontinuities result from welding operations. Only the discontinuities
associated with fusion welding processes (arc welding, gas welding, etc.) are presented
Li
here.
Cold Cracks
Cold cracks, also known as delayed cracks, are hydrogen induced surface
or subsurface cracks that appear in the heat affected zone or the weld
Page No. 5 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Defectology Page 5 of 12
Non - Destructive Testing
metal during cooling or after a period of time (hours or even days). The sources of
hydrogen which leads to this type of cracks may include moisture in the electrode
l
shielding, the shielding gas or base metal surface, or contamination of the base metal
ria
with hydrocarbon (oil or grease).
Hot Cracks
ate
Hot cracks include several types of cracks that occur at elevated temperatures in the
weld metal or heat affected zone. In general, hot cracks are usually associated with
steels having high sulfur content. The common types of hot cracks include:
yM
Solidification Cracks: This type occurs near the solidification temperature of the
ls
oo
weld metal. They are caused by the presence of low melting point constituents
dT
(such as iron sulfides) that segregate during solicitation then the shrinkage of the
an
solidified material causes cracks to open up.
er
rit
W
Centerline Crack is a longitudinal crack along the centerline of the weld bead.
ee
It occurs because the low melting point impurities move to the center of the
Fr
ud ith
Liquidation Cracks: This type, also known as hot tearing, occurs in the heat affected
zone when the temperature in that region reaches to the melting temperature of
Li
low melting point constituents causing them to liquidate and segregate at grain
boundaries. As the weld cools down, shrinkage stresses causes the formation of
small micro-scale cracks which later might link up due to applied stresses to form a
continuous surface or subsurface crack.
Defectology Page 6 of 12
Non - Destructive Testing
Lamellar Tearing
Lamellar tearing is a subsurface discontinuity that occurs in rolled
l
plates having high content of nonmetallic inclusions. Those
ria
inclusions have low strength and they are fattened during roiling,
thus they can be torn underneath the welds because of shrinkage
stresses in the through thickness direction.
ate
Lack of Fusion
Lack of fusion is the failure of the filler metal to fuse with the
adjacent base metal (or weld metal from previous pass) because the surface of base
metal did not reach to melting temperature during welding. This
yM
ls
typically occurs when welding large components that could
oo
dT
dissipate heat rapidly especially when it is at a relatively low
an
temperature before welding. Lack of fusion is often seen at the
er
beginning of the first pass and in such case it is commonly called a
rit
W
cold start. Also, lack of fusion could occur when the surface a
ee
previous pass is not properly cleaned from slag where slag reduces
Fr
ud
the heating of the under-laying surface.
ith
rw
Lack of Penetration
ito
Ed
St
penetration of the weld metal into the root of the joint. This is
ill
Defectology Page 7 of 12
Non - Destructive Testing
clustered together (cluster porosity). In general, porosity can result from the presence
of dirt, rust or moisture on the surface of base or filler metal. Also, it could result from
l
high sulfur content in the base metal or excessive arc length.
ria
Inclusions
Inclusions refer to the presence of some material, that is not supposed to be present,
in the weld metal.
ate
Slag Inclusions: This type of inclusions mostly happens in shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW) and it occurs when the slag cannot float to the surface of the molten metal
and get entrapped in the weld metal during solidification. This could happen when;
the solidification rate is high, the weld pool viscosity is high, an oversized electrode
yM
ls
is used, or slag on the previous pass was not properly removed.
oo
dT
Tungsten Inclusions: This type of inclusions can be found in weld
an
metal deposited by gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) as a result
er
rit
of allowing the tungsten electrode to come in contact with the
W
molten metal.
ee
Fr
ud ith
Oxide Inclusions: This type of inclusions results from the presence of high melting
rw
point oxides on the base metal which mixes with the molten material during
ito
welding.
Ed
St F
Undercut
PD
ill
Overlap
Overlap is the protrusion of the weld metal over the weld toe (due
br
Defectology Page 8 of 12
Non - Destructive Testing
l
treating, plating and related finishing operations.
ria
Grinding Cracks
Grinding cracks develop at locations where there is a localized heating of the base
metal and they are usually shallow and at right angle to the grinding direction. Such
ate
cracks might be caused by the use of glazed wheels, inadequate coolant, excessive
feed or grinding depth.
Pickling Cracks
yM
ls
oo
Pickling is chemical surface cleaning operation (using acids) used to remove unwanted
dT
scale. Picking cracks are hydrogen induced cracks caused by the diffusion of the
an
hydrogen generated at the surface into the base metal. Such cracks mostly occur in
er
rit
materials having high residual stresses such as hardened or cold worked metals.
W
ee
Heat treatment cracks mostly occur during quenching especially when harsh media is
rw
used for quenching (such as cold water, oil quenching is less harsh). During quenching
ito
the material at the surface cools immediately upon contacting the liquid while the
Ed
St
material inside take relatively longer time. This difference in cooling rate causes
F
PD
residual stresses in the component and could also result in cracks at the surface if the
ill
residual tensile stress is higher than the strength of the material. In steels, austenite is
F
PD
transferred into ferrite and martensite upon cooling. This transformation results in
ary
volume increase and thus causes tensile stresses at the surface layer since the material
at the surface transformed and solidified before material at the core.
Machining Tears
Machining tears result from the use of machining tools having dull or chipped cutting
br
edges. Such discontinuities serve as stress raisers and can lead to premature failure of
a component especially when it is subjected to fatigue loading.
Li
Plating Cracks
Plating cracks are surface discontinuities that can develop due to the penetration of
hydrogen or hot plating material into the base metal. Also, some plating materials
(such as chromium, copper and nickel) produce residual tensile stress which can reduce
the fatigue strength of a component.
Page No. 9 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Defectology Page 9 of 12
Non - Destructive Testing
SERVICE DISCONTINUITIES
This group refers to the discontinuities that originate or develop while the component
l
is in service. The service conditions (loading, mechanical and chemical environment,
ria
maintenance) of a component affect its expected life. Although most of service
discontinuities might look somehow similar but they are caused by different failure
mechanisms.
ate
Fatigue Cracks
When a component is subjected to fatigue stress (cyclically applied stress), fatigue
cracks can develop and grow and that will eventually lead to failure (even if the
magnitude of the stress is smaller than the ultimate strength of the material). Fatigue
yM
ls
cracks normally originate at the surface but in some cases can also initiate below
oo
dT
surface. Fatigue cracks initiate at location with high stresses such as discontinuities
an
(hole, notch, scratch, sharp corner, porosity, crack, inclusions, etc.) and can also initiate
er
at surfaces having rough surface finish or due to the presence of tensile residual
rit
W
stresses.
ee
Fr
ud
According to Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM), fatigue failure
ith
concentration.
ill
(macro cracks) and keep growing making a smooth plateau-like fracture surfaces
ary
which usually have beach marks that result from variation in cyclic loading. The
geometry and orientation of the beach marks can help in determining the
location where the crack originated and the progress of crack growth. The
direction of the crack during this stage is perpendicular to the direction of the
maximum principal stress.
br
- Stage 3: occurs during the final stress cycle where the remaining material cannot
support the load, thus resulting in a sudden fracture.
Li
Defectology Page 10 of 12
Non - Destructive Testing
Creep Cracks
When a metal is at a temperature greater than 0.4 to 0.5 of its absolute melting
l
temperature and is subjected to a high enough value of stress (lower than the yield
ria
strength at room temperature but it is actually higher than the yield strength at the
elevated temperature), it will keep deforming continuously until it finally fractures.
Such type of deformation is called creep and it is caused by the continuous initiation
and healing of slipping dislocation inside the grains of the material.
ate
According to the rate of progress of the deformation, three stages of creep
deformation can be distinguished:
- Initial stage (or primary creep): the strain
yM
ls
rate is relatively high but slows with
oo
dT
increasing time due to work hardening.
an
- Second stage (or steady-state creep): the
er
strain rate reaches a minimum and
rit
W
becomes steady due to the balance
ee
Creep cracks usually develop at the end of the second stage (the beginning of third
ary
stage) and they eventually lead to failure. However, when a component reaches to the
third stage, its useful life is over and thus creep should be detected (by monitoring the
deformation) during the second stage which takes the longest time period of the three
stages. For steels, adding some alloying elements such as molybdenum and tungsten
can enhance creep resistance. Also, heat treatments that produce coarse grains (such
br
Defectology Page 11 of 12
Non - Destructive Testing
can lead to a sudden failure of ductile materials without any previous plastic
deformation. The cracks usually initiate at the surface due to the presence of
l
preexisting discontinuity or due to corrosive attack on the surface. Once the cracks
ria
initiate at the surface, corrosive material enters the cracks and attacks the material
inside forming corrosion products. The formation of the corrosion products (which
have a larger volume than original metal) inside the tight cracks
causes a wedging action which increase the stress at the crack
ate
tip and causes the crack to grow. The corrosive environment
varies from material to material; for example saltwater is
corrosive to aluminum and stainless steel, ammonia is corrosive
to copper alloys, and sodium hydroxide is corrosive to mild
steel. The resistance to corrosion can be improved by plating
yM
ls
oo
the surface of a component by appropriate material which does
dT
not react with the environment.
an
er
rit
W
Hydrogen Cracks
ee
Fr
ud
Hydrogen cracking, also known as hydrogen embrittlement, results from the presence
ith
rw
of hydrogen medium and usually occurs in conjunction with the presence of applied
ito
tensile stress or residual stress. Hydrogen can be already present in the metal due to
Ed
St
melting process itself. Also, hydrogen can come from the presence of hydrogen
ill
Defectology Page 12 of 12
Non - Destructive Testing
Stringers defect:
http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2010/11/sts-133-structural-defectcrack-found-on-et-
137/
l
ria
ate
M an
er
oo
dT
ls
rit
dyrw
Fr
ith
W
ee
Stu
PD
lP
Fil
DF
Ed
ito
ry
bra
Li
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
14 of 356.
Li
bra
PD
ry Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
15 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112107144/welding/lecture13.htm
Welding Defects
i al
The defects in the weld can be defined as irregularities in the weld
metal produced due to incorrect welding parameters or wrong
welding procedures or wrong combination of filler metal and parent
t er
a
metal.
Fig 13.1: Various Types of Cracks in Welds
Weld defect may be in the form of variations from the intended weld
bead shape, size and desired quality. Defects may be on the surface Cracks may be developed due to poor ductility of base metal, high
or inside the weld metal. Certain defects such as cracks are never
tolerated but other defects may be acceptable within permissible
limits. Welding defects may result into the failure of components
under service condition, leading to serious accidents and causing the
yr
M
sulpher and carbon
rates, too concave
i ter
nd T
in the weldametal.
o olorscontents,
convex
high arc travel speeds i.e. fast cooling
weld bead and high hydrogen contents
d
loss of property and sometimes also life. 2. Porosity
W
r e e
F
tu
Various welding defects can be classified into groups such as ith Porosity results when the gases are entrapped in the solidifying weld
cracks, porosity, solid inclusions, lack of fusion and inadequate r w metal. These gases are generated from the flux or coating
o
dit
penetration, imperfect shape and miscellaneous defects. constituents of the electrode or shielding gases used during welding
S F E or from absorbed moisture in the coating. Rust, dust, oil and grease
1. Cracks
l l PD present on the surface of work pieces or on electrodes are also
source of gases during welding. Porosity may be easily prevented if
F i
y D
Cracks may be of micro or macro size and may Pappear in the weld work pieces are properly cleaned from rust, dust, oil and
r
metal or base metal or base metal and weld metal boundary. grease.Futher, porosity can also be controlled if excessively high
Different categories of cracks are longitudinal cracks, transverse welding currents, faster welding speeds and long arc lengths are
a
cracks or radiating/star cracks and cracks in the weld crater. Cracks
r
occur when localized stresses exceed the ultimate tensile strength of
material. These stresses are developed due to shrinkage during
b
solidification of weld metal.
avoided flux and coated electrodes are properly baked.
Li
Page No. 16 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
i al
4. Lack of Fusion and Inadequate or incomplete penetration:
Lack of fusion is the failure to fuse together either the base metal
r
and weld metal or subsequent beads in multipass welding because
e
of failure to raise the temperature of base metal or previously
t
deposited weld layer to melting point during welding. Lack of fusion
can be avoided by properly cleaning of surfaces to be welded,
a
selecting proper current, proper welding technique and correct size
of electrode.
3. Solid Inclusion
y
rit
Me r a nd
To
o ls
d
Solid inclusions may be in the form of slag or any other nonmetallic e W
material entrapped in the weld metal as these may not able to float F r 13.4: Types of Lack of Fusion
Fig
e
tu
on the surface of the solidifying weld metal. During arc welding flux ith Incomplete penetration means that the weld depth is not upto the
either in the form of granules or coating after melting, reacts with the
t o rw desired level or root faces have not reached to melting point in a
molten weld metal removing oxides and other impurities in thedform i
S
of slag and it floats on the surface of weld metal due toF its low
E groove joint. If either low currents or larger arc lengths or large root
D or too face or small root gap or too narrow groove angles are used then it
density. However, if the molten weld metal has high viscosityP
low temperature or cools rapidly then the slag may Fnot ill be released results into poor penetration.
from the weld pool and may cause inclusion.
a r y PD
Slag inclusion can be prevented if proper groove is selected, all the
r
slag from the previously deposited bead is removed, too high or too
low welding currents and long arcs are avoided. Fig 13.5: Examples of Inadequate Penetration
i b 5. Imperfect Shape
L
Imperfect shape means the variation from the desired shape and
size of the weld bead.
l
bead or both sides in which stresses tend to concentrate and it can
result in the early failure of the joint. Main reasons for undercutting
are the excessive welding currents, long arc lengths and fast travel
speeds.
r i a
e
Underfilling may be due to low currents, fast travel speeds and small
t
size of electrodes. Overlap may occur due to low currents, longer arc
lengths and slower welding speeds.
a
Fig 13.6: Various Imperfect Shapes of Welds
y M
slow travel nspeeds
i t e r
root penetration a
d
ls
Excessive reinforcement
T oo
and
is formed if high currents, low voltages,
and large size electrodes are used. Excessive
sag occur if excessive high currents and slow
travel rspeeds are used for relatively thinner members.
d e W
e
rDistortion
F is caused because of shrinkage occurring due to large
tu
th
r wi heat input during welding.
y S
PD
F i l lP
D FE
Various miscellaneous defects may be multiple arc strikes i.e.
several arc strikes are one behind the other, spatter, grinding and
chipping marks, tack weld defects, oxidized surface in the region of
i b
L Page No. 18 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Casting Defects These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring during the
l
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112107144/26
solidification of the casting. To compensate for this, proper feeding of
liquid metal is required. For this reason risers are placed at the
The following are the major defects, which are likely to occur in sand
castings
i a
appropriate places in the mold. Sprues may be too thin, too long or
not attached in the proper location, causing shrinkage cavities. It is
r
recommended to use thick sprues to avoid shrinkage cavities.
e
Gas defects
t
Shrinkage cavities Molding Material Defects
Molding material defects
a
Pouring metal defects The defects in this category are cuts and washes, metal penetration,
Mold shift fusion, and swell.
M
Cut and washes
Gas Defects
o ls
A condition existing in a casting caused by the trapping of gas in the These appear
To
d as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are
nerosion
y
molten metal or by mold gases evolved during the pouring of the caused byr a of molding sand by the flowing metal. This is
i t e
casting. The defects in this category can be classified into blowholes caused r by the molding sand not having enough strength and the
d
and pinhole porosity. Blowholes are spherical or elongated cavities e W
molten metal flowing at high velocity. The former can be taken care
r e
h F overcome by the proper design of the gating system.
of by the proper choice of molding sand and the latter can be
tu
present in the casting on the surface or inside the casting. Pinhole
porosity occurs due to the dissolution of hydrogen gas, which gets wit
entrapped during heating of molten metal.
i t or
Ed Metal penetration
Causes
y
F
Si l l PD
F
D may be due to
When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand grains, the
result is a rough casting surface. This occurs because the sand is
coarse or no mold wash was applied on the surface of the mold. The
r
lower venting, lower permeability of the mold or improper design of
the casting. The lower permeability is caused by finer grain size of coarser the sand grains more the metal penetration.
a
the sand, high percentage of clay in mold mixture, and excessive
r
moisture present in the mold. Fusion
b
Metal contains gas This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with the molten metal,
i
Mold is too hot giving a brittle, glassy appearance on the casting surface. The main
Poor mold burnout reason for this is that the clay or the sand particles are of lower
L
refractoriness or that the pouring temperature is too high.
Shrinkage Cavities
Swell
Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the mold wall may move very small. Fluidity can be improved by changing the composition of
l
back causing a swell in the dimension of the casting. A proper the metal and by increasing the pouring temperature of the metal.
ramming of the mold will correct this defect.
Inclusions
Mold Shift
r i a
The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag or molding boxes
e
Particles of slag, refractory materials, sand or deoxidation products have not been properly aligned.
t
are trapped in the casting during pouring solidification. The provision
of choke in the gating system and the pouring basin at the top of the
a
mold can prevent this defect.
Mis-runs and
Cold shuts. rit
yeMr a nd
To
o ls
d
W
A mis-run is caused when the metal is unable to fill the mold cavity F ree
tu
completely and thus leaves unfilled cavities. A mis-run results when ith
the metal is too cold to flow to the extremities of the mold cavity
t o rw
before freezing. Long, thin sections are subject to this defect diand
S
should be avoided in casting design. F E
l l PD
Fi in the mold
y
A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting
D
P a discontinuity in
cavity, do not fuse together properly thus forming
r
the casting. When the molten metal is poured into the mold cavity
a
through more-than-one gate, multiple liquid fronts will have to flow
r
together and become one solid. If the flowing metal fronts are too
cool, they may not flow together, but will leave a seam in the
b
part. Such a seam is called a cold shut, and can be prevented by
i
assuring sufficient superheat in the poured metal and thick enough
walls in the casting design.
L
The mis-run and cold shut defects are caused either by a lower
fluidity of the mold or when the section thickness of the casting is
l
ROORKEE/strength%20of%20materials/lects%20&%20picts/image/lect11/lecture11.htm which have been shown below:
a
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Specimen I:
LECTURE 1
Mechanical Properties:
This specimen utilizes a circular X-section.
er i
In the course of operation or use, all the articles and structures are subjected to the action
of external forces, which create stresses that inevitably cause deformation. To keep these
stresses, and, consequently deformation within permissible limits it is necessary to select
suitable materials for the Components of various designs and to apply the most effective
heat treatment. i.e. a Comprehensive knowledge of the chief character tics of the semi-
a t
M
finished metal products & finished metal articles (such as strength, ductility, toughness etc)
are essential for the purpose. o ls
To
For this reason the specification of metals, used in the manufacture of various products and nd
y
structure, are based on the results of mechanical tests or we say that the mechanical tests Specimen e II:r
a
conducted on the specially prepared specimens (test pieces) of standard form and size on rit
d
special machines to obtained the strength, ductility and toughness characteristics of the
Thise W
specimen utilizes a rectangular X-section.
metal.
r e
F
tu
th
The conditions under which the mechanical test are conducted are of three types
r wi
d
(1) Static: When the load is increased slowly and gradually and the metal is loaded by ito
S FE
tension, compression, torsion or bending.
l l PD
Fi
(2) Dynamic: when the load increases rapidly as in impact
a y
(3) Repeated or Fatigue: (both static and impact type) . i.e. whenP
r
D
the load repeatedly
varies in the course of test either in value or both in value and direction Now let us consider
r
[ For application where a force comes on and off the structure a number of times, the lg = gauge length i.e. length of the specimen on which we want to determine the mechanical
material cannot withstand the ultimate stress of a static tool. In such cases the ultimate properties.The uniaxial tension test is carried out on tensile testing machine and the
b
strength depends on no. of times the force is applied as the material works at a particular following steps are performed to conduct this test.
stress level. Experiments one conducted to compute the number of cycles requires to break
i
to specimen at a particular stress when fatigue or fluctuating load is acting. Such tests are
known as fatigue tests ]
L
Uniaxial Tension Test: This test is of static type i.e. the load is increased comparatively
slowly from zero to a certain value.
(ii) There is a unit for applying a load to the specimen with a hydraulic or mechanical drive.
(iii) There must be a some recording device by which you should be able to measure the
final output in the form of Load or stress. So the testing machines are often equipped with
l
diagram is plotted which has the following shape. the deformations are completely recovered when the load is removed. The limiting point B is
termed as Elastic Limit .
a
A typical tensile test curve for the mild steel has been shown below
i
(C) and (D) - Beyond the elastic limit plastic deformation occurs and strains are not totally
recoverable. There will be thus permanent deformation or permanent set when load is
r
removed. These two points are termed as upper and lower yield points respectively. The
stress at the yield point is called the yield strength.
a t e
A study a stress – strain diagrams shows that the yield point is so near the proportional limit
that for most purpose the two may be taken as one. However, it is much easier to locate the
former. For material which do not posses a well define yield points, In order to find the yield
point or yield strength, an offset method is applied.
In this method a line is drawn parallel to the straight line portion of initial stress diagram by
M
off setting this by an amount equal to 0.2% of the strain as shown as below and this
o ls
happens especially for the low carbon steel.
To
nd
y r a
e
rit
d
W
Free
tu
th
Nominal stress – Strain OR Conventional Stress – Strain diagrams: wi
i t or
Ed
S
Stresses are usually computed on the basis of the original area of the specimen; such
stresses are often referred to as conventional or nominal stresses. F
l l PD
True stress – Strain Diagram: Fi
r
P
yD
Since when a material is subjected to a uniaxial load, some contraction or expansion always
takes place. Thus, dividing the applied force by the corresponding actual area of the
a
specimen at the same instant gives the so called true stress. (E) A further increase in the load will cause marked deformation in the whole volume of the
metal. The maximum load which the specimen can with stand without failure is called the
SALIENT POINTS OF THE GRAPH:
b r
(A) So it is evident form the graph that the strain is proportional to strain or elongation is
point A.
i
proportional to the load giving a st.line relationship. This law of proportionality is valid upto a
load at the ultimate strength.
The highest point ‘E' of the diagram corresponds to the ultimate strength of a material.
u = Stress which the specimen can with stand without failure & is known as Ultimate
Strength or Tensile Strength.
L
or we can say that point A is some ultimate point when the linear nature of the graph ceases
or there is a deviation from the linear nature. This point is known as the limit of
proportionality or the proportionality limit.
u is equal to load at E divided by the original cross-sectional area of the bar.
l
fracture occurs at F.
a
[ Beyond point E, the cross-sectional area of the specimen begins to reduce rapidly over a
i
relatively small length of bar and the bar is said to form a neck. This necking takes place
whilst the load reduces, and fracture of the bar finally occurs at point F ]
Note: Owing to large reduction in area produced by the necking process the actual stress at
fracture is often greater than the above value. Since the designers are interested in
maximum loads which can be carried by the complete cross section, hence the stress at
fracture is seldom of any practical value.
t er
Percentage Elongation: ' ':
The ductility of a material in tension can be characterized by its elongation and by the
a
M ls
reduction in area at the cross section where fracture occurs.
o
To
It is the ratio of the extension in length of the specimen after fracture to its initial gauge
nd
y
length, expressed in percent.
r a
e
rit
d
W
ree
Many engineering materials behave as indicated in Fig(a) however, some behaves as
F shown in figures in (b) and (c) while in elastic range. When a material behaves as in (c),
tu
th the vs is not single valued since the strain corresponding to any particular ‘ ' will
lI = gauge length of specimen after fracture(or the distance between the gage marks at r wi depend upon loading history.
fracture)
d ito
S FE
Fig (d): It illustrates the idea of elastic and plastic strain. If a material is stressed to level (1)
and then relased the strain will return to zero beyond this plastic deformation remains.
lg= gauge length before fracture(i.e. initial gauge length)
l l PD
Fi10% to 40%. If a material is stressed to level (2) and then released, the material will recover the
y
For 50 mm gage length, steel may here a % elongation of the order
D of amount (2 2p ), where 2p is the plastic strain remaining after the load is removed.
P
r
Similarly for level (3) the plastic strain will be3p.
Elastic Action:
a
Ductile and Brittle Materials:
The elastic is an adjective meaning capable of recovering size and shape after deformation.
i b r
Elastic range is the range of stress below the elastic limit.
Based on this behaviour, the materials may be classified as ductile or brittle materials
Ductile Materials:
It we just examine the earlier tension curve one can notice that the extension of the
L
materials over the plastic range is considerably in excess of that associated with elastic
loading. The Capacity of materials to allow these large deformations or large extensions
without failure is termed as ductility. The materials with high ductility are termed as ductile
materials.
l
metals near the surface of the specimen i.e. there are Ball indentation Tests.
A brittle material is one which exhibits a relatively small extensions or deformations to
a
fracture, so that the partially plastic region of the tensile test graph is much reduced. Ball indentation Tests:
This type of graph is shown by the cast iron or steels with high carbon contents or concrete.
r i
iThis method consists in pressing a hardened steel ball under a constant load P into a
specially prepared flat surface on the test specimen as indicated in the figures below :
e
a t
y
rit
Me r a nd
To
o ls
d
W
FreeAfter removing the load an indentation remains on the surface of the test specimen. If area
tu
Conditions Affecting Mechanical Properties:
th of the spherical surface in the indentation is denoted as F sq. mm. Brinell Hardness number
wi is defined as :
The Mechanical properties depend on the test conditions
i t or
Ed Bhn = P / F
S F
(1) It has been established that lowering the temperature or increasing the rate of
PDat low
deformation considerably increases the resistance to plastic deformation. Thus,
temperature (or higher rates of deformation), metals and alloys, which arellductile at normal
room temperature may fail with brittle fracture.
y
P D Fi
F is expressed in terms of D and d
D = ball diameter
r
(2) Notches i.e. sharp charges in cross sections have a great effect on the mechanical
properties of the metals. A Notch will cause a non – uniform distribution of stresses. They
a
will always contribute lowering the ductility of the materials. A notch reduces the ultimate
r
strength of the high strength materials. Because of the non – uniform distribution of the
stress or due to stress concentration.
d = diametric of indentation and Brinell Hardness number is given
by
Hardness:
i b
(3) Grain Size: The grain size also affects the mechanical properties. Then is there is also Vicker's Hardness Number in which the ball is of conical shape.
Goto Home
L
Hardness is the resistance of a metal to the penetration of another harder body which does
not receive a permanent set.
LECTURE 2
Compression Test: Machines used for compression testing are basically similar to those
used for tensile testing often the same machine can be used to perform both tests.
l
Shape of the specimen: The shapes of the specimen to be used for the different materials resistance to further shortening ( which means that the stress – strains curve goes upward )
this effect is indicated in the diagram.
are as follows:
(i) For metals and certain plastics: The specimen may be in the form of a cylinder
(ii) For building materials: Such as concrete or stone the shape of the specimen may be
Brittle materials ( in compression test )
r i a
Brittle materials in compression typically have an initial linear region followed by a region in
which the shortening increases at a higher rate than does the load. Thus, the compression
e
in the form of a cube. stress – strain diagram has a shape that is similar to the shape of the tensile diagram.
(a) Ductile materials: For ductile material such as mild steel, the load Vs compression
diagram would be as follows
in tension.
a
y
rit
Mer a nd
To
o ls
d
W
Free
tu
th
r wi
d ito
y S
PD
F i l lP
D FE
r a r
(1) The ductile materials such as steel, Aluminum, and copper have stress – strain
Brittle materials in compression behave elastically up to certain load, and then fail suddenly
by splitting or by craking in the way as shown in figure. The brittle fracture is performed by
separation and is not accompanied by noticeable plastic deformation.
b
diagrams similar to ones which we have for tensile test, there would be an elastic range Hardness Testing:
i
which is then followed by a plastic region.
The term ‘hardness' is one having a variety of meanings; a hard material is thought
(2) The ductile materials (steel, Aluminum, copper) proportional limits in compression test of as one whose surface resists indentation or scratching, and which has the ability to indent
L
are very much close to those in tension. or cut other materials.
(3) In tension test, a specimen is being stretched, necking may occur, and ultimately Hardness test: The hardness test is a comparative test and has been evolved mainly from
fracture fakes place. On the other hand when a small specimen of the ductile material is the need to have some convenient method of measuring the resistance of materials to
compressed, it begins to bulge on sides and becomes barrel shaped as shown in the figure scratching, wear or in dentation this is also used to give a guide to overall strength of a
l
destructive test, in that only small indentations are lift permanently on the surface of the
specimen. d = the diameter of the indentation.
(i) Brinell
r i a
In the Brinell Test, the ball diameter and applied load are constant and are selected to suit
the composition of the metal, its hardness, and selected to suit the composition of the metal,
its hardness, the thickness etc. Further, the hardness of the ball should be at least 1.7 times
than the test specimen to prevent permanent set in the ball.
(ii) Vickers
(iii) Rockwell
a t e
Disadvantage of Brinell Hardness Test: The main disadvantage of the Brinell Hardness
test is that the Brinell hardness number is not independent of the applied load. This can be
realized from. Considering the geometry of indentations for increasing loads. As the ball is
pressed into the surface under increasing load the geometry of the indentation charges.
M
The most widely used are the first two.
o ls
In the Brinell test the indenter is a hardened steel ball which is pressed into the surface To
nd
y
using a known standard load. The diameter of resulting indentation is than measured using
r a
a microscope & scale.
e
rit
d
W
ree
Units:
F
tu
The units of Brinell Hardness number in S.I Unit would have been N/mm 2 or Mpa th
r wi
To avoid the confusion which would have been caused of her wise Hardness numbers are
quotes as kgf / mm2 d ito
S
Here what we mean is that the geometry of the impression should not change w.r.t. load,
FE however the size it impression may change.
Brinell Hardness test:
l l PD
Fi Vickers Hardness test:
y
In the Brinell hardness test, a hardened steel ball is pressed
r
D
P into the flat surface of
a test piece using a specified force. The ball is then removed and the diameter of the
resulting indentation is measured using a microscope.
a
The Vicker's Hardness test follows a procedure exactly a identical with that of Brinell
test, but uses a different indenter. The steel ball is replaced by a diamond, having the from
of a square – based pyramid with an angle of 1360 between opposite faces. This is pressed
into the flat surface of the test piece using a specified force, and the diagonals of the
r
The Brinell Hardness no. ( BHN ) is defined as
resulting indentation measured is using a microscope. The Hardness, expressed as a
Vicker's pyramid number is defined as the ratio F/A, where F is the force applied to the
b
BHN = P / A diamond and A is the surface area of the indentation.
Li
Where P = Force applied to the ball.
i al
t er
The Variation of Hardness number with load is given below.
a
y
rit
Mer a nd
To
o ls
d
W
Free
tu
th
r wi
d ito
y S
PD
F i l lP
D FE
Advantage: Apart from the convenience the vicker's test has certain advantages over the
Brinell test.
r
(i) Harder material can be tested and indentation can be smaller & therefore less obtrusive
or damaging.
r a
In the Vicker Test the indenters of pyramidal or conical shape are used & this overcomes
the disadvantage which is faced in Brinell test i.e. as the load increases, the geometry of the
b
indentation's does not change
Upto a 300 kgf /mm2 both tests give the same hardness number but above too the Brinell
test is unreliable.
Li The Rockwell Hardness test also uses an indenter when is pressed into the flat
surface of the test piece, but differs from the Brinell and Vicker's test in that the
measurement of hardness is based on the depth of penetration, not on the surface area of
indentation. The indenter may be a conical diamond of 1200 included angle, with a rounded
apex. It is brought into contact with the test piece, and a force F is applied.
l
In an ‘impact test' a notched bar of material, arranged either as a cantilever or as a simply
a
supported beam, is broken by a single blow in such a way that the total energy required to
fracture it may be determined.
i
r
The energy required to fracture a material is of importance in cases of “shock loading' when
a component or structure may be required to absorb the K.E of a moving object.
Advantages :
Rockwell tests are widely applied in industry due to rapidity and simplicity with which they
may be performed, high accuracy, and due to the small size of the impressions produced on
the surface.
t e
Often a structure must be capable of receiving an accidental ‘shock load' without failing
completely, and whether it can do this will be determined not by its strength but by its ability
a
to absorb energy. A combination of strength and ductility will be required, since large
amounts of energy can only be absorbed by large amounts of plastic deformation. The
ability of a material to absorb a large amount of energy before breaking is often referred as
toughness, and the energy absorbed in an impact test is an obvious indication of this
M
property.
IMPACT STRENGTH o ols
d T outinonthenotched
Impact tests are carried
simply as a localnreduction
specimens, and the notches must not be regarded
cross – sectional area of the specimen, Notches – and , in
y
Static tension tests of the un-notched specimen's do not always reveal the susceptibility of a
fact, surface rirregularities of many kind – give rise to high local stresses, and are in practice,
metal to brittle fracture. This important factor is determined in impact tests. In impact tests t e
ir source of cracks.
a potential
we use the notched specimen's.
d e W
r e
F
tu
th
wi
i t or
Edto the
S
This specimen is placed on its supports on anvil so that blow of the striker is opposite
F
notch the impact strength is defined as the energy A, required to rupture the specimen,
l l PD
Impact Strength = A / f
Fi
a r yP D
Where f = the cross – section area of the specimen in cm2 at fracture & obviously at notch.
The impact strength is a complex characteristic which takes into account both toughness
r
and strength of a material. The main purpose of notched – bar tests is to study the
simultaneous effect of stress concentration and high velocity load application
b
Impact test are of the severest type and facilitate brittle friction. Impact strength values
i
cannot be as yet is used for design calculations but these tests as rule provided for in
specifications for carbon & alloy steels. Further, it may be noted that in impact tests fracture
may be either brittle or ductile. In the case of brittle fracture, fracture occurs by separation
L
and is not accompanied by noticeable plastic deformation as occurs in the case of ductile
fracture. The specimen may be of circular or square cross – section arranged either as a cantilever
or a simply supported beam.
l
transfer or propagation of cracks across its section hence causing failures. Cracks are Total extension at fracture = 24 mm
propagated due to stress concentraction. Diameter of specimen at fracture = 9.8 mm
Cross - sectional area at fracture = 75.4 mm2
Creep: Creep is the gradual increase of plastic strain in a material with time at constant
load. Particularly at elevated temperatures some materials are susceptible to this
phenomena and even under the constant load, mentioned strains can increase continually
until fractures. This form of facture is particularly relevant to the turbines blades, nuclear
Cross - sectional Area ‘A' = 200 mm2
Compute the followings:
(i) Modulus of elasticity of steel
(ii) The ultimate tensile stream
r i a
e
rectors, furnaces rocket motors etc. (iii) The yield stress
(iv) The percentage elongation
t
(v) The Percentage reduction in Area.
The general from of strain versus time graph or creep curve is shown below. PROB 2:
a
A light alloy specimen has a diameter of 16mm and a gauge Length of 80 mm. When tested
in tension, the load extension graph proved linear up to a load of 6kN, at which point the
extension was 0.034 mm. Determine the limits of proportionality stress and the modulus of
elasticity of material.
2
M
Note: For a 16mm diameter specimen, the Cross – sectional area A = 200 mm
o ls
This is according to tables Determine the limit of proportion try stream & the modulus of
To
elasticity for the material.
nd
y r a
Ans: 30 MN /m2 , 70.5 GN /m2
e
rit
d
W
solution:
Free
tu
th
r wi
d ito
S
The general form of Vs t graph or creep curve is shown below for two
y
conditions, In each case the curve can be considered to exhibit four D
P
l l PD
Ftypical
FE
i operation
principal features
elastic strain.
a r
(a) An initial strain, due to the initial application of load. In most cases this would be an
(b) A primary creep region, during which he creep rate ( slope of the graph ) dimensions.
r
(c) A secondary creep region, when the creep rate is sensibly constant.
(d) A tertiary creep region, during which the creep rate accelerate to final fracture.
b
It is obvious that a material which is susceptible to creep effects should only be subjected to
i
stresses which keep it in secondary (st.line) region throughout its service life. This enables
the amount of creep extension to be estimated and allowed for in design.
Practice Problems:
L
PROB 1: A standard mild steel tensile test specimen has a diameter of 16 mm and a gauge
length of 80 mm such a specimen was tested to destruction, and the following results
obtained.
Load at yield point = 87 kN
Extension at yield point = 173 x 166 m
ia l
te r
a
rit
y
e Mra
nd To
ols
d
W
ee
Fr
St uFi ll P
D F
Visual Inspection
Ed
ito rw
ith
a ry PD
i b r (NDT)
L Page No. 30 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
penetration
t u
Simple, easy to apply,l Pquickly
d
di t o rw
i thF
r ee
a
P
r
D
y
i b r
L Page No. 31 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
rit
y
e Mra
nd To
d
W
ee
Fr
St
Fi
u ll P
D F Ed
ito rw
ith
a r y
PD
i b r
L Page No. 32 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
d
W
Convexity Fr
ee
Concavity
St
(weld rounded outward)
u
ll P
Fi
D F Ed
ito rw
ith
(weld rounded
Flatness
a r y
inward)
P D
i b r
L Page No. 33 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
ia l
VT:
te r
Uses of Weld Gauge
a
rit
y
e Mra
nd To
ols
d
W
ee
Fr
St
Fi
u ll P
D F Ed
ito rw
ith
a r y
PD
i b r
L Page No. 34 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
d
W
r ee
F
F
l P
St u
ti or
w
a
Video Image-scope y
normally 60 to 365PD cm with diameters from 3 to 12.5 mm
r
i b r
L Page No. 35 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Borescope
ia l
te r
a
rit
y
e Mra
nd To
ols
d
W
ee
Fr
St uFi ll P
D F Ed
ito rw
ith
a ry PD
i b r
L Page No. 36 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Endoscope
ia l
An endoscope can consist of:
a rigid or flexible tube. te r
a light delivery system to illuminate the a ols object under
inspection. The light source is normally
and the light is typically directed y M
ir te
r a n dT
ee via an optical
o
outside the object
d
W
F r
fiber system.
a lens system transmitting
F ill
P
S
DFtEudi t o rw
i th
lens to the viewer.PD
a r y
an eyepiece. Modern instruments may be videoscopes,
i b
for image capture.
r
with no eyepiece, a camera transmits image to a screen
l
ria
Inspections are visual examinations and manual checks components with stated hourly operating limitations is
ate
to determine the condition of an aircraft or component. normally accomplished during the calendar inspection
An aircraft inspection can range from a casual walk- falling nearest the hourly limitation.
around to a detailed inspection involving complete
disassembly and the use of complex inspection aids. In some instances, a flight hour limitation is established
to limit the number of hours that may be flown during
An inspection system consists of several processes, the calendar interval.
including reports made by mechanics or the pilot or
yM
Aircraft operating under the flight hour system are
ols
crew flying an aircraft and regularly scheduled inspec-
inspected when a specified number of flight hours are
To
tions of an aircraft. An inspection system is designed
to maintain an aircraft in the best possible condition. accumulated. Components with stated hourly operating
d
limitations are normally replaced during the inspection
an
Thorough and repeated inspections must be considered
that falls nearest the hourly limitation.
the backbone of a good maintenance program. Irregu-
er
rit
lar and haphazard inspection will invariably result in
W
It has been proven that regularly scheduled inspections or removed and the structure cleaned. When opening
ito
and preventive maintenance assure airworthiness. inspection plates and cowling and before cleaning the
Ed
Operating failures and malfunctions of equipment are area, take note of any oil or other evidence of fluid
St
leakage.
DF
preflight inspections to detailed inspections. The time be accessed and studied before actually proceeding
intervals for the inspection periods vary with the models to the aircraft to conduct the inspection. The aircraft
of aircraft involved and the types of operations being logbooks must be reviewed to provide background
conducted. The airframe and engine manufacturer’s information and a maintenance history of the particular
instructions should be consulted when establishing aircraft. The appropriate checklist or checklists must
inspection intervals. be utilized to ensure that no items will be forgotten or
br
fied number of calendar weeks. The calendar inspec- appliance manufacturers, parts venders, and the Federal
tion system is an efficient system from a maintenance Aviation Administration (FAA).
management standpoint. Scheduled replacement of
8-1
Page No. 38 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
the log may indeed be a small 5" × 8" logbook. For c. Windows and windshields — for deterioration
ria
larger aircraft, the logbooks are often larger, in the form and breakage.
of a three-ring binder. Aircraft that have been in service
d. Instruments — for condition, mounting,
for a long time are likely to have several logbooks.
marking, and (where practicable) for proper
The aircraft logbook is the record in which all data con- operation.
cerning the aircraft is recorded. Information gathered e. Flight and engine controls — for proper
ate
in this log is used to determine the aircraft condition, installation and operation.
date of inspections, time on airframe, engines and f. Batteries — for proper installation and charge.
propellers. It reflects a history of all significant events
g. All systems — for proper installation, general
occurring to the aircraft, its components, and acces-
condition, apparent defects, and security of
sories, and provides a place for indicating compliance
attachment.
with FAA airworthiness directives or manufactur-
yM
ers’ service bulletins. The more comprehensive the 3. Engine and nacelle group.
ols
logbook, the easier it is to understand the aircraft’s a. Engine section — for visual evidence of
To
maintenance history. excessive oil, fuel, or hydraulic leaks, and
d
sources of such leaks.
an
When the inspections are completed, appropriate
entries must be made in the aircraft logbook certifying er
b. Studs and nuts — for proper torquing and
rit
that the aircraft is in an airworthy condition and may obvious defects.
W
be returned to service. When making logbook entries, c. Internal engine — for cylinder compression
ee
exercise special care to ensure that the entry can be and for metal particles or foreign matter on
Fr
ud
clearly understood by anyone having a need to read it screens and sump drain plugs. If cylinder
ith
in the future. Also, if making a hand-written entry, use compression is weak, check for improper
rw
good penmanship and write legibly. To some degree, internal condition and improper internal
ito
of the aircraft logbooks have an impact on the value of d. Engine mount — for cracks, looseness of
St
Checklists
PD
The checklist may be of your own design, one provided g. Lines, hoses, and clamps — for leaks,
by the manufacturer of the equipment being inspected, condition, and looseness.
or one obtained from some other source. The checklist
should include the following: h. Exhaust stacks — for cracks, defects, and
proper attachment.
1. Fuselage and hull group. i. Accessories — for apparent defects in security
a. Fabric and skin — for deterioration, of mounting.
br
distortion, other evidence of failure, and j. All systems — for proper installation, general
defective or insecure attachment of fittings. condition defects, and secure attachment.
b. Systems and components — for proper k. Cowling — for cracks and defects.
installation, apparent defects, and satisfactory
Li
8-2
Page No. 39 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
c. Linkage, trusses, and members — for undue or a. Radio and electronic equipment — for proper
ria
excessive wear, fatigue, and distortion. installation and secure mounting.
d. Retracting and locking mechanism — for b. Wiring and conduits — for proper routing,
proper operation. secure mounting, and obvious defects.
e. Hydraulic lines — for leakage. c. Bonding and shielding — for proper
f. Electrical system — for chafing and proper installation and condition.
ate
operation of switches. d. Antennas — for condition, secure mounting,
g. Wheels — for cracks, defects, and condition of and proper operation.
bearings. 9. Miscellaneous.
h. Tires — for wear and cuts. a. Emergency and first aid equipment — for
i. Brakes — for proper adjustment. general condition and proper stowage.
yM
b. Parachutes, life rafts, flares, and so forth —
ols
j. Floats and skis — for security of attachment
inspect in accordance with the manufacturer’s
To
and obvious defects.
recommendations.
5. Wing and center section.
d
an
c. Autopilot system — for general condition,
a. All components — for condition and security.
er security of attachment, and proper operation.
rit
b. Fabric and skin — for deterioration, distortion,
W
attachment.
Fr
ud
c. Internal structure (spars, ribs compression Aeronautical publications are the sources of informa-
tion for guiding aviation mechanics in the operation
ith
d. Movable surfaces — for damage or obvious The proper use of these publications will greatly aid
ito
defects, unsatisfactory fabric or skin in the efficient operation and maintenance of all air-
Ed
attachment and proper travel. craft. These include manufacturers’ service bulletins,
St DF
e. Control mechanism — for freedom of manuals, and catalogs; FAA regulations; airworthiness
movement, alignment, and security. directives; advisory circulars; and aircraft, engine and
ll P
7. Propeller group.
a. Propeller assembly — for cracks, nicks, bends, The manufacturer’s aircraft maintenance manual
and oil leakage. contains complete instructions for maintenance of all
systems and components installed in the aircraft. It
b. Bolts — for proper torquing and safetying.
contains information for the mechanic who normally
8-3
Page No. 40 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
works on components, assemblies, and systems while Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs)
they are installed in the aircraft, but not for the over- The CFRs were established by law to provide for the
haul mechanic. A typical aircraft maintenance manual safe and orderly conduct of flight operations and to
contains: prescribe airmen privileges and limitations. A knowl-
• A description of the systems (i.e., electrical, edge of the CFRs is necessary during the performance
l
hydraulic, fuel, control) of maintenance, since all work done on aircraft must
comply with CFR provisions.
ria
• Lubrication instructions setting forth the frequency
and the lubricants and fluids which are to be used Airworthiness Directives
in the various systems, A primary safety function of the FAA is to require
• Pressures and electrical loads applicable to the correction of unsafe conditions found in an aircraft,
various systems, aircraft engine, propeller, or appliance when such con-
ate
• Tolerances and adjustments necessary to proper ditions exist and are likely to exist or develop in other
functioning of the airplane, products of the same design. The unsafe condition may
exist because of a design defect, maintenance, or other
• Methods of leveling, raising, and towing,
causes. Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations
• Methods of balancing control surfaces, (14 CFR) part 39, Airworthiness Directives, defines
• Identification of primary and secondary structures, the authority and responsibility of the Administra-
yM
tor for requiring the necessary corrective action. The
ols
• Frequency and extent of inspections necessary to
the proper operation of the airplane, Airworthiness Directives (ADs) are published to notify
To
aircraft owners and other interested persons of unsafe
• Special repair methods applicable to the airplane,
d
conditions and to prescribe the conditions under which
an
• Special inspection techniques requiring x-ray, the product may continue to be operated.
ultrasonic, or magnetic particle inspection, and er
rit
Airworthiness Directives are Federal Aviation Regu-
W
exemption is granted.
Fr
ud
Overhaul Manual
ith
The manufacturer’s overhaul manual contains brief Airworthiness Directives may be divided into two
rw
descriptive information and detailed step by step categories: (1) those of an emergency nature requiring
immediate compliance upon receipt and (2) those of a
ito
inexpensive items, such as switches and relays on tively longer period of time. Also, ADs may be a one-
DF
which overhaul is uneconomical, are not covered in time compliance item or a recurring item that requires
ll P
the overhaul manual. future inspection on an hourly basis (accrued flight time
since last compliance) or a calendar time basis.
Fi
PD
8-4
Page No. 41 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
models, appears immediately below the type certificate It is not within the scope of this handbook to list all
number. The issue date completes this group. This the items that can be shown on the type certificate data
information is contained within a bordered text box sheets. Those items listed above serve only to acquaint
to set it off. aviation mechanics with the type of information gener-
ally included on the data sheets. Type certificate data
The data sheet is separated into one or more sections. sheets may be many pages in length. Figure 8-1 shows
l
Each section is identified by a Roman numeral followed a typical TCDS.
ria
by the model designation of the aircraft to which the
section pertains. The category or categories in which When conducting a required or routine inspection, it is
the aircraft can be certificated are shown in parenthe- necessary to ensure that the aircraft and all the major
ses following the model number. Also included is the items on it are as defined in the type certificate data
approval date shown on the type certificate. sheets. This is called a conformity check, and verifies
that the aircraft conforms to the specifications of the
ate
The data sheet contains information regarding: aircraft as it was originally certified. Sometimes altera-
1. Model designation of all engines for which the tions are made that are not specified or authorized in the
aircraft manufacturer obtained approval for use TCDS. When that condition exists, a supplemental type
with this model aircraft. certificate (STC) will be issued. STCs are considered a
part of the permanent records of an aircraft, and should
2. Minimum fuel grade to be used. be maintained as part of that aircraft’s logs.
yM ols
3. Maximum continuous and takeoff ratings of the
approved engines, including manifold pressure Routine/Required Inspections
To
(when used), rpm, and horsepower (hp).
d
For the purpose of determining their overall condition,
an
4. Name of the manufacturer and model designation for
14 CFR provides for the inspection of all civil aircraft
each propeller for which the aircraft manufacturer er
at specific intervals, depending generally upon the type
rit
obtained approval will be shown together with
of operations in which they are engaged. The pilot in
W
5. Airspeed limits in both mph and knots. flight. More detailed inspections must be conducted by
rw
6. Center of gravity range for the extreme loading aviation maintenance technicians at least once each 12
ito
conditions of the aircraft is given in inches from calendar months, while inspection is required for others
Ed
the datum. The range may also be stated in percent after each 100 hours of flight. In other instances, an
St DF
of MAC (Mean Aerodynamic Chord) for transport aircraft may be inspected in accordance with a system
category aircraft. set up to provide for total inspection of the aircraft over
ll P
7. Empty weight center of gravity (CG) range (when a calendar or flight time period.
Fi
PD
established) will be given as fore and aft limits in To determine the specific inspection requirements
inches from the datum. If no range exists, the word and rules for the performance of inspections, refer to
ary
“none” will be shown following the heading on the the CFR, which prescribes the requirements for the
data sheet. inspection and maintenance of aircraft in various types
8. Location of the datum. of operations.
9. Means provided for leveling the aircraft.
Preflight/Postflight Inspections
10. All pertinent maximum weights.
Pilots are required to follow a checklist contained
br
11. Number of seats and their moment arms. within the Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH) when
12. Oil and fuel capacity. operating aircraft. The first section of a checklist
13. Control surface movements. includes a section entitled Preflight Inspection. The
preflight inspection checklist includes a “walk-around”
14. Required equipment.
Li
8-5
Page No. 42 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
ria
ate
yMFr
ee
W
er
rit
an
dTo
ols
ud Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
Fi
PD
DF
ll P
ary
br
Li
8-6
Page No. 43 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
ria
ate
yMFr
ee
W
rit
er
an
dTo
ols
ud ito
Ed
rw
ith
St
Fi
PD
DF
ll P
ary
br
Li
8-7
Page No. 44 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
ria
ate
yMFr
ee
W
er
rit
an
dTo
ols
ud Ed
rw
ito
ith
StPD
Fi
ll P
DF
ary
br
Li
8-8
Page No. 45 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
ria
ate
yMFr
ee
W
rit
er
an
dTo
ols
ud ito
Ed
rw
ith
St
Fi
PD
DF
ll P
ary
br
Li
8-9
Page No. 46 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
ria
ate
yMFr
ee
W
er
rit
an
dTo
ols
ud Ed
rw
ito
ith
StPD
Fi
ll P
DF
ary
br
Li
8-10
Page No. 47 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
ria
ate
yMFr
ee
W
rit
er
an
dTo
ols
ud ito
Ed
rw
ith
St
Fi
PD
DF
ll P
ary
br
Li
8-11
Page No. 48 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
and not contaminated. Additionally, it is the pilot’s A properly written checklist, such as the one shown
responsibility to review the airworthiness certificate, earlier in this chapter, will include all the items of
maintenance records, and other required paperwork to appendix D. Although the scope and detail of annual
verify that the aircraft is indeed airworthy. After each and 100-hour inspections is identical, there are two
flight, it is recommended that the pilot or mechanic significant differences. One difference involves persons
conduct a postflight inspection to detect any problems authorized to conduct them. A certified airframe and
l
that might require repair or servicing before the next powerplant maintenance technician can conduct a 100-
ria
flight. hour inspection, whereas an annual inspection must
be conducted by a certified airframe and powerplant
Annual/100-Hour Inspections maintenance technician with inspection authorization
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) (IA). The other difference involves authorized over-
part 91 discusses the basic requirements for annual flight of the maximum 100 hours before inspection.
and 100-hour inspections. With some exceptions, all An aircraft may be flown up to 10 hours beyond the
ate
aircraft must have a complete inspection annually. 100-hour limit if necessary to fly to a destination where
Aircraft that are used for commercial purposes and are the inspection is to be conducted.
likely to be used more frequently than noncommercial
aircraft must have this complete inspection every 100 Progressive Inspections
hours. The scope and detail of items to be included in Because the scope and detail of an annual inspection
yM
annual and 100-hour inspections is included as appen- is very extensive and could keep an aircraft out of
ols
dix D of 14 CFR part 43 and shown as Figure 8-2. service for a considerable length of time, alternative
To
d
an
Appendix D to Part 43—Scope and Detail of Items (as Applicable to the Particular Aircraft)
To Be Included in Annual and 100-Hour Inspections er
rit
W
(a) Each person performing an annual or 100-hour (3) Windows and windshields — for
ee
doors, fairing, and cowling. He shall thoroughly mounting, marking, and (where practicable)
clean the aircraft and aircraft engine.
rw
improper operation.
(b) Each person performing an annual or 100-hour
ito
attachment.
installation, apparent defects, and
(d) Each person performing an annual or 100-hour
unsatisfactory operation.
inspection shall inspect (where applicable)
(3) Envelope, gas bags, ballast tanks, and components of the engine and nacelle group as
related parts — for poor condition. follows:
(c) Each person performing an annual or 100-hour (1) Engine section — for visual evidence of
inspection shall inspect (where applicable) the excessive oil, fuel, or hydraulic leaks, and
br
8-12
Page No. 49 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Appendix D to Part 43—Scope and Detail of Items (as Applicable to the Particular Aircraft)
To Be Included in Annual and 100-Hour Inspections (continued)
weak cylinder compression, for improper (f) Each person performing an annual or 100-hour
internal condition and improper internal inspection shall inspect (where applicable) all
l
tolerances. components of the wing and center section
(4) Engine mount — for cracks, looseness assembly for poor general condition, fabric or
ria
of mounting, and looseness of engine to skin deterioration, distortion, evidence of failure,
mount. and insecurity of attachment.
(5) Flexible vibration dampeners — for poor (g) Each person performing an annual or 100-hour
condition and deterioration. inspection shall inspect (where applicable) all
components and systems that make up the com-
(6) Engine controls — for defects, improper
ate
plete empennage assembly for poor general
travel, and improper safetying.
condition, fabric or skin deterioration, distortion,
(7) Lines, hoses, and clamps — for leaks, evidence of failure, insecure attachment, improper
improper condition, and looseness. component installation, and improper component
(8) Exhaust stacks — for cracks, defects, and operation.
improper attachment. (h) Each person performing an annual or 100-hour
yM
(9) Accessories — for apparent defects in inspection shall inspect (where applicable) the
ols
security of mounting. following components of the propeller group:
To
(10) All systems — for improper installation, (1) Propeller assembly — for cracks, nicks,
d
binds, and oil leakage.
an
poor general condition, defects, and
insecure attachment. (2) Bolts — for improper torquing and lack of
er
rit
(11) Cowling — for cracks and defects. safetying.
W
(e) Each person performing an annual or 100-hour (3) Anti-icing devices — for improper
ee
(2) Shock absorbing devices — for improper inspection shall inspect (where applicable) the
St
distortion. mounting.
PD
(4) Retracting and locking mechanism — for (2) Wiring and conduits — for improper
ary
improper operation.
(8) Tires — for wear and cuts.
(j) Each person performing an annual or 100-hour
(9) Brakes — for improper adjustment. inspection shall inspect (where applicable) each
(10) Floats and skis — for insecure attachment installed miscellaneous item that is not otherwise
and obvious or apparent defects. covered by this listing for improper installation
Li
Figure 8-2. Scope and detail of annual and 100-hour inspections. (continued)
8-13
Page No. 50 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
inspection programs designed to minimize down time comes in for a phase inspection and detailed items
may be utilized. A progressive inspection program focus on detailed inspection of specific areas. Detailed
allows an aircraft to be inspected progressively. The inspections are typically done once each cycle. A cycle
scope and detail of an annual inspection is essentially must be completed within 12 months. If all required
divided into segments or phases (typically four to phases are not completed within 12 months, the remain-
six). Completion of all the phases completes a cycle ing phase inspections must be conducted before the
l
that satisfies the requirements of an annual inspection. end of the 12th month from when the first phase was
ria
The advantage of such a program is that any required completed.
segment may be completed overnight and thus enable
the aircraft to fly daily without missing any revenue Each registered owner or operator of an aircraft desiring
earning potential. Progressive inspection programs to use a progressive inspection program must submit
include routine items such as engine oil changes and a written request to the FAA Flight Standards District
detailed items such as flight control cable inspection. Office (FSDO) having jurisdiction over the area in
ate
Routine items are accomplished each time the aircraft which the applicant is located. Title 14 of the Code
of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, §91.409(d)
§91.409 Inspections.
yM
(d) Progressive inspection. Each registered owner or (3) Enough housing and equipment for
ols
operator of an aircraft desiring to use a progressive necessary disassembly and proper inspection
To
inspection program must submit a written request of the aircraft; and
d
to the FAA Flight Standards district office having
an
(4) Appropriate current technical information
jurisdiction over the area in which the applicant for the aircraft.
is located, and shall provide — er
rit
The frequency and detail of the progressive inspection
W
detail —
airworthiness directives, and other approved data. If
ll P
(i) An explanation of the progressive the progressive inspection is discontinued, the owner
inspection, including the continuity of
Fi
inspection responsibility, the making of Flight Standards district office, in writing, of the
reports, and the keeping of records and discontinuance. After the discontinuance, the first
ary
and for changing an inspection interval requires a detailed inspection of the aircraft and all
because of service experience; its components in accordance with the progressive
inspection. A routine inspection of the aircraft and
(iii) Sample routine and detailed inspection
a detailed inspection of several components is not
forms and instructions for their use; and
Li
8-14
Page No. 51 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
establishes procedures to be followed for progressive find information regarding a particular system in
inspections and is shown in Figure 8-3. the same section of an aircraft maintenance manual,
regardless of manufacturer. For example, if you are
Continuous Inspections seeking information about the electrical system on
Continuous inspection programs are similar to pro- any aircraft, you will always find that information in
gressive inspection programs, except that they apply section (chapter) 24.
l
to large or turbine-powered aircraft and are therefore
ria
more complicated. The ATA Specification 100 has the aircraft divided
into systems, such as air conditioning, which covers
Like progressive inspection programs, they require the basic air conditioning system (ATA 21). Number-
approval by the FAA Administrator. The approval may ing in each major system provides an arrangement for
be sought based upon the type of operation and the breaking the system down into several subsystems. Late
CFR parts under which the aircraft will be operated. model aircraft, both over and under the 12,500 pound
ate
The maintenance program for commercially operated designation, have their parts manuals and maintenance
aircraft must be detailed in the approved operations manuals arranged according to the ATA coded system.
specifications (OpSpecs) of the commercial certificate
holder. The following abbreviated table of ATA System, Subsys-
tem, and Titles is included for familiarization purposes.
Airlines utilize a continuous maintenance program
yM
that includes both routine and detailed inspections. ATA Specification 100 Systems
ols
However, the detailed inspections may include differ- Sys. Sub. Title
To
ent levels of detail. Often referred to as “checks,” the 21 AIR CONDITIONING
d
A-check, B-check, C-check, and D-checks involve
an
increasing levels of detail. A-checks are the least com- 21 00 General
prehensive and occur frequently. D-checks, on the other er
21 10 Compression
rit
hand, are extremely comprehensive, involving major
W
21 20 Distribution
disassembly, removal, overhaul, and inspection of
ee
21 30 Pressurization Control
systems and components. They might occur only three
Fr
ud
to six times during the service life of an aircraft. 21 40 Heating
ith
21 50 Cooling
rw
instrument flight rules (IFR) must have each altimeter 21 70 Moisture/Air Contaminate Control
St DF
and static system tested in accordance with procedures The remainder of this list shows the systems and title
described in 14 CFR part 43, appendix E, within the
ll P
8-15
Page No. 52 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
MULTIPURPOSE COMPONENTS experienced with them.
ria
49 AIRBORNE AUXILIARY POWER Hard or Overweight Landing Inspection
51 STRUCTURES The structural stress induced by a landing depends not
52 DOORS only upon the gross weight at the time but also upon the
53 FUSELAGE severity of impact. However, because of the difficulty
in estimating vertical velocity at the time of contact,
ate
54 NACELLES/PYLONS
it is hard to judge whether or not a landing has been
55 STABILIZERS sufficiently severe to cause structural damage. For this
56 WINDOWS reason, a special inspection should be performed after
57 WINGS a landing is made at a weight known to exceed the
design landing weight or after a rough landing, even
61 PROPELLERS
yM
though the latter may have occurred when the aircraft did
ols
65 ROTORS not exceed the design landing weight.
To
71 POWERPLANT
Wrinkled wing skin is the most easily detected sign of
d
72 (T) TURBINE/TURBOPROP
an
an excessive load having been imposed during a land-
72 (R) ENGINE RECIPROCATING ing. Another indication which can be detected easily is
er
rit
73 ENGINE FUEL AND CONTROL fuel leakage along riveted seams. Other possible loca-
W
78 ENGINE EXHAUST
Ed
79 ENGINE OIL
DF
82 WATER INJECTION
PD
During the service life of an aircraft, occasions may Where wrinkles have occurred, remove a few rivets
arise when something out of the ordinary care and and examine the rivet shanks to determine if the rivets
use of an aircraft might happen that could possibly have sheared or were highly loaded in shear.
affect its airworthiness. When these situations are
Li
encountered, special inspection procedures should Through the inspection doors and other accessible
be followed to determine if damage to the aircraft openings, inspect all spar webs from the fuselage to
structure has occurred. The procedures outlined on the the tip. Check for buckling, wrinkles, and sheared
following pages are general in nature and are intended attachments. Inspect for buckling in the area around
to acquaint the aviation mechanic with the areas which
8-16
Page No. 53 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
the nacelles and in the nacelle skin, particularly at the components of an aircraft have undergone some sort
wing leading edge. of heat treatment process during manufacture, an
exposure to high heat not encountered during normal
Check for fuel leaks. Any sizeable fuel leak is an indi- operations could severely degrade the design strength
cation that an area may have received overloads which of the structure. The strength and airworthiness of an
have broken the sealant and opened the seams. aluminum structure that passes a visual inspection but
l
If the landing gear was lowered during a period of is still suspect can be further determined by use of a
ria
severe turbulence, inspect the surrounding surfaces conductivity tester. This is a device that uses eddy cur-
carefully for loose rivets, cracks, or buckling. The rent and is discussed later in this chapter. Since strength
interior of the wheel well may give further indications of metals is related to hardness, possible damage to
of excessive gust conditions. Inspect the top and bottom steel structures might be determined by use of a hard-
fuselage skin. An excessive bending moment may have ness tester such as a Rockwell C hardness tester.
ate
left wrinkles of a diagonal nature in these areas. Flood Damage
Inspect the surface of the empennage for wrinkles, Like aircraft damaged by fire, aircraft damaged by
buckling, or sheared attachments. Also, inspect the water can range from minor to severe, depending
area of attachment of the empennage to the fuselage. on the level of the flood water, whether it was fresh
The above inspections cover the critical areas. If exces- or salt water and the elapsed time between the flood
yM
sive damage is noted in any of the areas mentioned, occurrence and when repairs were initiated. Any parts
ols
the inspection should be continued until all damage that were totally submerged should be completely
To
is detected. disassembled, thoroughly cleaned, dried and treated
with a corrosion inhibitor. Many parts might have
d
an
Lightning Strike to be replaced, particularly interior carpeting, seats,
Although lightning strikes to aircraft are extremely er
side panels, and instruments. Since water serves as an
rit
rare, if a strike has occurred, the aircraft must be care- electrolyte that promotes corrosion, all traces of water
W
fully inspected to determine the extent of any damage and salt must be removed before the aircraft can again
ee
dissipate at controlled locations. These controlled Because they operate in an environment that acceler-
ito
locations are primarily the aircraft’s static discharge ates corrosion, seaplanes must be carefully inspected
Ed
wicks, or on more sophisticated aircraft, null field dis- for corrosion and conditions that promote corrosion.
St
chargers. When surges of high voltage electricity pass Inspect bilge areas for waste hydraulic fluids, water,
DF
through good electrical conductors, such as aluminum dirt, drill chips, and other debris. Additionally, since
ll P
or steel, damage is likely to be minimal or nonexistent. seaplanes often encounter excessive stress from the
Fi
When surges of high voltage electricity pass through pounding of rough water at high speeds, inspect for
PD
non-metallic structures, such as a fiberglass radome, loose rivets and other fasteners; stretched, bent or
engine cowl or fairing, glass or plastic window, or a cracked skins; damage to the float attach fitting; and
ary
composite structure that does not have built-in electri- general wear and tear on the entire structure.
cal bonding, burning and more serious damage to the
structure could occur. Visual inspection of the structure Aerial Application Aircraft
is required. Look for evidence of degradation, burning Two primary factors that make inspecting these aircraft
or erosion of the composite resin at all affected struc- different from other aircraft are the corrosive nature of
tures, electrical bonding straps, static discharge wicks some of the chemicals used and the typical flight pro-
br
and null field dischargers. file. Damaging effects of corrosion may be detected in
a much shorter period of time than normal use aircraft.
Fire Damage Chemicals may soften the fabric or loosen the fabric
Inspection of aircraft structures that have been sub- tapes of fabric covered aircraft. Metal aircraft may need
to have the paint stripped, cleaned, and repainted and
Li
8-17
Page No. 54 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
During peak use, these aircraft may fly up to 50 cycles Additional information on NDI may be found by
(takeoffs and landings) or more in a day, most likely referring to chapter 5 of FAA Advisory Circular (AC)
from an unimproved or grass runway. This can greatly 43.13-1B, Acceptable Methods, Techniques, and Prac-
accelerate the failure of normal fatigue items. Landing tices — Aircraft Inspection and Repair. Information
gear and related items require frequent inspections. regarding training, qualifications, and certification of
Because these aircraft operate almost continuously at NDI personnel may be found in FAA Advisory Circular
l
very low altitudes, air filters tend to become obstructed (AC) 65-31A, Training, Qualification and Certification
ria
more rapidly. of Non-destructive Inspection (NDI) Personnel.
General Techniques
Special Flight Permits
Before conducting NDI, it is necessary to follow
For an aircraft that does not currently meet airworthi- preparatory steps in accordance with procedures spe-
ness requirements because of an overdue inspection, cific to that type of inspection. Generally, the parts or
ate
damage, expired replacement times for time-limited areas must be thoroughly cleaned. Some parts must
parts or other reasons, but is capable of safe flight, be removed from the aircraft or engine. Others might
a special flight permit may be issued. Special flight need to have any paint or protective coating stripped. A
permits, often referred to as ferry permits, are issued complete knowledge of the equipment and procedures
for the following purposes: is essential and if required, calibration and inspection
yM
• Flying the aircraft to a base where repairs, of the equipment must be current.
ols
alterations, or maintenance are to be performed,
To
Visual Inspection
or to a point of storage.
Visual inspection can be enhanced by looking at the
d
an
• Delivering or exporting the aircraft. suspect area with a bright light, a magnifying glass,
• Production flight testing new production er
and a mirror (when required). Some defects might
rit
aircraft. be so obvious that further inspection methods are not
W
• Evacuating aircraft from areas of impending required. The lack of visible defects does not neces-
ee
Borescope
Ed
may be found in 14 CFR part 21. Application forms for Inspection by use of a borescope is essentially a visual
DF
special flight permits may be requested from the nearest inspection. A borescope is a device that enables the
ll P
FAA Flight Standards District Office (FSDO). inspector to see inside areas that could not otherwise be
Fi
The preceding information in this chapter provided inserted into an open spark plug hole to detect damaged
general information regarding aircraft inspection. The pistons, cylinder walls, or valves. Another example
remainder of this chapter deals with several methods would be the hot section of a turbine engine to which
often used on specific components or areas on an air- access could be gained through the hole of a removed
craft when carrying out the more specific inspections. igniter or removed access plugs specifically installed
They are referred to as nondestructive inspection (NDI) for inspection purposes.
br
highly sophisticated and require that the technician be optics that enables greater flexibility. Many borescopes
highly trained and specially certified. provide images that can be displayed on a computer or
video monitor for better interpretation of what is being
viewed and to record images for future reference. Most
8-18
Page No. 55 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
material. It is used with equal success on such metals 1. The penetrant must enter the defect in order to form
ria
as aluminum, magnesium, brass, copper, cast iron, an indication. It is important to allow sufficient
stainless steel, and titanium. It may also be used on time so the penetrant can fill the defect. The defect
ceramics, plastics, molded rubber, and glass. must be clean and free of contaminating materials
so that the penetrant is free to enter.
Penetrant inspection will detect such defects as surface
2. If all penetrant is washed out of a defect, an
cracks or porosity. These defects may be caused by
ate
indication cannot be formed. During the washing
fatigue cracks, shrinkage cracks, shrinkage poros-
or rinsing operation, prior to development, it is
ity, cold shuts, grinding and heat treat cracks, seams,
possible that the penetrant will be removed from
forging laps, and bursts. Penetrant inspection will also
within the defect, as well as from the surface.
indicate a lack of bond between joined metals.
3. Clean cracks are usually easy to detect. Surface
The main disadvantage of penetrant inspection is that openings that are uncontaminated, regardless of
yM
the defect must be open to the surface in order to let how fine, are seldom difficult to detect with the
ols
the penetrant get into the defect. For this reason, if the penetrant inspection.
To
part in question is made of material which is magnetic, 4. The smaller the defect, the longer the penetrating
d
the use of magnetic particle inspection is generally
an
time. Fine crack-like apertures require a longer
recommended.
erpenetrating time than defects such as pores.
rit
Penetrant inspection uses a penetrating liquid that 5. When the part to be inspected is made of a material
W
enters a surface opening and remains there, making susceptible to magnetism, it should be inspected
ee
it clearly visible to the inspector. It calls for visual by a magnetic particle inspection method if the
Fr
ud
examination of the part after it has been processed, equipment is available.
ith
increasing the visibility of the defect so that it can 6. Visible penetrant-type developer, when applied to
rw
be detected. Visibility of the penetrating material is the surface of a part, will dry to a smooth, even,
ito
increased by the addition of one of two types of dye, white coating. As the developer dries, bright red
Ed
The visible penetrant kit consists of dye penetrant, defects. If no red indications appear, there are no
surface defects.
ll P
transformer, a flexible power cable, and a hand-held sound areas will appear deep blue-violet.
lamp. Due to its size, the lamp may be used in almost 8. It is possible to examine an indication of a defect
any position or location. and to determine its cause as well as its extent.
Such an appraisal can be made if something is
Briefly, the steps for performing a penetrant inspec-
known about the manufacturing processes to which
tion are:
the part has been subjected.
br
4. Drying the part. liant. Very fine openings can hold only small amounts
of penetrants and will appear as fine lines. Figure 8-4
5. Applying the developer. shows some of the types of defects that can be located
6. Inspecting and interpreting results. using dry penetrant.
8-19
Page No. 56 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
ria
ate
Pits of porosity Tight crack or partially welded lap Crack or similar opening
yM
bolt holes, and spark plug bores for cracks, heat or
ols
cations in the sense that they occur in the magnetic
frame damage. Eddy current may also be used in repair
To
particle inspection. There are, however, two condi-
tions which may create accumulations of penetrant of aluminum aircraft damaged by fire or excessive heat.
d
Different meter readings will be seen when the same
an
that are sometimes confused with true surface cracks
metal is in different hardness states. Readings in the
and discontinuities.
er
rit
affected area are compared with identical materials in
W
The first condition involves indications caused by poor known unaffected areas for comparison. A difference
washing. If all the surface penetrant is not removed in in readings indicates a difference in the hardness state
ee
Fr
ud
the washing or rinsing operation following the pen- of the affected area. In aircraft manufacturing plants,
etrant dwell time, the unremoved penetrant will be vis-
ith
to identify since the penetrant is in broad areas rather shows a technician performing an eddy current inspec-
ito
than in the sharp patterns found with true indications. tion on an aluminum wheel half.
Ed
Degreasing is recommended for removal of all traces When an alternating current is passed through a coil,
of the penetrant. it develops a magnetic field around the coil, which in
Fi
False indications may also be created where parts and opposes the flow of original current. If this coil
ary
press fit to each other. If a wheel is press fit onto a is placed in such a way that the magnetic field passes
shaft, penetrant will show an indication at the fit line.
This is perfectly normal since the two parts are not
meant to be welded together. Indications of this type
are easy to identify since they are regular in form and
shape.
br
8-20
Page No. 57 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
through an electrically conducting specimen, eddy ing surface and subsurface corrosion, pots and heat
currents will be induced into the specimen. The eddy treat condition.
currents create their own field which varies the original
field’s opposition to the flow of original current. The Ultrasonic Inspection
specimen’s susceptibility to eddy currents determines Ultrasonic detection equipment makes it possible to
the current flow through the coil. [Figure 8-6] locate defects in all types of materials. Minute cracks,
l
checks, and voids too small to be seen by x-ray can
ria
The magnitude and phase of this counter field is depen- be located by ultrasonic inspection. An ultrasonic test
dent primarily upon the resistance and permeability of instrument requires access to only one surface of the
the specimen under consideration, and which enables material to be inspected and can be used with either
us to make a qualitative determination of various straight line or angle beam testing techniques.
physical properties of the test material. The interaction
of the eddy current field with the original field results Two basic methods are used for ultrasonic inspection.
ate
is a power change that can be measured by utilizing The first of these methods is immersion testing. In this
electronic circuitry similar to a Wheatstone bridge. method of inspection, the part under examination and
the search unit are totally immersed in a liquid couplant,
The specimen is either placed in or passed through the which may be water or any other suitable fluid.
field of an electromagnetic induction coil, and its effect
on the impedance of the coil or on the voltage output of The second method is called contact testing, which is
yM
one or more test coils is observed. The process, which readily adapted to field use and is the method discussed
ols
involves electric fields made to explore a test piece for in this chapter. In this method, the part under exami-
To
various conditions, involves the transmission of energy nation and the search unit are coupled with a viscous
d
through the specimen much like the transmission of material, liquid or a paste, which wets both the face of
an
x-rays, heat, or ultrasound. the search unit and the material under examination.
er
rit
Eddy current inspection can frequently be performed There are three basic ultrasonic inspection meth-
W
without removing the surface coatings such as primer, ods: (1) pulse echo; (2) through transmission; and
ee
Oscillator Amplifier
ll P
Fi
PD
ary
Meter
br
Probe
Li
Sample part
8-21
Page No. 58 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Transducer
RF pulser Amplifier Flaw
T
Transducer
l
1
F
2
T‘ F’ B’
ria
Rate generator
Flaw
3 B
Specimen Flaw
Cathode ray tube
Speciman
Timing circuit
ate
Figure 8-8. Pulse-echo display in relationship
to flaw detection.
yM
Cathode ray oscilloscope
ols
not directly underneath the probe by use of the angle-
To
Figure 8-7. Block diagram of basic pulse-echo system. beam testing method. Angle beam testing differs from
straight beam testing only in the manner in which the
d
an
ultrasonic waves pass through the material being tested.
Pulse Echo
er
As shown in Figure 8-9, the beam is projected into the
rit
Flaws are detected by measuring the amplitude of sig- material at an acute angle to the surface by means of
W
nals reflected and the time required for these signals to a crystal cut at an angle and mounted in plastic. The
ee
travel between specific surfaces and the discontinuity. beam or a portion thereof reflects successively from
Fr
ud
[Figure 8-7] the surfaces of the material or any other discontinuity,
ith
the screen of the cathode ray tube (CRT). The spot thickness of the piece; while in angle beam testing, this
Ed
50 to 5,000 times per second, or higher if required for the searching unit and the opposite edge of the piece.
high speed automated scanning. Due to the speed of
ll P
rate generator electrically excites the pulser, and the opposite surface to receive it. A disruption in the sound
pulser in turn emits an electrical pulse. The transducer path will indicate a flaw and be displayed on the instru-
converts this pulse into a short train of ultrasonic ment screen. Through transmission is less sensitive to
sound waves. If the interfaces of the transducer and small defects than the pulse-echo method.
the specimen are properly oriented, the ultrasound
will be reflected back to the transducer when it reaches Resonance
br
the internal flaw and the opposite surface of the speci- This system differs from the pulse method in that the
men. The time interval between the transmission of frequency of transmission may be continuously varied.
the initial impulse and the reception of the signals The resonance method is used principally for thickness
from within the specimen are measured by the timing measurements when the two sides of the material being
tested are smooth and parallel and the backside is inac-
Li
8-22
Page No. 59 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Coaxial cable
l
ria
Material
Quartz crystal Defect
ate
Figure 8-9. Pulse-echo angle beam testing.
yM ols
test blocks to guard against possible drift of frequency.
To
If the frequency of an ultrasonic wave is such that its Reflecting
d
A
an
wavelength is twice the thickness of a specimen (funda- surface
tion will occur. Further increase of the frequency causes T = W F = 2F1 (2nd Harmonic)
Material
DF
C
By starting at the fundamental frequency and gradually
ary
8-23
Page No. 60 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
Motor
Tuning
waves that take the form of ultrasonic pulses. Cracks
capacitor and areas of corrosion in the stressed airframe structure
ria
Transducer emit sound waves which are registered by the sensors.
Horizontal Material These acoustic emission bursts can be used to locate
time-base Contacts flaws and to evaluate their rate of growth as a func-
generator
tion of applied stress. Acoustic emission testing has
an advantage over other NDI methods in that it can
ate
Figure 8-11. Block diagram of resonance thickness
detect and locate all of the activated flaws in a struc-
measuring system.
ture in one test. Because of the complexity of aircraft
structures, application of acoustic emission testing to
between 0.25 millicycle (mc) and 10 mc in four or aircraft has required a new level of sophistication in
five bands. testing technique and data interpretation.
The resonance thickness instrument can be used to test
yM
Magnetic Particle Inspection
ols
the thickness of such metals as steel, cast iron, brass,
nickel, copper, silver, lead, aluminum, and magnesium. Magnetic particle inspection is a method of detecting
To
In addition, areas of corrosion or wear on tanks, tubing, invisible cracks and other defects in ferromagnetic
d
materials such as iron and steel. It is not applicable to
an
airplane wing skins, and other structures or products
can be located and evaluated. nonmagnetic materials.
er
rit
Direct reading dial-operated units are available that In rapidly rotating, reciprocating, vibrating, and other
W
measure thickness between 0.025 inch and 3 inches highly stressed aircraft parts, small defects often
ee
with an accuracy of better than ±1 percent. develop to the point that they cause complete failure
Fr
ud
of the part. Magnetic particle inspection has proven
ith
Ultrasonic inspection requires a skilled operator who is extremely reliable for the rapid detection of such
rw
familiar with the equipment being used as well as the defects located on or near the surface. With this method
ito
inspection method to be used for the many different of inspection, the location of the defect is indicated and
Ed
parts being tested. [Figure 8-12] the approximate size and shape are outlined.
St DF
8-24
Page No. 61 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
ria
Figure 8-13. Flux leakage at transverse discontinuity. Figure 8-14. Flux leakage at longitudinal discontinuity.
A discontinuity may or may not affect the usefulness consist, for example, of bits of furnace lining picked up
ate
of a part. during the melting of the basic metal or of other foreign
constituents. Inclusions interrupt the continuity of the
Development of Indications metal because they prevent the joining or welding of
When a discontinuity in a magnetized material is open adjacent faces of the metal.
to the surface, and a magnetic substance (indicating
medium) is available on the surface, the flux leak- Preparation of Parts for Testing
yM ols
age at the discontinuity tends to form the indicating Grease, oil, and dirt must be cleaned from all parts
To
medium into a path of higher permeability. (Perme- before they are tested. Cleaning is very important
ability is a term used to refer to the ease with which a since any grease or other foreign material present can
d
an
magnetic flux can be established in a given magnetic produce nonrelevant indications due to magnetic par-
circuit.) Because of the magnetism in the part and the
er
ticles adhering to the foreign material as the suspension
rit
adherence of the magnetic particles to each other, the drains from the part.
W
The same action takes place when the discontinuity is upon the magnetic particle suspension to clean the part.
rw
not open to the surface, but since the amount of flux Cleaning by suspension is not thorough and any foreign
ito
leakage is less, fewer particles are held in place and a materials so removed from the part will contaminate the
Ed
fainter and less sharply defined indication is obtained. suspension, thereby reducing its effectiveness.
St DF
If the discontinuity is very far below the surface, there In the dry procedure, thorough cleaning is absolutely
ll P
may be no flux leakage and no indication on the sur- necessary. Grease or other foreign material will hold
Fi
face. The flux leakage at a transverse discontinuity is the magnetic powder, resulting in nonrelevant indica-
PD
shown in Figure 8-13. The flux leakage at a longitudinal tions and making it impossible to distribute the indicat-
ary
discontinuity is shown in Figure 8-14. ing medium evenly over the part’s surface.
Types of Discontinuities Disclosed All small openings and oil holes leading to internal
The following types of discontinuities are normally passages or cavities should be plugged with paraffin
detected by the magnetic particle test: cracks, laps, or other suitable nonabrasive material.
seams, cold shuts, inclusions, splits, tears, pipes, and Coatings of cadmium, copper, tin, and zinc do not
voids. All of these may affect the reliability of parts interfere with the satisfactory performance of magnetic
br
8-25
Page No. 62 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
ria
Attraction of particles at defects Attraction of particles at defects
ate
A B
Because it is more strongly magnetic, nickel plating In longitudinal magnetization, the magnetic field is
is more effective than chromium plating in preventing produced in a direction parallel to the long axis of
yM
the formation of indications. the part. This is accomplished by placing the part in
ols
a solenoid excited by electric current. The metal part
To
Effect of Flux Direction then becomes the core of an electromagnet and is mag-
d
netized by induction from the magnetic field created
an
To locate a defect in a part, it is essential that the mag-
netic lines of force pass approximately perpendicular to in the solenoid.
er
rit
the defect. It is therefore necessary to induce magnetic
In longitudinal magnetization of long parts, the solenoid
W
tization. The effect of flux direction is illustrated in Solenoids produce effective magnetization for approxi-
Figure 8-15.
ito
Circular magnetization is the induction of a magnetic modating parts or sections approximately 30 inches
St
current through the part. This type of magnetization wrapping a flexible electrical conductor around the
Fi
will locate defects running approximately parallel to part. Although this method is not as convenient, it has
PD
magnetization of a camshaft.
br
Li
8-26
Page No. 63 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
an advantage in that the coils conform more closely subsurface inspection in many applications have resulted
to the shape of the part, producing a somewhat more in the continuous method being more widely used.
uniform magnetization.
Inasmuch as the continuous procedure will reveal
The flexible coil method is also useful for large or more nonsignificant discontinuities than the residual
irregularly shaped parts for which standard solenoids procedure, careful and intelligent interpretation and
l
are not available. evaluation of discontinuities revealed by this procedure
ria
are necessary.
Effect of Flux Density
The effectiveness of the magnetic particle inspection The residual inspection procedure involves magne-
also depends on the flux density or field strength at tization of the part and application of the indicating
the surface of the part when the indicating medium medium after the magnetizing force has been removed.
is applied. As the flux density in the part is increased, This procedure relies on the residual or permanent
ate
the sensitivity of the test increases because of the magnetism in the part and is more practical than the
greater flux leakages at discontinuities and the resulting continuous procedure when magnetization is accom-
improved formation of magnetic particle patterns. plished by flexible coils wrapped around the part.
Excessively high flux densities may form nonrelevant In general, the residual procedure is used only with steels
indications; for example, patterns of the grain flow which have been heat treated for stressed applications.
yM
in the material. These indications will interfere with
ols
Identification of Indications
the detection of patterns resulting from significant
To
discontinuities. It is therefore necessary to use a field The correct evaluation of the character of indications
d
strength high enough to reveal all possible harmful is extremely important but is sometimes difficult to
an
discontinuities but not strong enough to produce con- make from observation of the indications alone. The
fusing nonrelevant indications. er
principal distinguishing features of indications are
rit
shape, buildup, width, and sharpness of outline. These
W
ing force and remains at this maximum as long as the the magnetic particle pattern should always be included
rw
indicated discontinuity.
Ed
strength decreases to a lower residual value depending The most readily distinguished indications are those
DF
on the magnetic properties of the material and the shape produced by cracks open to the surface. These discon-
ll P
of the part. These magnetic characteristics determine tinuities include fatigue cracks, heat treat cracks, shrink
Fi
whether the continuous or residual method is used in cracks in welds and castings, and grinding cracks. An
PD
the part is made. be seen. This is an excellent method for use on gears,
threaded parts, and aircraft engine components. The
The continuous method may be used in practically all reddish brown liquid spray or bath that is used consists
circular and longitudinal magnetization procedures. of Magnaglo paste mixed with a light oil at the ratio of
The continuous procedure provides greater sensitivity 0.10 to 0.25 ounce of paste per gallon of oil.
Li
8-27
Page No. 64 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Magnetizing Equipment
Fixed (Nonportable) General Purpose Unit
A fixed general purpose unit is shown in Figure 8-19.
This unit provides direct current for wet continuous
or residual magnetization procedures. Circular or
l
Main gear outer cylinder longitudinal magnetization may be used and it may
ria
be powered with rectified alternating current (ac), as
well as direct current (dc). The contact heads provide
the electrical terminals for circular magnetization.
One head is fixed in position with its contact plate
mounted on a shaft surrounded by a pressure spring, so
Fatigue crack that the plate may be moved longitudinally. The plate
ate
is maintained in the extended position by the spring
until pressure transmitted through the work from the
movable head forces it back.
yM
spring allows sufficient overrun of the motor driven
ols
head to avoid jamming it and also provides pressure on
To
Torsion link lugs
the ends of the work to ensure good electrical contact.
d
an
Figure 8-18. Fatigue crack in a landing gear.
er
rit
W
Solenoid
rw
ito
Ed
Nozzle
St ll P
DF
Fixed head
Movable head switch
Fi
PD
Push button
ary
Pump switch
br
Rheostat
Short-circuiting
switch
Circulating
Li
8-28
Page No. 65 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
by an air ram. Both contact plates are fitted with vari-
ria
ous fixtures for supporting the work.
ate
The strength of the magnetizing current may be set
manually to the desired value by means of the rheostat
or increased to the capacity of the unit by the rheostat
short circuiting switch. The current utilized is indicated
on the ammeter.
yM ols
noid, which moves in the same guide rail as the mov-
To
able head and is connected in the electrical circuit by
means of a switch.
d
an
Figure 8-20. Portable general purpose unit.
The suspension liquid is contained in a sump tank and
is agitated and circulated by a pump. The suspension er
rit
Longitudinal magnetization is developed by wrapping
W
inspection at locations where fixed general purpose This portable unit also serves as a demagnetizer and
St DF
equipment is not available or to perform an inspection supplies high amperage low voltage alternating current
for this purpose. For demagnetization, the alternat-
ll P
inspecting landing gear and engine mounts suspected reduced by means of a current reducer.
PD
contains a rectifier for producing direct current when may be held or secured above the standard unit and the
required. [Figure 8-20] suspension hosed onto the area; excess suspension drains
into the tank. The dry procedure may also be used.
The magnetizing current is supplied through the flex-
ible cables. The cable terminals may be fitted with Prods should be held firmly against the surface being
Li
prods, as shown in the illustration, or with contact tested. There is a tendency for a high amperage cur-
clamps. Circular magnetization may be developed by rent to cause burning at contact areas, but with proper
using either the prods or clamps. care, such burning is usually slight. For applications
where prod magnetization is acceptable, slight burning
is normally acceptable.
8-29
Page No. 66 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
acceptable indications of discontinuities in parts. of the coil as possible.
ria
The contrast provided by a particular indicating Parts that do not readily lose their magnetism should
medium on the background or part surface is particu- be passed slowly in and out of the demagnetizer sev-
larly important. The colors most extensively used are eral times and, at the same time, tumbled or rotated
black and red for the wet procedure and black, red, and in various directions. Allowing a part to remain in the
gray for the dry procedure. demagnetizer with the current on accomplishes very
ate
For acceptable operation, the indicating medium must little practical demagnetization.
be of high permeability and low retentivity. High per- The effective operation in the demagnetizing procedure
meability ensures that a minimum of magnetic energy is that of slowly moving the part out of the coil and
will be required to attract the material to flux leakage away from the magnetizing field strength. As the part
caused by discontinuities. Low retentivity ensures is withdrawn, it should be kept directly opposite the
that the mobility of the magnetic particles will not be
yM
opening until it is 1 or 2 feet from the demagnetizer.
ols
hindered by the particles themselves becoming mag-
netized and attracting one another.
To
The demagnetizing current should not be cut off until
the part is 1 or 2 feet from the opening as the part may
d
Demagnetizing
an
be remagnetized if current is removed too soon.
The permanent magnetism remaining after inspection
er
Another procedure used with portable units is to pass
rit
must be removed by a demagnetization operation if
W
the part is to be returned to service. Parts of operat- alternating current through the part being demagne-
tized, while gradually reducing the current to zero.
ee
An accumulation of such particles on a magnetized been applied to the radiographic (x-ray) inspection of
Ed
part may cause scoring of bearings or other working metal fabrications and nonmetallic products.
St DF
Demagnetization between successive magnetizing image in the film. When processed, the film becomes
PD
operations is not normally required unless experience a radiograph or shadow picture of the object. This
indicates that omission of this operation results in
ary
8-30
Page No. 67 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
require removal, disassembly, and stripping of paint whole radiographic process are centered in this phase;
from the suspected part before it can be inspected. Due the part or structure is either accepted or rejected.
ria
to the radiation risks associated with x-ray, extensive Conditions of unsoundness or other defects which are
training is required to become a qualified radiographer. overlooked, not understood, or improperly interpreted
Only qualified radiographers are allowed to operate can destroy the purpose and efforts of radiography and
the x-ray units. can jeopardize the structural integrity of an entire air-
craft. A particular danger is the false sense of security
Three major steps in the x-ray process discussed in
ate
imparted by the acceptance of a part or structure based
subsequent paragraphs are: (1) exposure to radiation, on improper interpretation.
including preparation, (2) processing of film, and (3)
interpretation of the radiograph. As a first impression, radiographic interpretation may
seem simple, but a closer analysis of the problem soon
Preparation and Exposure dispels this impression. The subject of interpretation
is so varied and complex that it cannot be covered
yM
The factors of radiographic exposure are so interde-
ols
pendent that it is necessary to consider all factors for adequately in this type of document. Instead, this
To
any particular radiographic exposure. These factors chapter gives only a brief review of basic requirements
include but are not limited to the following: for radiographic interpretation, including some descrip-
d
an
tions of common defects.
• Material thickness and density
er
rit
• Shape and size of the object Experience has shown that, whenever possible, radio-
W
• The exposure distance The radiograph can thus be compared directly with
rw
In addition to the unit rating in kilovoltage, the size, There are three basic categories of flaws: voids, inclu-
PD
portability, ease of manipulation, and exposure particu- sions, and dimensional irregularities. The last category,
dimensional irregularities, is not pertinent to these
ary
8-31
Page No. 68 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
gas cavity. Also, material strength may be adversely of damage, if any, depends on which of its body cells
affected by flaw shape. A flaw having sharp points have been changed.
could establish a source of localized stress concentra-
tion. Spherical flaws affect material strength to a far Vital organs in the center of the body that are penetrated
lesser degree than do sharp pointed flaws. Specifica- by radiation are likely to be harmed the most. The skin
tions and reference standards usually stipulate that usually absorbs most of the radiation and reacts earli-
l
sharp pointed flaws, such as cracks, cold shuts, and so est to radiation.
ria
forth, are cause for rejection. If the whole body is exposed to a very large dose of
Material strength is also affected by flaw size. A metal- radiation, death could result. In general, the type and
lic component of a given area is designed to carry a severity of the pathological effects of radiation depend
certain load plus a safety factor. Reducing this area by on the amount of radiation received at one time and
including a large flaw weakens the part and reduces the the percentage of the total body exposed. Smaller
ate
safety factor. Some flaws are often permitted in com- doses of radiation could cause blood and intestinal
ponents because of these safety factors; in this case, disorders in a short period of time. The more delayed
the interpreter must determine the degree of tolerance effects are leukemia and other cancers. Skin damage
or imperfection specified by the design engineer. Both and loss of hair are also possible results of exposure
flaw size and flaw shape should be considered carefully, to radiation.
since small flaws with sharp points can be just as bad as
yM
Inspection of Composites
ols
large flaws with no sharp points.
To
Another important consideration in flaw analysis is Composite structures should be inspected for delamina-
tion, which is separation of the various plies, debonding
d
flaw location. Metallic components are subjected to
an
numerous and varied forces during their effective ser- of the skin from the core, and evidence of moisture and
vice life. Generally, the distribution of these forces is er
corrosion. Previously discussed methods including
rit
not equal in the component or part, and certain critical ultrasonic, acoustic emission, and radiographic inspec-
W
areas may be rather highly stressed. The interpreter tions may be used as recommended by the aircraft
ee
must pay special attention to these areas. Another manufacturer. The simplest method used in testing
Fr
ud
aspect of flaw location is that certain types of discon- composite structures is the tap test.
ith
Tap Testing
a source of stress concentrations creating a situation
ito
that should be closely scrutinized. Tap testing, also referred to as the ring test or coin
Ed
An inclusion is a type of flaw which contains entrapped sible surface to detect the presence of delamination or
DF
material. Such flaws may be of greater or lesser den- debonding. The testing procedure consists of lightly
ll P
sity than the item being radiographed. The foregoing tapping the surface with a light hammer (maximum
Fi
discussions on flaw shape, size, and location apply weight of 2 ounces), a coin or other suitable device.
PD
equally to inclusions and to voids. In addition, a flaw The acoustic response or “ring” is compared to that
containing foreign material could become a source of of a known good area. A “flat” or “dead” response
ary
8-32
Page No. 69 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
ria
A B
ate
Reinforcement
Bead width
1
⁄4 to 1⁄2 T
Throat 11⁄3 to 11⁄2 T
yM
3 to 5 T Leg 2 to 3 T
ols
To
T
d
an
25 to 50% T
Approx. 1⁄2 T
100%
er
Penetration rit
A B
W
ee
Fr
ud
Figure 8-23. (A) Butt weld and (B) fillet weld, showing width and depth of bead.
ith
rw
thin wire mesh, screen, foil, or spray. When damaged A good weld is uniform in width; the ripples are even
sections of the structure are repaired, care must be taken and well feathered into the base metal, which shows no
ito
to ensure that the conductive path be restored. Not only burn due to overheating. [Figure 8-22] The weld has
Ed
St
is it necessary to include the conductive material in the good penetration and is free of gas pockets, porosity, or
DF
repair, but the continuity of the electrical path from inclusions. The edges of the bead illustrated in Figure
ll P
the original conductive material to the replacement 8-22 (B) are not in a straight line, yet the weld is good
conductor and back to the original must be maintained. since penetration is excellent.
Fi
PD
weld is not a positive indication of quality, it provides and depth of bead for a butt weld and fillet weld are
a good clue about the care used in making it. shown in Figure 8-23.
A properly designed joint weld is stronger than the To assist further in determining the quality of a welded
Li
base metal which it joins. The characteristics of a joint, several examples of incorrect welds are discussed
properly welded joint are discussed in the following in the following paragraphs.
paragraphs.
The weld shown in Figure 8-24 (A) was made too
rapidly. The long and pointed appearance of the
8-33
Page No. 70 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
ria
A B
ate
C D
yM ols
ripples was caused by an excessive amount of heat or The puddle has a tendency to boil during the welding
To
an oxidizing flame. If the weld were cross-sectioned, operation if an excessive amount of acetylene is used.
d
it would probably disclose gas pockets, porosity, and This often leaves slight bumps along the center and
an
slag inclusions. craters at the finish of the weld. Cross-checks are appar-
er
ent if the body of the weld is sound. If the weld were
rit
Figure 8-24 (B) illustrates a weld that has improper cross-sectioned, pockets and porosity would be visible.
W
penetration and cold laps caused by insufficient heat. Such a condition is shown in Figure 8-24 (C).
ee
8-34
Page No. 71 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
earliest versions (using kerosene and oil mixture) dates back to the 19th century. This
ria
method is used to reveal surface discontinuities by bleedout of a colored or fluorescent
dye from the flaw. The technique is based on the ability
of a liquid to be drawn into a "clean" surface
ate
discontinuity by capillary action. After a period of time
called the "dwell time", excess surface penetrant is
removed and a developer applied. This acts as a blotter
that draws the penetrant from the discontinuity to reveal
its presence.
yM
ls
oo
The advantage that a liquid penetrant inspection offers over an
dT
unaided visual inspection is that it makes defects easier to see for the
an
er
inspector where that is done in two ways:
rit
W
It produces a flaw indication that is much larger and easier for
ee
Fr
ud
the eye to detect than the flaw itself. Many flaws are so small
ith
Liquid penetrant testing is one of the most widely used NDT methods. Its popularity
can be attributed to two main factors: its relative ease of use and its flexibility. It can
br
be used to inspect almost any material provided that its surface is not extremely rough
or porous. Materials that are commonly inspected using this method include; metals,
glass, many ceramic materials, rubber and plastics.
Li
However, liquid penetrant testing can only be used to inspect for flaws that break the
surface of the sample (such as surface cracks, porosity, laps, seams, lack of fusion, etc.).
l
on several factors such as the penetrant system being used, the size and material of
ria
the component being inspected, the type of discontinuities being expected in the
component and the condition and environment under which the inspection is
performed. However, the general steps can be summarized as follows:
ate
1. Surface Preparation: One of the most critical steps of a liquid penetrant testing is
the surface preparation. The surface must be free of oil, grease, water, or other
contaminants that may prevent penetrant from entering flaws. The sample may
also require etching if mechanical operations such as machining, sanding, or grit
blasting have been performed. These and other mechanical operations can
yM
ls
oo
smear metal over the flaw opening and prevent the penetrant from entering.
dT
an
2. Penetrant Application: Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and dried,
er
rit
the penetrant material is applied by spraying, brushing, or immersing the part in
W
a penetrant bath.
ee
Fr
ud rw
ith
3. Penetrant Dwell: The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to
ito
Penetrant dwell time is the total time that the penetrant is in contact with the
St PD
F
part surface. Dwell times are usually recommended by the penetrant producers
ill
4. Excess Penetrant Removal: This is the most delicate part of the inspection
procedure because the excess penetrant must be removed from the surface of
the sample while removing as little penetrant as possible from defects.
Page No. 73 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
l
with a solvent, direct rinsing with water,
ria
or first treating the part with an
emulsifier and then rinsing with water.
ate
draw penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface where it will be visible.
Developers come in a variety of forms that may be applied by dusting (dry
powders), dipping, or spraying (wet developers).
yM
ls
6. Indication Development: The developer
oo
dT
is allowed to stand on the part surface
an
for a period of time sufficient to permit
er
the extraction of the trapped penetrant
rit
W
out of any surface flaws. This
ee
8. Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the part
ary
surface to remove the developer from the parts that were found to be
acceptable.
The primary advantages and disadvantages when compared to other NDT methods
are:
Li
Advantages
High sensitivity (small discontinuities can be detected).
Few material limitations (metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and nonmagnetic,
and conductive and nonconductive materials may be inspected).
Page No. 74 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
l
Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual
ria
representation of the flaw.
Portable (materials are available in aerosol spray cans)
Low cost (materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive)
ate
Disadvantages
Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
yM
Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be inspected.
ls
oo
Pre-cleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects.
dT
Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting must be
an
removed.
er
rit
The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
W
Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
ee
Fr
ud
Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
ith
Penetrants
Fill
PD
Penetrants are carefully formulated to produce the level of sensitivity desired by the
ary
- remain in the defect but remove easily from the surface of the part.
- remain fluid so it can be drawn back to the surface of the part through the
drying and developing steps.
Li
applications, the rejectable defect size may be larger. The penetrants that are used to
detect the smallest defect will also produce the largest amount of irrelevant
l
indications.
ria
Standard specifications classify penetrant materials according to their physical
characteristics and their performance.
Penetrant materials come in two basic types:
ate
Type 1 - Fluorescent Penetrants: they contain a dye or several dyes that fluoresce
when exposed to ultraviolet radiation.
Type 2 - Visible Penetrants: they contain a red dye that provides high contrast
yM
against the white developer background.
ls
oo
dT
Fluorescent penetrant systems are more sensitive than visible penetrant systems
an
because the eye is drawn to the glow of the fluorescing indication. However,
er
rit
visible penetrants do not require a darkened area and an ultraviolet light in order
W
to make an inspection.
ee
Fr
ud
Penetrants are then classified by the method used to remove the excess penetrant
ith
rw
Method A - Water Washable: penetrants can be removed from the part by rinsing
St F
with water alone. These penetrants contain an emulsifying agent (detergent) that
PD
makes it possible to wash the penetrant from the part surface with water alone.
Fill
systems.
ary
l
five sensitivity levels are:
ria
Level ½ - Ultra Low Sensitivity
Level 1 - Low Sensitivity
ate
Level 2 - Medium Sensitivity
Level 3 - High Sensitivity
Level 4 - Ultra-High Sensitivity
yM
ls
The procedure for classifying penetrants into one of the five sensitivity levels uses
oo
specimens with small surface fatigue cracks. The brightness of the indication
dT
an
produced is measured using a photometer.
er
rit
W
ee
Developers
Fr
ud ith
The role of the developer is to pull the trapped penetrant material out of defects and
rw
ito
spread it out on the surface of the part so it can be seen by an inspector. Developers
Ed
used with visible penetrants create a white background so there is a greater degree of
St F
contrast between the indication and the surrounding background. On the other hand,
PD
developers used with fluorescent penetrants both reflect and refract the incident
Fill
ultraviolet light, allowing more of it to interact with the penetrant, causing more
PD
efficient fluorescence.
ary
According to standards, developers are classified based on the method that the
developer is applied (as a dry powder, or dissolved or suspended in a liquid carrier). The
six standard forms of developers are:
br
Dry Powder
Dry powder developers are generally considered to be the least sensitive but they are
l
inexpensive to use and easy to apply. Dry developers are white, fluffy powders that can
ria
be applied to a thoroughly dry surface in a number of ways; by dipping parts in a
container of developer, by using a puffer to dust parts with the developer, or placing
parts in a dust cabinet where the developer is blown around. Since the powder only
sticks to areas of indications since they are wet, powder developers are seldom used
ate
for visible inspections.
Water Soluble
As the name implies, water soluble developers consist of a group of chemicals that are
yM
ls
dissolved in water and form a developer layer when the water is evaporated away. The
oo
dT
best method for applying water soluble developers is by spraying it on the part. The
an
part can be wet or dry. Dipping, pouring, or brushing the solution on to the surface is
er
sometimes used but these methods are less desirable. Drying is achieved by placing
rit
W
the wet but well drained part in a recirculating, warm air dryer with the temperature
ee
21°C. Properly developed parts will have an even, pale white coating over the entire
Fr
ud
surface.
ith
rw
Water Suspendable
ito
Ed
St
water. Water suspendable developers require frequent stirring or agitation to keep the
ill
particles from settling out of suspension. Water suspendable developers are applied to
F
PD
parts in the same manner as water soluble developers then the parts are dried using
ary
warm air.
Nonaqueous
Nonaqueous developers suspend the developer in a volatile solvent and are typically
applied with a spray gun. Nonaqueous developers are commonly distributed in aerosol
br
spray cans for portability. The solvent tends to pull penetrant from the indications by
solvent action. Since the solvent is highly volatile, forced drying is not required.
Li
Special Applications
Plastic or lacquer developers are special developers that are primarily used when a
permanent record of the inspection is required.
Preparation of Part
One of the most critical steps in the penetrant inspection process is preparing the part
l
for inspection. All coatings, such as paints, varnishes, plating, and heavy oxides must be
ria
removed to ensure that defects are open to the surface of the part. If the parts have
been machined, sanded, or blasted prior to the penetrant inspection, it is possible that
a thin layer of metal may have smeared across the surface and closed off defects. Also,
some cleaning operations, such as steam cleaning, can cause metal smearing in softer
ate
materials. This layer of metal smearing must be removed before inspection.
yM
Penetrant Application and Dwell Time
ls
oo
dT
The penetrant material can be applied in a number of different
an
ways, including spraying, brushing, or immersing the parts in a
er
penetrant bath. Once the part is covered in penetrant it must be
rit
W
allowed to dwell so the penetrant has time to enter any defect that
ee
is present.
Fr
ud ith
Penetrant dwell time is the total time that the penetrant is in contact with the part
surface. The dwell time is important because it allows the penetrant the time
necessary to seep or be drawn into a defect. Dwell times are usually recommended by
the penetrant producers or required by the specification being followed. The time
br
The radius of the flaw or the distance between the flaw walls.
The density or specific gravity of the penetrant.
l
Microstructural properties of the penetrant.
ria
The ideal dwell time is often determined by experimentation and is often very specific
to a particular application. For example, the table shows the dwell time requirements
for steel parts according to some of the commonly used specifications.
ate
yM
ls
oo
dT
an
er
rit
W
ee
Fr
ud Ed
ito
rw
ith
St ill
PD
F
The penetrant removal procedure must effectively remove the penetrant from the
ary
Removal Method
Li
As mentioned previously, penetrant systems are classified into four types according to
the method used for excess penetrant removal.
- Method A: Water-Washable
- Method B: Post-Emulsifiable, Lipophilic
- Method C: Solvent Removable
Page No. 80 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
l
This method requires hand wiping the surface with a cloth moistened with the solvent
ria
remover, and is, therefore, too labor intensive for most production situations.
Method A, Water-Washable, is the most economical to apply of the different methods
and it is easy to use. Water-washable or self-emulsifiable penetrants contain an
ate
emulsifier as an integral part of the formulation. The excess penetrant may be
removed from the object surface with a simple water rinse.
When removal of the penetrant from the defect due to over-washing of the part is a
concern, a post-emulsifiable penetrant system can be used. The post-emulsifiable
yM
ls
methods are generally only used when very high sensitivity is needed. Post-
oo
dT
emulsifiable penetrants require a separate emulsifier to breakdown the penetrant and
an
make it water washable. The part is usually immersed in the emulsifier but hydrophilic
er
emulsifiers may also be sprayed on the object. Brushing the emulsifier on to the part is
rit
W
not recommended either because the bristles of the brush may force emulsifier into
ee
given time to make its way into defects to react with the trapped penetrant.
ito
system. If the emulsification time is too short, an excessive amount of penetrant will
F
PD
be left on the surface, leading to high background levels. If the emulsification time is
ill
too long, the emulsifier will react with the penetrant entrapped in discontinuities,
F
PD
includes the following steps (extra steps are underlined): 1. pre-clean part, 2. apply
penetrant and allow to dwell, 3. pre-rinse to remove first layer of penetrant, 4. apply
hydrophilic emulsifier and allow contact for specified time, 5. rinse to remove excess
Li
penetrant, 6. dry part, 7. apply developer and allow part to develop, and 8. inspect.
Rinse Method and Time for Water-Washable Penetrants
The method used to rinse the excess penetrant from the object surface and the time of
the rinse should be controlled so as to prevent over-washing. It is generally
Page No. 81 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
l
surface so as to not force water directly into any discontinuities that may be present.
ria
The spray or immersion time should be kept to a minimum through frequent
inspections of the remaining background level.
Hand Wiping of Solvent Removable Penetrants
ate
When a solvent removable penetrant is used, care must also be taken to carefully
remove the penetrant from the part surface while removing as little as possible from
the flaw. The first step in this cleaning procedure is to dry wipe the surface of the part
in one direction using a white, lint-free, cotton rag. One dry pass in one direction is all
yM
that should be used to remove as much penetrant as possible. Next, the surface should
ls
oo
be wiped with one pass in one direction with a rag moistened with cleaner. One dry
dT
pass followed by one damp pass is all that is recommended. Additional wiping may
an
sometimes be necessary; but keep in mind that with every additional wipe, some of
er
rit
the entrapped penetrant will be removed and inspection sensitivity will be reduced.
W
ee
Fr
ud ith
The use of developer is almost always recommended. The output from a fluorescent
Ed
St
penetrant is improved significantly when a suitable powder developer is used. Also, the
F
PD
inspection.
F
PD
Nonaqueous developers are generally recognized as the most sensitive when properly
ary
applied. However, if the thickness of the coating becomes too great, defects can be
masked. The relative sensitivities of developers and application techniques as ranked
in Volume II of the Nondestructive Testing Handbook are shown in the table below.
Ranking Developer Form Method of Application
br
4 Water-Suspendable Spray
5 Water-Soluble Immersion
6 Water-Suspendable Immersion
7 Dry Dust Cloud (Electrostatic)
8 Dry Fluidized Bed
9 Dry Dust Cloud (Air Agitation)
10 Dry Immersion (Dip)
Page No. 82 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
The following table lists the main advantages and disadvantages of the various
developer types.
l
Developer Advantages Disadvantages
ria
Dry Indications tend to remain Does not form contrast
brighter and more distinct background so cannot be
over time used with visible systems
ate
surface has been coated
Soluble Ease of coating entire part Coating is translucent and
provides poor contrast (not
White coating for good recommended for visual
yM
contrast can be produced systems)
ls
oo
which work well for both
dT
visible and fluorescent Indications for water
an
systems washable systems are dim
er
and blurred
Suspendable Ease of coating entire part rit Indications weaken and
W
become diffused after time
ee
Fr
ud
Indications are bright and
ith
sharp
rw
ito
systems
F
PD
all surfaces
Easy to apply to readily
accessible surfaces More difficult to clean part
after inspection
White coating for good
contrast can be produced
br
l
consistent results. Since several steps and materials are involved in the inspection
ria
process, there are quality control procedures for each of them.
Temperature Control
ate
The temperature of the penetrant materials and the part being inspected can have an
effect on the results. Temperatures from 27 to 49°C are reported in the literature to
produce optimal results. Many specifications allow testing in the range of 4 to 52°C.
Raising the temperature beyond this level will significantly raise the speed of
yM
ls
evaporation of penetrants causing them to dry out quickly.
oo
dT
Since the surface tension of most materials decrease as the temperature increases,
an
raising the temperature of the penetrant will increase the wetting of the surface and
er
rit
the capillary forces. Of course, the opposite is also true, so lowering the temperature
W
will have a negative effect on the flow characteristics.
ee
Fr
ud rw
ith
primarily results from aging and contamination. Virtually all organic dyes deteriorate
PD
over time, resulting in a loss of color or fluorescent response, but deterioration can be
ary
slowed with proper storage. When possible, keep the materials in a closed container
and protect from freezing and exposure to high heat.
Contamination can occur during storage and use. Of course, open tank systems are
much more susceptible to contamination than are spray systems. Regular checks must
br
be performed to ensure that the material performance has not degraded. When the
penetrant is first received from the manufacturer, a sample of the fresh solution
should be collected and stored as a standard for future comparison. The standard
Li
l
specification being followed. The only real quality control required in the dwell step of
ria
the process is to ensure that a minimum dwell time is reached. There is no harm in
allowing a penetrant to dwell longer than the minimum time as long as the penetrant
is not allowed to dry on the part.
ate
Emulsifier Path Quality Control
Quality control of the emulsifier bath is important and it should be performed per the
requirements of the applicable specification.
yM
ls
oo
Lipophilic Emulsifiers
dT
an
Lipophilic emulsifiers mix with penetrants but when the concentration of penetrant
er
contamination in the emulsifier becomes too great, the mixture will not function
rit
W
effectively as a remover. Standards require that lipophilic emulsifiers be capable of
ee
Hydrophilic Emulsifiers
ito
Ed
Hydrophilic emulsifiers have less tolerance for penetrant contamination. The penetrant
St F
The wash temperature, pressure and time are three parameters that are typically
controlled in penetrant inspection process specification. A coarse spray or an
immersion wash tank with air agitation is often used. When the spray method is used,
the water pressure is usually limited to 276 kPa. The temperature range of the water is
Page No. 85 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
usually specified as a wide range (e.g., 10 to 38°C). The wash time should only be as
long as necessary to decrease the background to an acceptable level. Frequent visual
l
checks of the part should be made to determine when the part has been adequately
ria
rinsed.
ate
The temperature used to dry parts after the application of an aqueous wet developer
or prior to the application of a dry powder or a nonaqueous wet developer, must be
controlled to prevent drying in the penetrant in the flaw. To prevent harming the
penetrant material, drying temperature should be kept to less than 71°C. Also, the
yM
ls
drying time should be limited to the minimum length necessary to thoroughly dry the
oo
dT
component being inspected.
an
er
Developer Quality Control
rit
W
ee
uniform, highly porous layer with many paths for the penetrant to be moved due to
ito
capillary action. Developers are either applied wet or dry, but the desired end result is
Ed
St
always a uniform, highly porous, surface layer. Since the quality control requirements
F
PD
for each of the developer types is slightly different, they will be covered individually.
Fill
A dry powder developer should be checked daily to ensure that it is fluffy and not
ary
caked. It should be similar to fresh powdered sugar and not granulated like powdered
soap. It should also be relatively free from specks of fluorescent penetrant material
from previous inspection. This check is performed by spreading a sample of the
developer out and examining it under UV light.
br
When using the developer, a light coat is applied by immersing the test component or
dusting the surface. After the development time, excessive powder can be removed by
gently blowing on the surface with air not exceeding 35 kPa.
Li
The concentration should be checked at least weekly using a hydrometer to make sure
it meets the manufacturer's specification. To check for contamination, the solution
l
should be examined weekly using both white light and UV light. Some specifications
ria
require that a clean aluminum panel be dipped in the developer, dried, and examined
for indications of contamination by fluorescent penetrant materials.
These developers are applied by spraying, flowing or immersing the component. They
should never be applied with a brush. Care should be taken to avoid a heavy
ate
accumulation of the developer solution in crevices and recesses.
Solvent Suspendable
Solvent suspendable developers are typically supplied in sealed aerosol spray cans.
yM
ls
Since the developer solution is in a sealed vessel, direct check of the solution is not
oo
possible. However, the way that the developer is dispensed must be monitored. The
dT
spray developer should produce a fine, even coating on the surface of the part. Make
an
er
sure the can is well shaken and apply a thin coating to a test article. If the spray
rit
produces spatters or an uneven coating, the can should be discarded.
W
ee
Fr
ud
When applying a solvent suspendable developer, it is up to the inspector to control the
ith
thickness of the coating. With a visible penetrant system, the developer coating must
rw
be thick enough to provide a white contrasting background but not heavy enough to
ito
mask indications. When using a fluorescent penetrant system, a very light coating
Ed
St
should be used. The developer should be applied under white light and should appear
F
PD
evenly transparent.
Fill
PD
Development Time
ary
Parts should be allowed to develop for a minimum of 10 minutes and no more than 2
hours before inspecting.
However, since natural daylight changes from time to time, the use of artificial lighting
is recommended to get better uniformity. Artificial lighting should be white whenever
l
possible (halogen lamps are most commonly used). The light intensity is required to be
ria
100 foot-candles at the surface being inspected.
Lighting for Fluorescent Penetrant Inspections
Fluorescent penetrant dyes are excited by UV light of 365nm wavelength and emit
ate
visible light somewhere in the green-yellow range between 520 and 580nm. The
source of ultraviolet light is often a mercury arc lamp with a filter. The lamps emit
many wavelengths and a filter is used to remove all but the UV and a small amount of
visible light between 310 and 410nm. Visible light of wavelengths above 410nm
interferes with contrast, and UV emissions below 310nm include some hazardous
yM
ls
oo
wavelengths.
dT
Standards and procedures require verification of filter condition and light intensity. The
an
er
black light filter should be clean and the light should never be used with a cracked
rit
filter. Most UV light must be warmed up prior to use and should be on for at least 15
W
ee
damage) and a change in the distance of the light source from the surface being
rw
ito
inspected will have a direct impact on the inspection. For UV lights used in component
Ed
evaluations, the normally accepted intensity is 1000 µW/cm2 at 38cm distance from
St PD
F
the filter face. The required check should be performed when a new bulb is installed,
at startup of the inspection cycle, if a change in intensity is noticed, or every eight
Fill
Light Measurement
Light intensity measurements are made using a radiometer (an instrument that
Li
transfers light energy into an electrical current). Some radiometers have the ability to
measure both black and white light, while others require a separate sensor for each
measurement. Whichever type is used, the sensing area should be clean and free of
any materials that could reduce or obstruct light reaching the sensor. Radiometers are
relatively unstable instruments and readings often change considerable over time.
Therefore, they should be calibrated at least every six months.
l
ria
System Performance Check
ate
control. System performance checks involve processing a test specimen with known
defects to determine if the process will reveal discontinuities of the size required. The
specimen must be processed following the same procedure used to process production
parts. The ideal specimen is a production item that has natural defects of the minimum
yM
acceptable size. As with penetrant inspections in general, results are directly
ls
oo
dependent on the skill of the operator and, therefore, each
dT
operator should process a test specimen.
an
er
There are some universal test specimens that can be used if a
rit
W
standard part is not available. The most commonly used test
ee
of stainless steel that has been chrome plated on one half and
ito
size of the defect. However, the crack length alone does not determine whether a flaw
will be seen or go undetected. The volume of the defect is likely to be the more
l
important feature. The flaw must be of sufficient volume so that enough penetrant will
ria
bleed back out to a size that is detectable by the eye or that will satisfy the
dimensional thresholds of fluorescence. The figure shows an example of fluorescent
penetrant inspection probability of detection (POD) curve as a function of crack length.
ate
yM
ls
oo
dT
an
er
rit
W
ee
Fr
ud Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
PD
Fill
PD
F
ary
l
operations can be completed without harm to inspection personnel. However, there is
ria
a number of health and safety related issues that need to be taken in consideration.
The most common of those are discussed here.
Chemical Safety
ate
Whenever chemicals must be handled, certain precautions must be taken. Before
working with a chemical of any kind, it is highly recommended that the material safety
data sheets (MSDS) be reviewed so that proper chemical safety and hygiene practices
can be followed. Some of the penetrant materials are flammable and, therefore,
yM
ls
oo
should be used and stored in small quantities. They should only be used in a well
dT
ventilated area and ignition sources avoided. Eye protection should always be worn to
an
prevent contact of the chemicals with the eyes. Gloves and other protective clothing
er
should be worn to limit contact with the chemicals.
rit
W
ee
Ultraviolet (UV) light has wavelengths ranging from 180 to 400 nanometers. These
rw
between visible light and X-rays. The most familiar source of UV radiation is the sun
Ed
St
and is necessary in small doses for certain chemical processes to occur in the body.
F
PD
However, too much exposure can be harmful to the skin and eyes. The greatest threat
ill
with UV light exposure is that the individual is generally unaware that the damage is
F
PD
occurring. There is usually no pain associated with the injury until several hours after
ary
the exposure. Skin and eye damage occurs at wavelengths around 320 nm and shorter
which is well below the 365 nm wavelength, where penetrants are designed to
fluoresce. Therefore, UV lamps sold for use in penetrant testing are almost always
filtered to remove the harmful UV wavelengths. The lamps produce radiation at the
harmful wavelengths so it is essential that they be used with the proper filter in place
br
d
W
ee
Fr
St uFi ll P
D F Ed
ito rw
ith
a ry PD
i b r
L Page No. 92 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Introduction
ia l
• This module is intended to present te r
information on the widely used a method of
magnetic particle inspection.
• Magnetic particle inspection y M
rit
er
a nd
T o ols
d
W
F r ee can detect
cracks).
PD
a r y
and in-service damage (fatigue and overload
i b r
L Page No. 93 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Outline
ia l
• Magnetism and Ferromagnetic Materials te r
• Introduction of Magnetic Particle Inspection a
• Basic Procedure and Important rit
y
e Mra
nd To
ols
Considerations
d
W
ee
Fr
1.
2.
3.
S
Application of
F
Interpretation
i
u
Component pre-cleaning
t
Introduction of Fmagnetic
ll P
E d ito
r w ith
Dmagnetic media
field
of magnetic particle indications
4.
r y
PD
Introduction to Magnetism
ia l
Magnetism is the ability of matter to Magnetic field lines:
te r
attract other matter to itself. Objects
that possess the property of
• Form complete loops.
• Do not cross. a
magnetism are said to be magnetic or
magnetized and magnetic lines of t
• Follow
e
n dT
o ols
r aresistance.
y M
the path of least
force can be found in and around the e Wri • All have the same strength.
where the a magnetic line of force
exits or enters a material. F Ed
ti td
objects. A magnetic pole is a point th Fre • Have a direction such that
y
PDS
Fi
ll PD
ra r
i b
L
Magnetic lines of force
around a bar magnet
Opposite poles attracting Similar poles repelling
Page No. 95 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
How Does Magnetic Particle
Inspection Work?
ia l
A ferromagnetic test specimen is magnetized with a
te r
strong magnetic field created by a magnet or special
equipment. If the specimen has a discontinuity, a the
discontinuity will interrupt the magnetic
flowing through the specimen and rit
er
a nd
T o ols
y M
field
a leakage field
d
W
will occur. F r ee
StF
u
i ll P
D F Ed
ito rw
ith
a r yPD
i b r
L Page No. 96 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
How Does Magnetic Particle
Inspection Work? (Cont.)
ia l
Finely milled iron particles coated with a dye pigment
te r
are applied to the test specimen. These particles are
attracted to leakage fields and will cluster a
to form an
indication directly over the discontinuity.
indication can be visually detected rit
e r a nd
T o ols
y M
This
under proper
d e W
lighting conditions. F re
StF
u
i
th
ll P
D F Ed
itor
w i
a r yPD
i b r
L Page No. 97 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Basic Procedure
ia l
te r
Basic steps involved:
a
1. Component pre-cleaning
rit
y
e Mra
nd To
ols
d
W
ee
Fr
StF
u
i
or
w
ll P
ith
2. Introduction of magnetic
D
field
F Ed
it
a r yPD
i b r
4. Interpretation of magnetic particle indications
Pre-cleaning
ia l
te r
When inspecting a test part with the magnetic
particle method it is essential for the a particles to
have an unimpeded path for migration
strong and weak leakage fields
surface should be clean and
ri t
yeM d To
o ls
to both
r aalike. The part’s
n
from
ith
r
fields, they may also
a y
being attracted Pto leakage
b r
interfere with interpretation
of indications.
i
L Page No. 99 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
y M
that
rit
e
t u d
3. Flowing an electrical current
d
eW
2. Flowing an electrical currentrethrough
wi
ito
th
r
the specimen
F
through a coil of wire around
the part or through aF Ecentral conductor running near the
part.
y
F
PDSi ll P
D
ra r
i b
L Page No. 100 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
that run
axis of the
•
part.
a r y
i b r
A circular magnetic field has
magnetic lines of force that run
L
circumferentially around the
perimeter of a part.
Page No. 101 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
d
W
magnetic field within the part and Fthe ree greatest
flux leakage at the surface of the
orientation of 45 to 90 degrees
magnetic field and the defect
form an indication. Fi
ll P D F
St
E u
d
r w ithpart. An
ito between the
is necessary to
No Flux Leakage
unknown directions,
b
each part is normally
i
magnetized in two
r
L
directions at right
angles to each other.
Page No. 102 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Question
ia l
te r
? From the previous slide regarding the optimum
test sensitivity, which kinds of odefect are easily a
found in the images below?r and T
o
ls
rit
y
e M
d
W
ee
Fr
StF
u
i ll P
D F Ed
ito rw
ith
a r yPD
i b r
Longitudinal (along the axis) Transverse (perpendicular the axis)
d
W
ee
Fr
A longitudinal magnetic
is usually establishedF i
St u Ed
F
ll P by
D
ito rw
field
ith
a r
PD
y
inside or a coil’s annulus.This
produces magnetic lines of
the
i b r
force that are parallel to the
long axis of the test part.
L Portable Coil
Page No. 104 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Producing a Longitudinal Field Using
Permanent or Electromagnetic Magnets
ia l
Permanent magnets and
te r
electromagnetic yokes
are also often used to a
produce a longitudinal
magnetic field. The rit
er
y
a
M
nd
T o ols
d
W
r ee
magnetic lines of force F
Sto
urw
i th
PD any
F
Electric
Current
y M
rit
e ra
nd To
ols
d
W
Circular magnetic fields are produced F r ee by
passing current through the part
magnet field.
F i ll P
St
placing the part in a strong circular
D
u
F E d ito
r w ithor by
a
PD
r y
and the use of prods are several common
methods of injecting current in a part to
test unit
r
produce a circular magnetic field. Placing
b
parts on a central conductors carrying
i
high current is another way to produce the
field.
L Page No. 106 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Application of Magnetic
Media (Wet Versus Dry)
ia l
MPI can be performed using either
te r
dry particles, or particles
a
suspended in a liquid. T o ols
rit
y
e Mra
nd
d
W
ee
With the dry method, the particles Fr
are lightly dusted on to the
t u
surface. With the wetDFmethod,
SP
E d ito
the
carrying the particles.
a r
P
y
The dry method is more portable.
i r
The wet method is generally more
b
sensitive since the liquid carrier
gives the magnetic particles
L
additional mobility.
Page No. 107 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
ri
y M
ter
a n
d
W
ee
Fr
StF
u
i ll P
D F Ed
ito rw
ith
a r yPD
i b r
L Page No. 108 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
y M
d
W
r ee
F
St
DF
u
th
fluorescent particles areor wviewed
ill P
a r yP
i b r
L Page No. 109 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Interpretation of Indications
ia l
After applying the magnetic field, indications that
te r
form must interpreted.This process a
requires that
the inspector distinguish between
relevant indications. rit
e r an
d
o ls
y M
To relevant and non-
d
W
ee
Fr
S
ThetF
uD F Edit
or
w
ti h
a r yPD
relevant indications produced from a
variety of components inspected
d
W
ee
Fr
St uFi ll P
D F Ed
ito rw
ith
a ry PD
d
W
ee
Fr
St uFi ll P
D F Ed
ito rw
ith
a ry PD
d
W
ee
Fr
St uFi ll P
D F Ed
ito rw
ith
a ry PD
d
W
ee
Fr
St uFi ll P
D F Ed
ito rw
ith
a ry PD
d
W
ee
Fr
St uFi ll P
D F Ed
ito rw
ith
a ry PD
d
W
ee
Fr
St uFi ll P
D F Ed
ito rw
ith
a ry PD
d
W
ee
Fr
St uFi ll P
D F Ed
ito rw
ith
a ry PD
d
W
ee
Fr
St u
Fi ll P
D F Ed
ito rw
ith
a r y PD
i b r
Visible, Dry Powder Method
d
W
ee
Fr
St uFi ll P
D F Ed
ito rw
ith
a ry PD
i b r
Visible, Dry Powder Method
d
W
ee
Fr
St
Fi
u ll P
D F Ed
ito rw
ith
a r y
PD
ib r
Visible, Dry Powder Method
Demagnetization
ia l
• Parts inspected by the magnetic particle method
te r
may sometimes have an objectionable residual
magnetic field that may interfere with a subsequent
•
manufacturing operations or service
component.
y Mri t e ra
n d To
o ls
of the
d
W
Possible reasons for demagnetization F ree include:
– May interfere with welding
operations
– Can effect gauges F i
S
ll P
tD
uF E d ito
r w ith
and/or machining
a
PD
r y
fields if placed in close proximity.
– Abrasive particles may adhere to components
b r
surface and cause and increase in wear to engines
components, gears, bearings etc.
i
L Page No. 121 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Demagnetization (Cont.)
ia l
• Demagnetization requires that the residual
te r
magnetic field is reversed and reduced by the
a
inspector.
• This process will scramble the rit
a nd
T o ols
y M
ermagnetic domains
acceptable level.
t urd
and reduce the strength ofFrethe
w ith
eW
Ed
residual field to an
ito
y S
PD
Fi ll P
D F
ra r
i b Magnetized Demagnetized
d
within a flaw will not hinder flaw detectability.
W
F ree
a r
PD
y
• Is a very portable inspection method especially when used
i b r
with battery powered equipment.
M
s
with special power requirements. Too l
y
a
er of coating or plating
rit
to achieve desired inspection ee sensitivity.
d
W
r
• Limited
F
S
i t
ll P
D F E
necessary.
a r y
• Alignment (angle) between magnetic flux and defect
is important.
i b r
L Page No. 124 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Glossary of Terms
ia l
• Black Light: ultraviolet light which is filtered to produce
a wavelength of approximately 365 nanometers.
te r
Black light will cause certain materials to a ls fluoresce.
• Central conductor: an electrically
usually made of copper used toe introduce
y M rit
e r
d To
o
an conductive bar
a circular
d
W
e
magnetic field in to a test specimen. Fr
Glossary of Terms
ia l
• Discontinuity: an interruption in the structure of the
material such as a crack.
te r
• Ferromagnetic: a material such as iron, nickel and cobalt
or one of it’s alloys that is strongly attracted a
•
field.
ls
rit
yeM
Heads: electrical contact padsree Won a wet horizontal
r an
d T oo to a magnetic
t u
inspected is clamped anddiheld
and shot of current is sent
d
magnetic particle inspectionwitmachine.
tor
hF The part to be
in place between the heads
through the part from the
S
E
DF
heads to create a circular
F ill
P
magnetic field in the part.
•
a r
P D
y
Leakage field: a disruption in the magnetic field. This
disruption must extend to the surface of the part for
i b r
particles to be attracted.
Glossary of Terms
ia l
• Non-relevant indications: indications produced due to
some intended design feature of a specimen such
te r
• a keyways, splines or press fits. a
• Prods: two electrodes usually made
aluminum that are used to introduce
y M
rit
To
er
a
ols
nd of copper or
current in to a test
d
W
part. This current in turn creates F ree a circular magnetic field
•
where each prod touchestothe
Relevant indications: F i
St
welding electrode and ground u
ll P
D F Ed
i
r w ith
part. (Similar in principal to a
clamp).
indications produced from
r
PD
y
something other than a design feature of a test specimen.
a
Cracks, stringers, or laps are examples of relevant
indications.
i b r
L Page No. 127 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Glossary of Terms
ia l
• Suspension: a bath created by mixing particles with
either oil or water.
te r
• Yoke: a horseshoe magnet used to create ls a longitudinal a
magnetic field.
• Yokes may be
n
made from permanent
d To
o
y M t e ra
ri magnets or electromagnets.
d
W
F ree
F
St
i
u
ll P
D F E d ito
r w ith
a r
PD
y
i b r
L Page No. 128 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
l
since it is fast and relatively easy to apply and part surface preparation is
ria
not as critical as it is for some other methods. This mithod uses magnetic
fields and small magnetic particles (i.e.iron filings) to detect flaws in
components. The only requirement from an inspectability standpoint is
ate
that the component being inspected must be made of a ferromagnetic
material (a materials that can be magnetized) such as iron, nickel, cobalt,
or some of their alloys.
The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms including
yM
ls
castings, forgings, and weldments. Many different industries use
oo
magnetic particle inspection such as structural steel, automotive,
dT
petrochemical, power generation, and aerospace industries. Underwater
an
er
inspection is another area where magnetic particle inspection may be
rit
W
used to test items such as offshore structures and underwater pipelines.
ee
Fr
ud rw
ith
Basic Principles
ito
Ed
but not broken completely in two, a north and south pole will form at each edge of the
crack. The magnetic field exits the north pole and reenters at the south pole. The
magnetic field spreads out when it encounters the
Li
If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will be attracted to
and cluster not only at the poles at the ends of the magnet, but also at the poles at the
l
edges of the crack. This cluster of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack
ria
and this is the basis for magnetic particle inspection.
The first step in a magnetic particle testing is to magnetize the component that is to be
inspected. If any defects on or near the
surface are present, the defects will
ate
create a leakage field. After the
component has been magnetized, iron
particles, either in a dry or wet
suspended form, are applied to the
yM
ls
surface of the magnetized part. The
oo
dT
particles will be attracted and cluster
an
at the flux leakage fields, thus forming
er
a visible indication that the inspector can detect.
rit
W
ee
Fr
ud ith
The primary advantages and disadvantages when compared to other NDT methods
Ed
are:
St PD
F
Advantages
Fill
PD
Disadvantages
Only surface and near surface defects can be detected.
Li
Magnetism
The concept of magnetism centers around the magnetic field and what is known as a
l
dipole. The term "magnetic field" simply describes a volume of space where there is a
ria
change in energy within that volume. The location where a magnetic field exits or
enters a material is called a magnetic pole. Magnetic poles have never been detected
in isolation but always occur in pairs, hence the name dipole. Therefore, a dipole is an
ate
object that has a magnetic pole on one end and a second, equal but opposite,
magnetic pole on the other. A bar magnet is a dipole with a north pole at one end and
south pole at the other.
The source of magnetism lies in the basic building block of all matter,
yM
the atom. Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons and electrons.
ls
oo
The protons and neutrons are located in the atom's nucleus and the
dT
electrons are in constant motion around the nucleus. Electrons carry
an
er
a negative electrical charge and produce a magnetic field as they
move through space. A magnetic field is produced whenever an rit
W
ee
through the conductor causes a magnetic field to form around the conductor. The
Ed
St
magnetic field can be detected using a compass. Since all matter is comprised of
F
PD
atoms, all materials are affected in some way by a magnetic field; however, materials
ill
However, materials can react quite differently to the presence of an external magnetic
field. The magnetic moments associated with atoms have three origins: the electron
motion, the change in motion caused by an external magnetic field, and the spin of the
Li
electrons.
In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs where these pairs spin in
opposite directions. The opposite spin directions of electron pairs
cause their magnetic fields to cancel each other. Therefore, no net
magnetic field exists. Alternately, materials with some unpaired
Page No. 131 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
electrons will have a net magnetic field and will react more to an external field.
According to their interaction with a magnetic field, materials can be classified as:
l
ria
Diamagnetic materials which have a weak, negative susceptibility to magnetic
fields. Diamagnetic materials are slightly repelled by a magnetic field and the
material does not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is
removed. In diamagnetic materials all the electrons are paired so there is no
ate
permanent net magnetic moment per atom. Most elements in the periodic table,
including copper, silver, and gold, are diamagnetic.
Paramagnetic materials which have a small, positive susceptibility to magnetic
fields. These materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material
yM
ls
does not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed.
oo
dT
Paramagnetic materials have some unpaired electrons. Examples of paramagnetic
an
materials include magnesium, molybdenum, and lithium.
er
rit
Ferromagnetic materials have a large, positive susceptibility to an external
W
ee
magnetic field. They exhibit a strong attraction to magnetic fields and are able to
Fr
ud
retain their magnetic properties after the external field has been removed.
ith
Ferromagnetic materials have some unpaired electrons so their atoms have a net
rw
ito
magnetic moment. They get their strong magnetic properties due to the presence
Ed
aligned parallel so that the magnetic force within the domain is strong (this happens
PD
during the solidification of the material where the atom moments are aligned within
Fill
each crystal ”i.e., grain” causing a strong magnetic force in one direction). When a
PD
l
Magnetic Field In and Around a Bar Magnet
ria
The magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet can be seen in the magnetograph below.
A magnetograph can be created by placing a piece
of paper over a magnet and sprinkling the paper
with iron filings. The particles align themselves
ate
with the lines of magnetic force produced by the
magnet. It can be seen in the magnetograph that
there are poles all along the length of the magnet
but that the poles are concentrated at the ends of
yM
ls
the magnet (the north and south poles).
oo
dT
an
er
Magnetic Fields in and around Horseshoe and Ring Magnets
rit
W
Magnets come in a variety of shapes and one of the more common is
ee
Fr
ud
the horseshoe (U) magnet. The horseshoe magnet has north and
ith
south poles just like a bar magnet but the magnet is curved so the
rw
poles lie in the same plane. The magnetic lines of force flow from pole
ito
Ed
to pole just like in the bar magnet. However, since the poles are
St F
located closer together and a more direct path exists for the lines of
PD
l
They flow from the south pole to the north pole within a material and north pole
ria
to south pole in air.
Electromagnetic Fields
ate
Magnets are not the only source of magnetic fields. The flow of electric current
through a conductor generates a magnetic field. When electric current flows in a long
straight wire, a circular magnetic field is generated around the wire and the intensity of
yM
this magnetic field is directly proportional to the amount of current
ls
oo
carried by the wire. The strength of the field is strongest next to
dT
the wire and diminishes with distance. In most conductors, the
an
magnetic field exists only as long as the current is flowing.
er
rit
However, in ferromagnetic materials the electric current will cause
W
some or all of the magnetic domains to align and a residual
ee
Fr
ud
magnetic field will remain.
ith
rw
Also, the direction of the magnetic field is dependent on the direction of the electrical
ito
current in the wire. The direction of the magnetic field around a conductor can be
Ed
St
determined using a simple rule called the “right-hand clasp rule”. If a person grasps a
F
PD
conductor in one's right hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current,
ill
the fingers will circle the conductor in the direction of the magnetic field.
F
PD
Note: remember that current flows from the positive terminal to the negative
ary
When the coil loops are tightly wound, a uniform magnetic field is developed
throughout the length of the coil. The strength of the magnetic field increases not only
l
with increasing current but also with each loop that is added to the coil. A long,
ria
straight coil of wire is called a solenoid and it can be used to generate a nearly uniform
magnetic field similar to that of a bar magnet. The concentrated magnetic field inside a
coil is very useful in magnetizing ferromagnetic materials for inspection using the
magnetic particle testing method.
ate
Quantifying Magnetic Properties
yM
The various characteristics of magnetism can be measured and expressed
ls
oo
quantitatively. Different systems of units can be used for quantifying magnetic
dT
properties. SI units will be used in this material. The advantage of using SI units is that
an
they are traceable back to an agreed set of four base units; meter, kilogram, second,
er
rit
and Ampere. W
ee
The number of magnetic lines of force cutting through a plane of a given area at
ill
a right angle is known as the magnetic flux density, B. The flux density or
F
PD
magnetic induction has the Tesla as its unit. One Tesla is equal to 1
ary
Newton/(A/m). From these units, it can be seen that the flux density is a
measure of the force applied to a particle by the magnetic field.
The total number of lines of magnetic force in a material is called magnetic flux,
ɸ. The strength of the flux is determined by the number of magnetic domains
br
that are aligned within a material. The total flux is simply the flux density applied
over an area. Flux carries the unit of a weber, which is simply a Tesla-meter2.
Li
l
(Magnetization
ria
Force)
Flux Density B Tesla Tesla gauss
(Magnetic
Induction)
Flux ɸ Weber Weber
ate
maxwell
Magnetization M A/m - erg/Oe-cm3
yM
ls
oo
A great deal of information can be learned about the magnetic properties of a material
dT
by studying its hysteresis loop. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the
an
induced magnetic flux density (B) and the magnetizing force (H). It is often referred to
er
as the B-H loop. An example hysteresis loop is shown below. rit
W
ee
Fr
ud Ed
rw
ito
ith
St
PD
Fill
PD
F
ary
br
Li
almost all of the magnetic domains are aligned and an additional increase in the
magnetizing force will produce very little increase in magnetic flux. The material has
l
reached the point of magnetic saturation. When H is reduced to zero, the curve will
ria
move from point "a" to point "b". At this point, it can be seen that some magnetic flux
remains in the material even though the magnetizing force is zero. This is referred to as
the point of retentivity on the graph and indicates the level of residual magnetism in
the material (Some of the magnetic domains remain aligned but some have lost their
ate
alignment). As the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve moves to point "c", where
the flux has been reduced to zero. This is called the point of coercivity on the curve
(the reversed magnetizing force has flipped enough of the domains so that the net flux
within the material is zero). The force required to remove the residual magnetism from
yM
the material is called the coercive force or coercivity of the material.
ls
oo
dT
As the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will again
an
become magnetically saturated but in the opposite direction, point "d". Reducing H to
er
zero brings the curve to point "e". It will have a level of residual magnetism equal to
rit
W
that achieved in the other direction. Increasing H back in the positive direction will
ee
return B to zero. Notice that the curve did not return to the origin of the graph because
Fr
ud
some force is required to remove the residual magnetism. The curve will take a
ith
rw
different path from point "f" back to the saturation point where it with complete the
ito
loop.
Ed
St F
From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties of a material can
PD
be determined:
Fill
PD
material when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism and
retentivity are the same when the material has been magnetized to the saturation
point. However, the level of residual magnetism may be lower than the retentivity
Li
value when the magnetizing force did not reach the saturation level.
3. Coercive Force - The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a
magnetic material to make the magnetic flux return to zero (The value of H at
point c on the hysteresis curve).
4. Permeability, µ - A property of a material that describes the ease with which a
magnetic flux is established in the material. Page No. 137 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
l
electrical circuit.
ria
Permeability
ate
As previously mentioned, permeability (µ) is a material property that describes the
ease with which a magnetic flux is established in a component. It is the ratio of the flux
density (B) created within a material to the magnetizing field (H) and is represented by
the following equation:
yM
ls
µ = B/H
oo
dT
This equation describes the slope of the curve at any
an
point on the hysteresis loop. The permeability value
er
given in letrature for materials is usually the rit
W
maximum permeability or the maximum relative
ee
Fr
ud
permeability. The maximum permeability is the point
ith
The shape of the hysteresis loop tells a great deal about the material being
F
PD
magnetized. The hysteresis curves of two different materials are shown in the graph.
ary
- Higher Coercivity
- Higher Reluctance
- Higher Residual Magnetism
Relative to other materials, a material with a narrower
Li
l
magnetic fields are affected by the permeability, which can be related to the carbon
ria
content and alloying of the material. A component with high carbon content will have
low permeability and will retain more magnetic flux than a material with low carbon
content.
ate
Magnetic Field Orientation and Flaw Detectability
To properly inspect a component for cracks or other defects, it is important to
yM
ls
understand that the orientation of the crack relative to the magnetic lines of force
oo
dT
determinies if the crack can or cannot be detected. There are two general types of
an
magnetic fields that can be established within a component.
er
A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic lines of force rit
W
ee
electromagnets.
St F
the best detection of defects occurs when the lines of magnetic force are established
at right angles to the longest dimension of the defect. This
orientation creates the largest disruption of the magnetic field
Li
within the part and the greatest flux leakage at the surface of the
part. If the magnetic field is parallel to the defect, the field will
see little disruption and no flux leakage field will be produced.
l
directions, each part is normally magnetized in two directions at right angles to each
ria
other. If the component shown is considered, it is known that passing current through
the part from end to end will establish a circular magnetic field that will be 90 degrees
to the direction of the current.
Therefore, defects that have a
ate
significant dimension in the
direction of the current
(longitudinal defects) should be
detectable, while transverse-type
yM
defects will not be detectable
ls
oo
with circular magnetization.
dT
an
er
Magnetization of Ferromagnetic Materials rit
W
ee
Fr
ud
There are a variety of methods that can be used to establish a magnetic field in a
ith
With direct magnetization, current is passed directly through the component. The flow
Fill
of current causes a circular magnetic field to form in and around the conductor. When
PD
using the direct magnetization method, care must be taken to ensure that good
ary
electrical contact is established and maintained between the test equipment and the
test component to avoid damage of the the component (due to arcing or overheating
at high resistance ponts).
There are several ways that direct magnetization is commonly accomplished.
br
l
current flows through the component from contact to contact.
ria
The current sets up a circular magnetic field around the path of
the current.
Magnetization Using Indirect Induction (Indirect Magnetization)
ate
Indirect magnetization is accomplished by using a strong external magnetic field to
establish a magnetic field within the component. As with direct magnetization, there
are several ways that indirect magnetization can be accomplished.
- The use of permanent magnets is a low cost method of
yM
ls
establishing a magnetic field. However, their use is limited due
oo
dT
to lack of control of the field strength and the difficulty of
an
placing and removing strong permanent magnets from the
er
component.
rit
W
ee
inside diameter. Current is passed through the copper bar and the
resulting circular magnetic field establishes a magnetic field within
the test components.
- The use of coils and solenoids is a third method of indirect magnetization. When the
length of a component is several times larger than its diameter, a longitudinal
Page No. 141 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
l
longitudinally in the concentrated
ria
magnetic field that fills the center of a coil
or solenoid. This magnetization technique
is often referred to as a "coil shot".
ate
Types of Magnetizing Current
As mentioned previously, electric current is often used to establish the magnetic field
yM
in components during magnetic particle inspection. Alternating current (AC) and direct
ls
oo
current (DC) are the two basic types of current commonly used. The type of current
dT
used can have an effect on the inspection results, so the types of currents commonly
an
used are briefly discussed here.
er
rit
W
Direct Current
ee
Fr
ud
Direct current (DC) flows continuously in one direction at a constant voltage. A battery
ith
is the most common source of direct current. The current is said to flow from the
rw
positive to the negative terminal, though electrons flow in the opposite direction. DC is
ito
Ed
magnetic field that penetrates deeper into the material. In ferromagnetic materials,
PD
the magnetic field produced by DC generally penetrates the entire cross-section of the
Fill
component.
PD
ary
Alternating Current
Alternating current (AC) reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60 cycles per second.
Since AC is readily available in most facilities, it is convenient to make use of it for
magnetic particle inspection. However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field in
br
ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field will be limited to a thin layer at the surface
of the component. This phenomenon is known as the "skin effect" and it occurs
because the changing magnetic field generates eddy currents in the test object. The
Li
eddy currents produce a magnetic field that opposes the primary field, thus reducing
the net magnetic flux below the surface. Therefore, it is recommended that AC be used
only when the inspection is limited to surface defects.
l
the detection of subsurface defects. Luckily, AC can be converted to current that is very
ria
much like DC through the process of rectification. With the use of rectifiers, the
reversing AC can be converted to a one directional current. The three commonly used
types of rectified current are described below.
ate
yM
ls
oo
dT
an
er
rit
W
ee
Fr
ud Ed
rw
ito
ith
St PD
F
When single phase alternating current is passed through a rectifier, current is allowed
F
PD
to flow in only one direction. The reverse half of each cycle is blocked out so that a one
ary
directional, pulsating current is produced. The current rises from zero to a maximum
and then returns to zero. No current flows during the time when the reverse cycle is
blocked out. The HWAC repeats at same rate as the unrectified current (50 or 60 Hz).
Since half of the current is blocked out, the amperage is half of the unaltered AC. This
type of current is often referred to as half wave DC or pulsating DC. The pulsation of
br
the HWAC helps in forming magnetic particle indications by vibrating the particles and
giving them added mobility where that is especially important when using dry
particles. HWAC is most often used to power electromagnetic yokes.
Li
current. While particle mobility is not as good as half-wave AC due to the reduction in
pulsation, the depth of the subsurface magnetic field is improved.
l
Three Phase Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current
ria
Three phase current is often used to power industrial equipment because it has more
favorable power transmission and line loading characteristics. This type of electrical
current is also highly desirable for magnetic particle testing because when it is rectified
ate
and filtered, the resulting current very closely resembles direct current. Stationary
magnetic particle equipment wired with three phase AC will usually have the ability to
magnetize with AC or DC (three phase full wave rectified), providing the inspector with
the advantages of each current form.
yM
ls
oo
dT
Magnetic Fields Distribution and Intensity
an
er
rit
W
Longitudinal Fields
ee
Fr
ud
When a long component is magnetized using a solenoid having a shorter length, only
ith
rw
Circular Fields
br
When a circular magnetic field is forms in and around a conductor due to the passage
of electric current through it, the following can be said about the distribution and
Li
- The field strength inside the conductor is dependent on the current strength,
magnetic permeability of the material, and if magnetic, the location on the B-H
l
curve.
ria
- The field strength outside the conductor is directly proportional to the current
strength and it decreases with distance from the conductor.
The images below show the magnetic field strength graphed versus distance from the
center of the conductor when current passes through a solid circular conductor.
ate
In a nonmagnetic conductor carrying DC, the internal field strength rises from zero
at the center to a maximum value at the surface of the conductor.
yM
In a magnetic conductor carrying DC, the field strength within the conductor is
ls
oo
much greater than it is in the nonmagnetic conductor. This is due to the
dT
permeability of the magnetic material. The external field is exactly the same for the
an
two materials provided the current level and conductor radius are the same.
er
rit
W
When the magnetic conductor is carrying AC, the internal magnetic field will be
ee
Fr
ud
concentrated in a thin layer near the surface of the conductor (skin effect). The
ith
rw
external field decreases with increasing distance from the surface same as with DC.
ito
Ed
St
PD
Fill
PD
F
ary
br
The magnetic field distribution in The magnetic field distribution in The magnetic field distribution in
Li
and around a solid conductor of a and around a solid conductor of a and around a solid conductor of a
nonmagnetic material carrying magnetic material carrying direct magnetic material carrying
direct current. current. alternating current.
In a hollow circular conductor there is no magnetic field in the void area. The magnetic
field is zero at the inner surface and rises until it reaches a maximum at the outer
l
surface.
ria
Same as with a solid conductor, when DC current is passed through a magnetic
conductor, the field strength within the conductor is much greater than in
nonmagnetic conductor due to the permeability of the magnetic material. The
external field strength decreases with distance from the surface of the conductor.
ate
The external field is exactly the same for the two materials provided the current
level and conductor radius are the same.
When AC current is passed through a hollow circular magnetic conductor, the skin
yM
ls
effect concentrates the magnetic field at the outside diameter of the component.
oo
dT
an
er
rit
W
ee
Fr
ud Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
PD
F
PD
ill
F
ary
The magnetic field distribution in The magnetic field distribution in The magnetic field distribution in
and around a hollow conductor of a and around a hollow conductor of and around a hollow conductor of
nonmagnetic material carrying a magnetic material carrying direct a magnetic material carrying
direct current. current. alternating current.
br
As can be seen from these three field distribution images, the field strength at the
inside surface of hollow conductor is very low when a circular magnetic field is
Li
l
is with the use of a central conductor. As can be seen
ria
in the field distribution image, when current is passed
through a nonmagnetic central conductor (copper
bar), the magnetic field produced on the inside
diameter surface of a magnetic tube is much greater
ate
and the field is still strong enough for defect detection
on the OD surface.
yM
ls
oo
dT
Demagnetization
an
er
After conducting a magnetic particle inspection, it is usually necessary to demagnetize
rit
W
the component. Remanent magnetic fields can:
ee
Fr
ud
- affect machining by causing cuttings to cling to a component.
ith
- create a condition known as "arc blow" in the welding process. Arc blow may
ito
Ed
cause the weld arc to wonder or filler metal to be repelled from the weld.
St F
- cause abrasive particles to cling to bearing or faying surfaces and increase wear.
PD
ill
Removal of a field may be accomplished in several ways. The most effective way to
F
PD
demagnetize a material is by heating the material above its curie temperature (for
ary
instance, the curie temperature for a low carbon steel is 770°C). When steel is heated
above its curie temperature then it is cooled back down, the the orientation of the
magnetic domains of the individual grains will become randomized again and thus the
component will contain no residual magnetic field. The material should also be placed
with it long axis in an east-west orientation to avoid any influence of the Earth's
br
magnetic field.
However, it is often inconvenient to heat a material above its curie temperature to
Li
demagnetize it, so another method that returns the material to a nearly unmagnetized
state is commonly used.
Subjecting the component to a reversing and decreasing magnetic field will return the
dipoles to a nearly random orientation throughout the material. This can be
accomplished by pulling a component out and away from a coil with AC passing
Page No. 147 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
l
on the surface, moving them in circular patterns around
ria
the area, and slowly withdrawing the yoke while the
current is applied. Also, many stationary magnetic
particle inspection units come with a demagnetization
feature that slowly reduces the AC in a coil in which the
ate
component is placed.
A field meter is often used to verify that the residual flux
has been removed from a component. Industry standards usually require that the
magnetic flux be reduced to less than 3 Gauss (3x10-4 Tesla) after completing a
yM
ls
magnetic particle inspection.
oo
dT
an
er
Measuring Magnetic Fields
rit
W
ee
high enough to cause an indication to form, but not too high to cause nonrelevant
ito
Since it is impractical to measure the actual field strength within the material, all the
Fill
devices measure the magnetic field that is outside of the material. The two devices
PD
inspection are the field indicator and the Hall-effect meter, which is also called a gauss
meter.
Field Indicators
br
Field indicators are small mechanical devices that utilize a soft iron
vane that is deflected by a magnetic field. The vane is attached to a
needle that rotates and moves the pointer for the scale. Field
Li
l
magnetic field strength in Gauss or Tesla units. The meter uses a very small conductor
ria
or semiconductor element at the tip of the probe. Electric
current is passed through the conductor. In a magnetic
field, a force is exerted on the moving electrons which
tends to push them to one side of the conductor. A buildup
ate
of charge at the sides of the conductors will balance this
magnetic influence, producing a measurable voltage
between the two sides of the conductor. The probe is
placed in the magnetic field such that the magnetic lines of
yM
ls
force intersect the major dimensions of the sensing
oo
dT
element at a right angle.
an
er
rit
W
Magnetization Equipment for Magnetic Particle Testing
ee
Fr
ud
To properly inspect a part for cracks or other defects, it is important to become
ith
rw
familiar with the different types of magnetic fields and the equipment used to
ito
generate them. As discussed previously, one of the primary requirements for detecting
Ed
St
a defect in a ferromagnetic material is that the magnetic field induced in the part must
F
PD
intercept the defect at a 45 to 90 degree angle. Flaws that are normal (90 degrees) to
ill
the magnetic field will produce the strongest indications because they disrupt more of
F
PD
Permanent Magnets
Permanent magnets can be used for magnetic particle inspection as the source of
magnetism (bar magnets or horseshoe magnets). The use of industrial magnets is not
popular because they are very strong (they require significant strength to remove them
Page No. 149 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
from the surface, about 250 N for some magnets) and thus they
are difficult and sometimes dangerous to handle. However,
l
permanent magnets are sometimes used by divers for inspection
ria
in underwater environments or other areas, such as explosive
environments, where electromagnets cannot be used. Permanent
magnets can also be made small enough to fit into tight areas
where electromagnets might not fit.
ate
Electromagnetic Yokes
An electromagnetic yoke is a very common piece of equipment that is used to establish
yM
ls
a magnetic field. A switch is included in the electrical circuit so that the current and,
oo
dT
therefore, the magnetic field can be turned on
an
and off. They can be powered with AC from a wall
er
socket or by DC from a battery pack. This type of
rit
W
magnet generates a very strong magnetic field in
ee
Prods
Fill
PD
inspections.
However, caution is required when using prods because electrical arcing can occur and
cause damage to the component if proper contact is not maintained between the
prods and the component surface. For this reason, the use of prods is not allowed
when inspecting aerospace and other critical components. To help prevent arcing, the
Page No. 150 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
prod tips should be inspected frequently to ensure that they are not oxidized, covered
with scale or other contaminant, or damaged.
l
Portable Coils and Conductive Cables
ria
Coils and conductive cables are used to establish a
longitudinal magnetic field within a component. When a
preformed coil is used, the component is placed against
ate
the inside surface on the coil. Coils typically have three
or five turns of a copper cable within the molded frame.
A foot switch is often used to energize the coil.
yM
ls
oo
a component to form a coil. The number of wraps is
dT
determined by the magnetizing force needed and of
an
course, the length of the cable. Normally, the wraps are
er
rit
kept as close together as possible. When using a coil or W
cable wrapped into a coil, amperage is usually expressed
ee
Stationery Equipment
Stationary magnetic particle inspection equipment
l
is designed for use in laboratory or production
ria
environment. The most common stationary system
is the wet horizontal (bench) unit. Wet horizontal
units are designed to allow for batch inspections of
a variety of components. The units have head and
ate
tail stocks (similar to a lathe) with electrical contact
that the part can be clamped between. A circular
magnetic field is produced with direct magnetization.
yM
Most units also have a movable coil that can be moved
ls
oo
into place so the indirect magnetization can be used to
dT
produce a longitudinal magnetic field. Most coils have
an
five turns and can be obtained in a variety of sizes. The
er
wet magnetic particle solution is collected and held in rit
W
a tank. A pump and hose system is used to apply the
ee
Fr
ud
particle solution to the components being inspected.
ith
demagnetization feature is built in, which uses the coil and decaying AC.
PD
Fill
PD
leakage field that crosses the air gap with a Hall-effect meter is probably the best way
to get an estimate of the actual field strength within a part. However, since that is not
practical, there are a number of tools and methods that are used to determine the
Li
measures the intensity of the field in the air adjacent to the component when a
magnetic field is applied. The advantages of this device are: it provides a quantitative
l
measure of the strength of magnetizing force tangential to the surface of a test piece,
ria
it can be used for measurement of residual magnetic fields, and it can be used
repetitively. The main disadvantage is that such devices must be periodically
calibrated.
ate
Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI)
The Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI) or Artificial Flaw Standard
is often the preferred method of assuring proper field direction
and adequate field strength (it is used with the wet method only).
yM
ls
The QQI is a thin strip (0.05 or 0.1 mm thick) of AISI 1005 steel
oo
dT
with a specific pattern, such as concentric circles or a plus sign,
an
etched on it. The QQI is placed directly on the surface, with the
er
itched side facing the surface, and it is usually fixed to the surface
rit
W
using a tape then the component is then magnetized and particles
ee
Pie Gage
PD
The pie gage is a disk of highly permeable material divided into four, six, or
Fill
serve as artificial defects that radiate out in different directions from the
ary
center. The sections are furnace brazed and copper plated. The gage is
placed on the test piece copper side up and the test piece is magnetized.
After particles are applied and the excess removed, the indications provide
the inspector the orientation of the magnetic field. Pie gages are mainly
br
used on flat surfaces such as weldments or steel castings where dry powder
is used with a yoke or prods. The pie gage is not recommended for precision
parts with complex shapes, for wet-method applications, or for proving field
Li
Slotted Strips
Slotted strips are pieces of highly permeable ferromagnetic material with slots of
different widths. These strips can be used with the wet or dry method. They are placed
Page No. 153 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
on the test object as it is inspected. The indications produced on the strips give the
inspector a general idea of the field strength in a particular area.
l
ria
Magnetic Particles
As mentioned previously, the particles that are used for magnetic particle inspection
ate
are a key ingredient as they form the indications that alert the inspector to the
presence of defects. Particles start out as tiny milled pieces of iron or iron oxide. A
pigment (somewhat like paint) is bonded to their surfaces to give the particles color.
The metal used for the particles has high magnetic permeability and low retentivity.
High magnetic permeability is important because it makes the particles attract easily to
yM
ls
oo
small magnetic leakage fields from discontinuities, such as flaws. Low retentivity is
dT
important because the particles themselves never become strongly magnetized so
an
they do not stick to each other or the surface of the part. Particles are available in a dry
er
rit
mix or a wet solution. W
ee
Fr
ud ith
Dry magnetic particles can typically be purchased in red, black, gray, yellow and several
Ed
St
other colors so that a high level of contrast between the particles and the part being
F
PD
inspected can be achieved. The size of the magnetic particles is also very important.
ill
Dry magnetic particle products are produced to include a range of particle sizes. The
F
PD
fine particles have a diameter of about 50 µm while the course particles have a
ary
diameter of 150 µm (fine particles are more than 20 times lighter than the coarse
particles). This makes fine particles more sensitive to the leakage fields from very small
discontinuities. However, dry testing particles cannot be made exclusively of the fine
particles where coarser particles are needed to bridge large discontinuities and to
reduce the powder's dusty nature. Additionally, small particles easily adhere to surface
br
The particle shape is also important. Long, slender particles tend align themselves
along the lines of magnetic force. However, if dry powder consists
l
only of elongated particles, the application process would be less
ria
than desirable since long particles lack the ability to flow freely.
Therefore, a mix of rounded and elongated particles is used since
it results in a dry powder that flows well and maintains good
sensitivity. Most dry particle mixes have particles with L/D ratios
ate
between one and two.
yM
ls
Magnetic particles are also supplied in a wet suspension such as water or oil. The wet
oo
dT
magnetic particle testing method is generally more sensitive than the dry because the
an
suspension provides the particles with more mobility and makes it possible for smaller
er
particles to be used (the particles are typically 10 µm and smaller) since dust and
rit
W
adherence to surface contamination is reduced or eliminated. The wet method also
ee
l
onto the surface of the test object as the item is magnetized. Dry
ria
particle inspection is well suited for the inspections conducted on
rough surfaces. When an electromagnetic yoke is used, the AC
current creates a pulsating magnetic field that provides mobility to
ate
the powder.
Dry particle inspection is also used to detect shallow subsurface
cracks. Dry particles with half wave DC is the best approach when
inspecting for lack of root penetration in welds of thin materials.
yM
ls
oo
Steps for performing dry particles inspection:
dT
Surface preparation - The surface should be relatively clean but this is not as
an
er
critical as it is with liquid penetrant inspection. The surface must be free of grease,
rit
W
oil or other moisture that could keep particles from moving freely. A thin layer of
ee
paint, rust or scale will reduce test sensitivity but can sometimes be left in place
Fr
ud
with adequate results. Specifications often allow up to 0.076 mm of a
ith
rw
(such as nickel) to be left on the surface. Any loose dirt, paint, rust or scale must
Ed
be removed.
St ill
PD
F
o Some specifications require the surface to be coated with a thin layer of white
F
PD
paint in order to improve the contrast difference between the background and
the particles (especially when gray color particles are used).
ary
Blowing off excess powder - With the magnetizing force still applied, remove the
Li
excess powder from the surface with a few gentle puffs of dry air. The force of the
air needs to be strong enough to remove the excess particles but not strong
enough to remove particles held by a magnetic flux leakage field.
Terminating the magnetizing force - If the magnetic flux is being generated with
an electromagnet or an electromagnetic field, the magnetizing force should be
l
terminated. If permanent magnets are being used, they can be left in place.
ria
Inspection for indications - Look for areas where the magnetic particles are
clustered.
ate
Wet suspension magnetic particle inspection, more
commonly known as wet magnetic particle inspection,
involves applying the particles while they are suspended
yM
ls
in a liquid carrier. Wet magnetic particle inspection is
oo
most commonly performed using a stationary, wet,
dT
horizontal inspection unit but suspensions are also
an
er
available in spray cans for use with an electromagnetic
yoke. rit
W
ee
Fr
ud
A wet inspection has several advantages over a dry inspection. First, all of the surfaces
ith
of the component can be quickly and easily covered with a relatively uniform layer of
rw
particles. Second, the liquid carrier provides mobility to the particles for an extended
ito
period of time, which allows enough particles to float to small leakage fields to form a
Ed
St
visible indication. Therefore, wet inspection is considered best for detecting very small
F
PD
are much smaller in wet suspensions) can settle in the surface valleys and lose mobility,
F
PD
rendering them less effective than dry powders under these conditions.
ary
preventing the particles from moving freely. A thin layer of paint, rust or scale will
reduce test sensitivity, but can sometimes be left in place with adequate results.
Specifications often allow up to 0.076 mm of a nonconductive coating (such as
Li
o Some specifications require the surface to be coated with a thin layer of white
paint when inspecting using visible particles in order to improve the contrast
Page No. 157 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
difference between the background and the particles (especially when gray
color particles are used).
l
Applying suspended magnetic particles - The suspension is gently sprayed or
ria
flowed over the surface of the part. Usually, the stream of suspension is diverted
from the part just before the magnetizing field is applied.
ate
Applying the magnetizing force - The magnetizing force should be applied
immediately after applying the suspension of magnetic particles. When using a
wet horizontal inspection unit, the current is applied in two or three short busts
(1/2 second) which helps to improve particle mobility.
yM
ls
oo
Inspection for indications - Look for areas where the magnetic particles are
dT
clustered. Surface discontinuities will produce a sharp indication. The indications
an
from subsurface flaws will be less defined and lose definition as depth increases.
er
rit
W
ee
Fr
ud
Quality & Process Control
ith
rw
ito
Particle Concentration
Fill
2.4 ml for visible particles. If the particle concentration is out of the acceptable range,
particles or the carrier must be added to bring the solution back in compliance with the
l
requirement.
ria
Particle Condition
After the particles have settled, they should be examined for brightness and
ate
agglomeration. Fluorescent particles should be evaluated under ultraviolet light and
visible particles under white light. The brightness of the particles should be evaluated
weekly by comparing the particles in the test solution to those in an unused reference
solution that was saved when the solution was first prepared. Additionally, the
yM
particles should appear loose and not lumped together. If the brightness or the
ls
oo
agglomeration of the particles is noticeably different from the reference solution, the
dT
bath should be replaced.
an
er
rit
W
Suspension Contamination
ee
Fr
ud ith
The suspension solution should also be examined for contamination which may come
rw
from inspected components (oils, greases, sand, or dirt) or from the environment
ito
(dust). This examination is performed on the carrier and particles collected for
Ed
St
the foreign matter exceeds 30 percent of the settled solids, the solution should be
F
PD
replaced. The liquid carrier portion of the solution should also be inspected for
ary
contamination. Oil in a water bath and water in a solvent bath are the primary
concerns.
A daily water break check is required to evaluate the surface wetting performance of
water-based carriers. The water break check simply involves flooding a clean surface
Li
similar to those being inspected and observing the surface film. If a continuous film
forms over the entire surface, sufficient wetting agent is present. If the film of
suspension breaks (water break) exposing the surface of the component, insufficient
wetting agent is present and the solution should be adjusted or replaced.
l
unit can obviously have an effect on the sensitivity of an inspection. Therefore, the
ria
electrical system must be checked when the equipment is new, when a malfunction is
suspected, or every six months. Listed below are the verification tests required by
active standards.
ate
Ammeter Check
It is important that the ammeter provide consistent and correct readings. If the meter
is reading low, over magnetization will occur and possibly result in excessive
background "noise." If ammeter readings are high, flux density could be too low to
yM
ls
produce detectable indications. To verify ammeter accuracy, a calibrated ammeter is
oo
dT
connected in series with the output circuit and values are compared to the
an
equipment's ammeter values. Readings are taken at three output levels in the working
er
range. The equipment meter is not to deviate from the calibrated ammeter more than
rit
W
±10 percent or 50 amperes, whichever is greater. If the meter is found to be outside
ee
When a timer is used to control the shot duration, the timer must be calibrated.
Ed
Standards require the timer be calibrated to within ± 0.1 second. A certified timer
St PD
F
should be used to verify the equipment timer is within the required tolerances.
Fill
PD
ary
Lighting
Magnetic particle inspection predominately relies on visual inspection to detect any
indications that form. Therefore, lighting is a very important element of the inspection
process. Obviously, the lighting requirements are different for an inspection conducted
Page No. 160 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
using visible particles than they are for an inspection conducted using fluorescent
particles.
l
Light Requirements When Using Visible Particles
ria
Visible particles inspections can be conducted using natural lighting or artificial lighting.
However, since natural daylight changes from time to time, the use of artificial lighting
is recommended to get better uniformity. Artificial lighting should be white whenever
ate
possible (halogen lamps are most commonly used). The light intensity is required to be
100 foot-candles (1076 lux) at the surface being inspected.
yM
Light Requirements When Using Fluorescent Particles
ls
oo
dT
an
Ultraviolet Lighting
er
rit
When performing a magnetic particle inspection using fluorescent particles, the
W
condition of the ultraviolet light and the ambient white light must be monitored.
ee
Fr
ud
Standards and procedures require verification of lens condition and light intensity.
ith
Black lights should never be used with a cracked filter as the output of white light and
rw
harmful black light will be increased. Also, the cleanliness of the filter should also be
ito
Ed
checked regularly. The filter should be checked visually and cleaned as necessary
St F
before warming-up the light. Most UV light must be warmed up prior to use and
PD
For UV lights used in component evaluations, the normally accepted intensity is 1000
ary
µW/cm2 at 38cm distance from the filter face. The required check should be
performed when a new bulb is installed, at startup of the inspection cycle, if a change
in intensity is noticed, or every eight hours of continuous use.
fluorescent indications. Light levels of less than 2 foot-candles (22 lux) are required by
most procedures. When checking black light intensity a reading of the white light
produced by the black light may be required to verify white light is being removed by
the filter.
l
require that indications be evaluated under white light. The white light requirements
ria
for this evaluation are the same as when performing an inspection with visible
particles. The minimum light intensity at the surface being inspected must be 100
foot-candles (1076 lux).
ate
Light Measurement
Light intensity measurements are made using a radiometer (an instrument that
yM
transfers light energy into an electrical current). Some radiometers have the ability to
ls
oo
measure both black and white light, while others require a separate sensor for each
dT
measurement. Whichever type is used, the sensing area should be clean and free of
an
any materials that could reduce or obstruct light reaching the sensor. Radiometers are
er
rit
relatively unstable instruments and readings often change considerable over time.
W
Therefore, they should be calibrated at least every six months.
ee
Fr
ud Ed
rw
ito
ith
St
PD
Fill
PD
F
ary
br
Li
r
Quality Control
ate
of Electroless Nickel Deposits
Phillip Stapleton
yM
Electroless nickel deposits are smooth, hard nickel-phosphorus alloy coatings
produced by a chemical reduction reaction. The properties of these coatings are
dependent upon the substrate, pretreatment, plating process, composition of
ols
deposits, and post treatments. This interdependencyof processesand materials
To
on the performance of the coating makes quality control and process control
nd
key aspects of the manufacturingsystem.
ra
coating performance can be critical to the overall system, and the potential loss
ree
These chemical and physical changes in the deposit can be related to the
PD
becomes more brittle and harder with a reduction in the modulus and increase in
tensile strength.
The control of these properties is accomplished by maintaining the plating
solution within a narrow operating range and controlling trace elements such as
sulfur, antimony, cadmium, and bismuth, which are generally attributed with
having the greatest effect on the structure and composition of the deposit.
Lib
QUALITY METHOD
identify the new quality level. Many methods have been developed to describe
the relationship of quality to manufacturing process. One that works well for
metal finishing is based on the work of Taguchi (Fig. 6.1).
r
According to his method, the goal is to develop a more robust manufacturing
system that has no performance variation of the product, while experiencing a
ate
higher level of noise or variations within the processes.
The term noise is used to describe process variations from a mean. These
variations can be from the wear of machines, operator training, contamination of
materials, as well as many other factors. The use of the term inner noise refers to
variations that are being monitored and can be controlled, while outer noise
refers to variations that are not being controlled.
yM
In Fig. 6.1, the block “Off-line Quality Control” is generally provided by the
suppliers of processes, while “Transfer Design” and “On-line Quality Control”
are performed by the producing facility.
ols
When these basic concepts are transferred to a shop floor system, several
To
familiar shop functions are revealed. The first item is the specification, which
nd
describes the requirements by acceptance and qualification tests that must be
ra
shop traveler is used to transfer the designs to the processor. This document
tud W
includes the sequence, conditions, times, and other critical information needed
ree
operators, base materials, and more. From these studies, the frequency of
DF
testing can be modified, new, more robust conditions can be selected, and the
lP
r
coating failure to the processes.
Figure 6.2 shows the three areas that require control by operators: (a) process
ate
analysis and history; (b) qualification tests; and (c) acceptance tests.
Process Analysis and Management
In order to maintain the quality of the electroless nickel deposit, the electroless
solution must be maintained at optimum chemical and physical condition.
Constant filtration of the plating solution is recommended. The solution
yM
should be filtered more than 10 times the volume of the process every hour. At
this rate of filtration, the filter will be able to remove most of the solids and
prevent the formation of roughness on the parts.
ols
An important aspect in the design of the filter system is the pump dynamics
To
and how the system will operate with a high specific gravity and temperature.
nd
The system should be sized for an operating temperature of 195" F and a specific
ra
gravity of 1.310.
rite
rate and phosphorus content in the alloy. A pH change of 0.1 points may cause a
variation of 0.1 mil/hr and affect the final product performance and cost. For
ree
deposit.
r
rate and phosphorus content. Air agitation and low loading will cause
DF
content in the deposit and slower plating rates. To overcome this, periodic
Fil
al
t e ri
ra
n dT
ools
ELECTROLESS PLATING
ith
Fre
eW
rite
y M
2
W
8
E
2
0
3
i
d
r w
ito
i-
s
Ed
tu
F
l PD
Fil
S
D
-
P
r y
ibra
T
G
f
‘5
(D
I
al
-
-e
B
0
so
e
E c
x V
t
z
b
a
c
I
3
M
V
-
f
al
0
E
3
-c
0)
ols
6
y
o
Non - Destructive Testing
5
dT
6
-
n
V
ra
d
m
rite
+ h
g *i
eW
tu
?!
E 2
Fre
E -
f
ith
z
-5-
w
S 0
r
ito
-z
Ed
Y
0
E n
F
PD
I C
= $
y
s8 f9
l
Fil
a r
P D
r
0
B
ra
f0
5
b
c
E
ib
5
.B.
F
a
!
G
I
2
3
0
al
a3
-5
0
0
e
.-C
U
t
0
n
t
c=
a
0
t: e
5 s
M
u)
j t
-mm
.-0
e
0
8
ols
U
y
o
Non - Destructive Testing
0
dT
0
e
n
.-0
ra
d
n
rite
rn
eW
0
Z E
tu
2 5
Fre
a m
L u m)
o
ith
E z u
p ;
w
e
E S 3 a l
r
ito
2 : : a
9
Ed
8 0
8
F
z
PD
z r ,
Ci o
c v
c
y
9
l
.I
Fil
E 9 s
8$ .z2
P D
r
0 iop
z & 4
ra
I5 al
X
d
a .-C
B Z a
u)
=z -
e
ib
E c u
4 2
a 2
2 s
2o &
g
lQm
1s
0 E
26
13
$3
58
al
2
-
U
J
e
f
-
0
m
t
u) c
g
a
w
I
s 2
P
M
%
-1 E
(I)
3
c
0
g
ols
c
-
y
5
o
Non - Destructive Testing
dT
0
n
3
ra
;
d
rite
-51
eW
e
tu
Z O
g r
Fre
h . 0
2 2
ith
O " m
E =
w
8" s2
S
r
ito
-
w
4
Ed
%
-d
F
PD
3
u)
C
2
-!i
y
l
VI
.eu.
Fil
9
8
D
+ al
4
P
: ii
r
?E
ra
z h
sg
e€
rg!
ea en
ib
c
0 1
3* 4b
8 m
gf
cn=
45
ff
2u
o s
ial
176 ELECTROLESS PLATING
r
ate
yM rite
nd
ra
ols
To
Organic contamination within the solution will also cause deposit properties
wi
to be compromised. The source of the organic materials may be from the part,
r
materials, oils from within the substrate, plasticizers from hoses and liners,
lP
Silicates, though not organic in nature, can adversely contaminate the bath
PD
and cause black or streaked deposits to be produced. With low levels of volatile
oxidizers, heating the solution may help. With higher levels, and with non-
volatile oxidizers, the solution must be discarded.
Other conditions that require control are agitation and loading. These two
factorsaffect thediffusion of nickel ions in the reduction reaction. High agitation
and either high or low loading can cause step plating and a low plating rate.
Generally, the plating solution will produce coatings when the velocity of the
solution is less than 4 Wsec. This value will be dependent on the solution
chemistry and solution operating conditions. At extremely low loads, the
deposition potential may be low enough to prevent the reduction reaction from
proceeding. This problem may be observed on sharp edges, such as needles,
where the sharp point will not plate. In most cases, this problemcan be corrected
r
by selection of solutions that can operate at higher velocities (7 to 10 Wsec).
ate
Testing of Deposit Properties
The selection of requirements for the electroless nickel deposit are generally
made by the purchaser of the coating. These requirements are established in
specifications. Based on the sampling requirements, a part or specimen must be
tested to identify any variation in performance.
The choice of tests that will characterize performancevariation specific to the
yM
applicationof the part is important. Two types of tests are employed: acceptance
tests and qualification tests. These categories can be used to distinguish tests
that will be performed on an individual lot, and those that might be run on a
ols
regular basis, such as weekly or monthly.
Acceptance tests include: To
nd
ra
0 Thickness
rite
0 Appearance
tud W
Tolerance
ree
Adhesion
F
Porosity
th
wi
Corrosion resistance
DF
Wear resistance
lP
Alloy composition
Fil
Internal stress
PD
Hydrogen embrittlement
Microhardness
rar
The following list of requirements and test methods have been provided to
offer the user of electroless nickel coatings an overview of the options available.
The actual organization of requirementsand test methods have been published
in MIL-C-26074C and ASTM 8733 and should be used to maintain a national
standard for ordering and performance.
Lib
TEST METHODS
Appearance
The coating surface shall have a uniform, metallic appearance without visible
defects such as blisters, pits, pimples, and cracks.
Imperfectionsthat arise from surface conditions of the substrateand persist in
the coating shall not be cause for rejection. Also, discoloration that resultsfrom
heat treatment shall not be cause for rejection.
Thickness Measurement
The thickness shall be measured at any place on the significant surface
designated by the purchaser, and the measurement shall be made with an
r
accuracy of better than 5 percent by a method selected by the purchaser.
Examples of common measuring devices are shown in Figs. 6.3 and 6.4.
ate
yM ra
rite
nd
To
ols
tud wi
th
Free
W
Fig. 6.3-X-ray fluorescence device measures thickness by analyzing the mass per unit area of the
r
ito
Fig. 6.4-Beta backscatter device also measures thickness by analyzing the mass per unit area of the
electroless nickel deposit. There are some limitations to this method, but the cost and availability of
instruments makes it an excellent choice for many applications. ASTM 8567 can be used to
standardize and peiform the measurements with this instrument.
r
measurement. Calculate the thickness from the increase in weight, surface area,
ate
and density of the coating.
NOTE: The density of the coating will vary with the weight percentage of
phosphorus in the coating. For a 9-percent-P alloy, the density is 8 glcm'.
Example-A coupon made of mild steel has a weight of 3198 mg with an area
yM
of 19.736 cm' before plating. After plating with electroless nickel, the coupon
weighs 3583 mg. Calculation for thickness is as follows:
3583 mg (after) - 3198 mg (before)
T= + 19.736 cm-'
ols
8.01 g/cm' x 1000 mg/g
To
nd
T = 0.00244 cm x 10,000 pm/cm
ra
T = 24.4 pm
rite
tud th
wi
F
W
ree
Table 6.1
r
ito
8ubstrate Densities
Ed
Metallographic Sectioning
Plate a specimen of similar composition and metallurgical condition to the
article being plated, or use a sample from the lot; mount and polish at 90" to the
surface. Using a Vernier Calibrated Microscope, examine the thickness of the
deposit and average over 10 readings.
Micrometer Method
Measure a part of the test coupon in a specific spot before and after plating,
usin'g a suitable micrometer. Ensure that the part is at the same temperature for
r
each measurement and that the surface measured is smooth.
ate
Beta Backscatter Method
Thecoating thickness can be measuredby the use of a beta backscatterdevice.
The use of beta backscatter is restricted to base metals that have an atomic
number of less than 18or greater than 40. The actual phosphorus content of the
coating shall be taken into consideration; consequently, the measuring device
shall be calibrated using specimens of the same substrate having the same
yM
phosphorus content as the articles to be tested.
Magnetic Method
A magnetic thickness detector is applicable to magnetic substrates plated with
ols
autocatalytic nickel deposits that contain more than 10 weight percent
To
phosphorus(non-magnetic) and that have not been heat treated. The instrument
nd
must be calibrated with deposits plated in the same bath on steel and whose
ra
X-ray Spectrometry
ree
will measure the mass per unit area of the coating applied over the substrate.
th
Coulometric Method
DF
Adhesion Measurement
Bend Test
Lib
The sample specimen shall be bent through 180° over a minimum mandrel of 12
mm in diameter or four times the thickness of the specimen and examined at 4X
magnification. No detachment of the coating shall occur. Fine cracks in the
coating on the tension side of the bend are not an indication of poor adhesion.
Quench Test
Heat a plated article for 1 hr in an oven in accordance with Table 6.2 for the
appropriate basis metals within 210" C. Then quench in room temperature
water. The appearanceof blistersor peeling is evidenceof inadequateadhesion.
NOTE: This test procedure may have an adverse effect on the mechanical
properties of the articles tested.
r
ate
Table 6.2
Substrate Heat-Treatment
Temperatures for Quench Test
yM
Steel 300" c
Zinc 150" C
Copper or copper alloy 250" c
ols
Aluminum or aluminum alloy 250" C
To
nd
ra
rite
tud th
Free
W
Punch Test
wi
spring-loaded center punch on which the point has been ground to a 2-mm
Ed
File Test
lP
By agreement with the purchaser, a file may be applied to the coated article. A
Fil
non-significant area shall be filed at an angle of 45" to the coating, so that the
PD
Microhardness
ASTM 8578 shall be used for Knoop hardness with a test load of 100 g. The
instrument shall be verified on calibratedstandardtest blocks having a hardness
similar to that of the deposit under test.
Lib
NOTE: For thin (less than 25 pm) deposits using less than 100 g loads, the
standardcommercial hardness tester produces varied results. This is due to the
plastic deformation of the coating and the optical qualities of the instrument.
Hydrogen Embrittlement
ASTM F519 shall be used once a month to evaluate the plating process for relief
of hydrogen embrittlement. A minimum of three V-notch tensile specimens
r
made of AIS1 4340 heat treated to a strength of 260 to 280 ksi shall be plated and
ate
loaded at 75 percent or greater of their ultimate notch tensile strength and held
for 200 hours. No evidence of fracture or cracks shall exist.
Alloy Determination
There are generally three phosphorus ranges for electroless nickel deposits.
Specific types of solution formulations will provide the selection of range of
yM
phosphorus in the alloy. Specific confirmation of the alloy can be accomplished
by analyzing for nickel and phosphorus by one of the methods described below.
Most applications have been developed using a mid-range of 3 to 9.5 percent
ols
phosphorus and are considered typical. Confirmation of the alloy for these
To
coatings can be by nickel or phosphorus, while coatings of less than 3 percent P
or greater than 9.5 percent P should use both the nickel and phosphorus
nd
analysis to determine the alloy.
ra
rite
There are two general methods of preparing a foil specimen for this test. The
ree
most efficient technique is to plate a stainless steel panel with a 25- to 50-pm-
F
thick deposit, cut the edges and peel the deposit off the panel.
th
wi
hydroxide solution. When finished, a foil will have been produced that is
DF
Procedure:
Accurately weigh 0.1 g of autocatalytic nickel deposit and transfer to a 400 mL
beaker. Dissolve in 20 mL of 1:l nitric acid, boil to expel nitrous oxide fumes,
Lib
then cool and dilute to 150 mL with distilled water. Add approximately 1 g of
citric or tartaric acid to complex any ion that may be present and neutralize with
ammonium hydroxide to p H 8 to 9.
Heat gently to 60 to 70" C, and while stirring, add 30 mL of dimethylglyoxime
reagent. Allow to stand at 60 to 70" C for 1 hr, cool to below 20" C, and filter
through a clean sintered glass crucible of No. 4 porosity. Wash the precipitate
well with distilled water, dry in an oven at 110" C for 1 hr, cool, and weigh the
precipitate as nickel dimethylglyoxime.
r
Determination of Phosphorus Content
The percentage of phosphorus is determined after dissolution of the deposit in
ate
acid, either colorimetrically or volumetrically.
Reagents:
For dissolution and oxidation
40 percent v/v concentrated nitric acid (specific gravity 1.42)
2 percent sodium nitrate solution
yM
Approximately 0.1N potassium permanganate solution
ols
Molybdate vanadate reagent-Dissolve separately in hot water, 20 g
To
ammonium molybdate and 1 g ammonium vanadate, then mix the two solutions.
nd
Add 200 mL of concentrated nitric acid (specific gravity 1.42) and dilute to 1 L.
ra
rite
tud
For volumetric phosphorus analysis
W
Add 6 mL ammonium solution (specific gravity 0.880) and dilute to 100 mL.
F
2. Heat gently until the deposit is fully dissolved. Then boil to remove brown
Fil
fumes.
PD
r
1. Dry potassium dihydrogen orthophosphateat 115O C for 1 hour.
2. Weigh out 0.4392 g. dissolve in water, and make up to 1 L of solution (1 mL =
ate
0.1 mg phosphorus).
3. Preparea calibration curve by adding 25 mL of reagentto 2 mL, 4 rnL, 6 mL,
8 mL, and 10 rnL liquids of this standard solution in 100 rnL standard flasks and
diluting to the mark. Read the absorption of these solutions exactly as for the
estimated reading at 420 nrn, as described above. Plot a calibration curve of
yM
absorption against rng phosphorus in samples of 0.2 mg, 0.4 mg. etc.. up to 1.O
rng when prepared as above.
ols
Procedure for volumetric analysis:
To
1. Transfer 10 mL of the solution from step 7 above to a stoppered flask and
dilute to 100 mL with distilled water.
nd
2. Warm to 40 to 50" C (do notexceedthls temperature)and slowly add 50 rnL
ra
rite
5. Allow the flask to stand for 30 minutes and filter through a Whatrnan No.
F
6. Wash the flask and precipitate with 1 percent potassium nitrate until the
filtrate will not decolorize 1 mL of water containing 1 drop of 0.1N sodium
r
ito
hydroxide and 1 drop of phenolphthalein. This will require about 100 mL of the
Ed
yS
washing liquid.
DF
7. Place the paper and precipitate in the original flask, add 50 mL water, and
lP
shake well.
Fil
the precipitate.
9. Add phenolphthalein indicator and back-titrate with 0.1N hydrochloric
acid. Let " X rnL be the titration.
rar
Spectra Analysis
A suitable method using emission spectra produced by Inductively Coupled
Lib
Porosity Measurement
The test to be applied shall be decided by the purchaser in agreement with the
plater.
r
Porosity Tests for Ferrous Substrates
Ferroxyl Test
ate
The test solution is prepared by dissolving 25 g of potassium ferrocyanide and 15
g of sodium chloride in 1 L solution. The part is cleaned and immersed for 5 sec
in the test solution at 25" C, followed by water rinsing and air drying. Blue spots
visible to the unaided eye will form at pore sites. Their allowable number should
be specified.
Alternately, strips of suitable paper (e.g., "wet strength" filter paper) are first
yM
immersed in a warm (about 35" C) solution containing 50 g/L of sodium chloride
and 50 g/L of white gelatin and then allowed to dry. Just before use, they are
immersed in a solution containing 50 g/L sodium chloride and 1 g/L of a
ols
non-ionic wetting agent, and pressed firmly to make satisfactory contrast onto
To
the cleaned nickel surface to be tested and allowed to remain for 30 minutes.
nd
If papers should become dry during the test, they should be moistened again,
ra
in place, with the sodium chloride solution. The papers are then removed and
rite
produce sharply defined blue markings on the papers, wherever the basis metal
ree
chloride and transference of the ion components to the paper. If necessary, the
th
Immerse the part to be tested in a beaker filled with aerated water at room
Ed
yS
temperature. Apply heat to the beaker at such a rate that the water begins to boil
DF
in not less than 15 minutes, and not more than 20 minutes. Then remove the part
lP
from the water and air dry. Examine the part for rust spots, which will indicate
Fil
pores.
PD
hours. This panel shall have a rating of 9.5 or better in accordance with ASTM
8537.
NOTE: This test can be made more aggressive by reducing the plating thickness
and increasing the exposure time (e.g., 0.0005 in. for 1000 hours).
page 186
Hot Chloride Porosity Test
Immerse a steel part in 50 percent reagent HCI for3 hoursat 83" C. After testing,
the acid shall not be significantly discolored or the part will have exfoliation or
blisters. Equipment needed to perform this test: a glass beaker, hot plate,
thermometer, and a timer.
The purposeof this test is to locate pore sites in thecoating when the porecell
r
potential is greater than 150 mV. Rapid corrosion will occur, causing significant
ate
failure of the coating and substrate. A polyethylene cover affixed to the beaker
with a large rubber band can be used to reduce the vapor and evaporation of the
acid. This test should be performed under a fume hood to remove acid vapor.
yM
rinse and apply a solution of sodium alizarin sulfonate (9,10-anthraquinon-l,2-
dihydroxy-3-sulfonate, sodium salt) to the specimen. This solution is prepared
by dissolving 1.5 g methyl cellulose in 90 mL boiling water to which, after
ols
cooling, a solution of 0.1 g sodium alizarin sulfonate dissolved in 5 mL ethanol is
To
added. nd
After 4 min, apply glacial acetic acid at ambient temperature until the violet
ra
boiling deionized water. After 2 to 3 min, the appearance of brown spots will
r
indicate pores.
ito
Ed
yS
Scope
lP
Applicable Documents
ASTM standards:
G3 Standard Practice for Conventions Applicable to Electrochemical
Measurements in Corrosion Testing
G5 Standard Practice for Standard Reference Method for Making Potentio-
static and Potentiodynamic Anodic Polarization Measurements
G15 Definition of Terms Relating to Corrosion and Corrosion Testing
G59 Practice for Conducting Potentiodynamic Polarization Resistance
Measurements
Summary of Method
The specimen (working electrode) is prepared by plating in an electroless nickel
solution a steel G5 plug. The plug is then cleaned and mounted in an
r
electrochemical cell of G5 design. The cell is charged with a test solution at
ate
ambient temperature and purged with nitrogen. The cell is then pressurized with
the gas in question and heated to the desired temperature. Measurements are
then taken after 1000 sec to find the corrosion potential (E,,,,,). Polarization
measurements are then made to determine the instantaneous corrosion rate for
the applied pressure and temperature. The curves from various conditions and
alloys can then be compared and the relative corrosion resistance can be
yM
established.
ols
The significance of these tests is that they can be used to rank electroless nickel
deposits in order of their corrosion resistance. These tests can then be used t o
To
develop a comprehensive corrosion monitoring program t o evaluate the
nd
substrate pretreatment and electroless nickel deposit.
ra
Results from these tests produce quantitative values as to the corrosive nature
rite
Apparatus
th
wi
and post-treated with the desired process. The specimen can be made from any
material tothefollowing physical dimensions: 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) long, 3.8in. (9.5
rnrn) diameter, with a 3-84 tapped hole at one end. The entire surface shall be 16
rar
rms or better.
NOTE: The specimens used in this ASTM program are made from C7275 steel.
2. The salt bridge shall be adjustable and able t o be located near the tip of the
working electrode.
3. The electrolytes shall be agitated constantly with a magnetic stirrer.
4. The cell shall be purged constantly with N, gas.
5. The cell shall be able t o operate at 1 atmosphere.
6. The cell shall be able to operate at a temperature of 22" C.
7. The specimen holder shall be designed and maintained to form a tight
connection between the specimen and the teflon gasket of the holder.
r
sodium hydroxide. Fill to 1000 mL with Type I reagent water.
Corroding Electrolyte II is prepared by dissolving 40 g of reagent grade
ate
sodium chloride (NaCI) into 1000 mL of Type I reagent water.
Specimen Preparation
Prepare the specimen by the following steps:
1. Vapor degrease or solvent wash.
2. Caustic clean with appropriate cleaner for steel or aluminum substrate.
yM
Note mounting hole will expose substrate alloy to cleaning solution.
3. Rinse with Type I reagent water.
4. Wash with 25 percent sulfuric acid for 60 sec at 25" C.
ols
5. Rinse with Type I reagent water.
To
6. Mount the specimen on the electrode holder. Care should be exercised not
nd
to contaminate or disturb the cleaned surface.
ra
rite
Test Parameters
tud W
Potentiodynamic polarization:
1. Initial potential -100 mV from E,,,
ree
4. Input anodic tafel constant (ATC) 0.145; cathodic tafel constant (CTC)
r
ito
0.150
Ed
Linear polarization:
lP
2. Final potential 30 mV E,
PD
Wear Analysis
Abrasion Resistance
Abrasion resistance can be measured by a Taber Abrader using a CS-10 wheel.
Wear specimens should be dressed for the first 1000 cycles and then weighed.
TheCS-10 wheelsshould beredressedfor50cyclesforeach 1OOOcyclesofwear
on thespecimen. Typical testsaretaken to 10,OOOcycleswith a rangeof 15 to30
r
tested.
ate
Adhesive Wear Resistance
Adhesive wear resistance can be tested by several means. These include pin on
disc, block on ring, and pin on notch. Each of these types of adhesive wear tests
simulate slight differences in metal-to-metal wear. To evaluate the specific wear
for a particular application, the correct wear test method must be selected.
Conditions such as temperature, lubrication, load, vibration, wear scar, velocity,
yM
and others will affect the results requiring careful study of the test methods
before a test can be selected.
The Alpha-LFW1 is a block-on-ring test that has been found to provide wear
ols
information on electroless nickel coatings. The Falex tester is a pin-on-notch
To
device that provides information on high load wear. Both of these tests can be
nd
run dry or lubricated, and can be used to characterize the differences between
ra
coatings.
rite
tud W
Stress Analysis
ree
The intrinsic stress of the deposit can be determined using ASTM 8636.This test
F
uses a spiral contractometer, plating the spiral and measuring the amount of
th
movement in the helix while the spiral is plating. The amount of intrinsic stress in
wi
the deposit is determined by the rate of swing in a needle attached to the spiral.
r
ito
The movement is magnified by a factor of IO,with readings being taken while the
Ed
process is operating. After the measurement of intrinsic stress has been taken at
yS DF
plating temperature, the helix can be removed and cooled. A second reading can
be taken, providing the total stress, and then the thermal component can be
lP
calculated:
Fil
PD
amount of bow in the strip is measured. Calculations can be made from this
information, and the total stress in the part can be selected.
POST-TREATMENTS
The quality control of an electroless nickel deposit implies that certain post-
treatments have been completed. These are generally used to improve the
r
Generally there are no tests for these processes, and self-certification must be
ate
used. In some cases, a test may exist that is destructive, and therefore not usable.
MIL-C-26074C and ASTM 8733 both use the same classification system to
describe the post-heat treatment of the deposit. These documents use the term
class and establish the steps to reduce the potential for hydrogen embrittlement,
increase the adhesion of the coating, improve the fatigue properties of the
part@),and increase the wear resistance and hardness of the coating.
Class 2
yM rite
ra
ols
As plated, no treatment other than hydrogen embrittlement relief at 190 *lo" C
To
for steels with a tensile strength of 1051 MPa or greater.
nd
Heat treated for .hardness, the coating shall be heat treated to a minimum
hardness of 850 Knoop (100 g load). This hardness can be produced by heat
tud W
treating the coating at 400" C for 60 minutes. Higher temperatures for shorter
ree
Class 3
r
aluminum.
Ed
yS DF
Class 4
lP
Class 5
Heat treatment at 140 to 150" C f o r a minimum of 1 hour to improve adhesion on
rar
The use of the shop traveler to record the completion of the heat treatment, as
well as a notation on the chart record of the oven, is a standard practice.
Additional post-treatments such as silicates, water glasses, waxes, and
chromates, are sometimes applied to prevent staining and oxidation of the
Lib
nickel. The analysis of these treatments are complicated and seldom tested.
Contact resistance tests are generally used if the treatment requires testing.
QUALITY CONTROL
To conclude, the electroless nickel facility must have a quality control system.
The platers need to identify how the parts are to be processed. In addition, they
must maintain the chemistry, qualify the processes, and complete the
acceptance tests as required by the specifications.
The system can be operated from a single notebook or from a multiuser
r
computer system. The quality control program can be highly complex, or just
ate
cover the essentials.
I n the end, it is dedicated people who must build and follow the quality control
system. It is people who will produce higher levelsof qualityand make it possible
to extend the performance of electroless nickel deposits into new markets and
applications.
yM rite
nd
ra
ols
To
tud Ed
ito
th
wi
r
Free
W
yS PD
Fil
lP
DF
rar
Lib
Chapter 1
Fundamental Properties of X-rays
l
ria
ate
1.1 Nature of X-rays
yM
X-rays with energies ranging from about 100 eV to 10 MeV are classified as electro-
ls
o
magnetic waves, which are only different from the radio waves, light, and gamma
To
rays in wavelength and energy. X-rays show wave nature with wavelength ranging
nd
from about 10 to 103 nm. According to the quantum theory, the electromag-
ra
netic wave can be treated as particles called photons or light quanta. The essential
rite
follows.
Fre
c D .ms1 / (1.1)
or
dit
299792458 m=s (2:998 108 m=s). Each photon has an energy E, which is
PD
yS
hc
E D h D .J/ (1.2)
where h is the Planck constant (6:6260 1034 J s). With E expressed in keV, and
rar
1:240
E.keV/ D (1.3)
.nm/
Lib
The momentum p is given by mv, the product of the mass m, and its velocity v.
The de Broglie relation for material wave relates wavelength to momentum.
h h
D D (1.4)
p mv
The velocity of light can be reduced when traveling through a material medium,
but it does not become zero. Therefore, a photon is never at rest and so has no rest
mass me . However, it can be calculated using Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence
l
relation E D mc 2 .
ria
me 2
EDr v 2 c (1.5)
1
c
It is worth noting that (1.5) is a relation derived from Lorentz transformation in the
ate
case where the photon velocity can be equally set either from a stationary coordi-
nate or from a coordinate moving at velocity of v (Lorentz transformation is given
in detail in other books on electromagnetism: for example, P. Cornille, Advanced
Electromagnetism and Vacuum Physics, World Scientific Publishing, Singapore,
(2003)). The increase in mass of a photon with velocity may be estimated in the
yM
following equation using the rest mass me :
mD r
me
1
v 2
c
rite
eW
nd
ra
To
ls
o
(1.6)
For example, an electron increases its mass when the accelerating voltage exceeds
100 kV, so that the common formula of 12 mv2 for kinetic energy cannot be used. In
Fre
tud
such case, the velocity of electron should be treated relativistically as follows:
th
wi
me
E D mc 2 me c 2 D r 2
v 2 c me c
2
(1.7)
or
dit
1
c
FE
s
2
PD
yS
me c 2
vDc 1 (1.8)
l
E C me c 2
Fil
PD
electron behaves as a particle with the mass of 9:109 1031 kg, and it corresponds
to the energy of E D mc 2 D 8:187 1014 J or 0:5109 106 eV in eV.
There is also a relationship between mass, energy, and momentum.
2
E
p 2 D .me c/2 (1.9)
Lib
It is useful to compare the properties of electrons and photons. On the one hand,
the photon is an electromagnetic wave, which moves at the velocity of light some-
times called light quantum with momentum and energy and its energy depends upon
the frequency . The photon can also be treated as particle. On the other hand, the
electron has “mass” and “charge.” It is one of the elementary particles that is a
constituent of all substances. The electron has both particle and wave nature such
l
as photon. For example, when a metallic filament is heated, the electron inside it
ria
is supplied with energy to jump out of the filament atom. Because of the negative
charge of the electron, (e D 1:602 1019 C), it moves toward the anode in an
electric field and its direction of propagation can be changed by a magnetic field.
ate
1.2 Production of X-rays
When a high voltage with several tens of kV is applied between two electrodes,
the high-speed electrons with sufficient kinetic energy, drawn out from the cath-
ode, collide with the anode (metallic target). The electrons rapidly slow down and
yM
lose kinetic energy. Since the slowing down patterns (method of loosing kinetic
ls
o
energy) vary with electrons, continuous X-rays with various wavelengths are gener-
To
ated. When an electron loses all its energy in a single collision, the generated X-ray
nd
has the maximum energy (or the shortest wavelength D SWL ). The value of the
ra
shortest wavelength limit can be estimated from the accelerating voltage V between
rite
electrodes.
eW
eV hmax (1.10)
Fre
tud
c hc
th
SWL D D (1.11)
wi
max eV
or
dit
The total X-ray intensity released in a fixed time interval is equivalent to the area
FE
under the curve in Fig. 1.1. It is related to the atomic number of the anode target Z
and the tube current i :
PD
yS Fil
l
where A is a constant. For obtaining high intensity of white X-rays, (1.12) suggests
that it is better to use tungsten or gold with atomic number Z at the target, increase
accelerating voltage V , and draw larger current i as it corresponds to the number
rar
of electrons that collide with the target in unit time. It may be noted that most of
the kinetic energy of the electrons striking the anode (target metal) is converted into
heat and less than 1% is transformed into X-rays. If the electron has sufficient kinetic
energy to eject an inner-shell electron, for example, a K shell electron, the atom will
become excited with a hole in the electron shell. When such hole is filled by an outer
Lib
shell electron, the atom regains its stable state. This process also includes production
of an X-ray photon with energy equal to the difference in the electron energy levels.
As the energy released in this process is a value specific to the target metal and
related electron shell, it is called characteristic X-ray. A linear relation between the
square root of frequency of the characteristic X-ray and the atomic number Z of
the target material is given by Moseley’s law.
l
ria
ate
yM p
D BM .Z M /
rite
nd
ra
To
ls
o (1.13)
Here, BM and M are constants. This Moseley’s law can also be given in terms of
eW
tud
1 1 1
D R.Z SM /2 2
th
2
(1.14)
n1 n2
wi
or
usually zero for K˛ line and one for Kˇ line. Furthermore, n1 and n2 represent the
principal quantum number of the inner shell and outer shell, respectively, involved
PD
yS
for L shell, and n3 D 3 for M shell. As characteristic X-rays are generated when
PD
the applied voltage exceeds the so-called excitation voltage, corresponding to the
potential required to eject an electron from the K shell (e.g., Cu: 8.86 keV, Mo:
20.0 keV), the following approximate relation is available between the intensity of
K˛ radiation, IK , and the tube current, i , the applied voltage V , and the excitation
rar
voltage VK :
clear from (1.15), larger the intensity of characteristic X-rays, the larger the applied
voltage and current.
It can be seen from (1.14), characteristic radiation is emitted as a photoelec-
tron when the electron of a specific shell (the innermost shell of electrons, the
K shell) is released from the atom, when the electrons are pictured as orbiting
the nucleus in specific shells. Therefore, this phenomenon occurs with a specific
energy (wavelength) and is called “photoelectric absorption.” The energy, Eej , of
the photoelectron emitted may be described in the following form as a difference
l
of the binding energy (EB ) for electrons of the corresponding shell with which the
ria
photoelectron belongs and the energy of incidence X-rays (h):
Eej D h EB (1.16)
ate
cess, but its energy variation is known to be negligibly small (see Question 1.6).
Equation (1.16) is based on such condition. Moreover, the value of binding energy
(EB ) is also called absorption edge of the related shell.
the direction of the incident X-rays, even if photoelectric absorption does not occur.
As a result, the reduction in intensity of X-rays which penetrate the substance is
eW
I D I0 ex
wi
(1.17)
or
dit
dependent on the wavelength of X-rays, the physical state (gas, liquid, and solid)
PD
yS
or density of the substance, and its unit is usually inverse of distance. However,
since the linear absorption coefficient is proportional to density ,.=/ becomes
l
Fil
unique value of the substance, independent upon the state of the substance. The
PD
quantity of .=/ is called the mass absorption coefficient and the specific values
for characteristic X-rays frequently-used are compiled (see Appendix A.2). Equa-
tion (1.17) can be re-written as (1.18) in terms of the mass absorption coefficient.
rar
x
I D I0 e (1.18)
Mass absorption coefficient of the sample of interest containing two or more ele-
ments can be estimated from (1.19) using the bulk density, , and weight ratio of wj
Lib
l
ria
ate
Fig. 1.2 Wavelength dependences of mass absorption coefficient of X-ray using the La as an
example
yM nd
To
ls
o
Absorption of X-rays becomes small as transmittivity increases with increasing
energy (wavelength becomes shorter). However, if the incident X-ray energy comes
ra
close to a specific value (or wavelength) as shown in Fig. 1.2, the photoelectric
rite
absorption edge.
or
dit
FE
Question 1.1 Calculate the energy released per carbon atom when 1 g of
carbon is totally converted to energy.
rar
The atomic weight per mole (molar mass) for carbon is 12.011 g from reference
table (for example, Appendix A.2). Thus, the number of atoms included in 1 g
carbon is calculated as .1=12:011/ 0:6022 1024 D 5:01 1022 because the
numbers of atoms are included in one mole of carbon is the Avogadro’s number
.0:6022 1024/. Therefore, the energy release per carbon atom can be estimated as:
.8:99 1013 /
D 1:79 109
l
J
.5:01 1022 /
ria
Question 1.2 Calculate (1) strength of the electric field E, (2), force on the
electron F , (3) acceleration of electron ˛, when a voltage of 10 kV is applied
between two electrodes separated by an interval of 10 mm.
ate
Answer 1.2 The work, W , if electric charge Q (coulomb, C) moves under voltage V
is expressed by W D VQ. When an electron is accelerated under 1 V of difference
in potential, the energy obtained by the electron is called 1 eV. Since the elementary
charge e is 1:602 1019 (C),
yM
1eV D 1:602 1019 1
D 1:602 1019
ra
rite
nd
To
(J)
o ls
(C)(V)
electrodes and the applied voltage being V . The force F on the electron with
elementary charge e is given by;
Fre
tud th
F D eE (N)
wi
or
eE
˛D .m=s2 /
l
m
Fil
PD
1:602 1013
.3/ ˛ D D 1:76 1017 .m=s2 /
9:109 1031
Question 1.3 X-rays are generated by making the electrically charged parti-
Lib
cles (electrons) with sufficient kinetic energy in vacuum collide with cathode,
as widely used in the experiment of an X-ray tube. The resultant X-rays can
be divided into two parts: continuous X-rays (also called white X-rays) and
characteristic X-rays. The wavelength distribution and intensity of continu-
ous X-rays are usually depending upon the applied voltage. A clear limit is
recognized on the short wavelength side.
(1) Estimate the speed of electron before collision when applied voltage is
30,000 V and compare it with the speed of light in vacuum.
l
(2) In addition, obtain the relation of the shortest wavelength limit SWL of
ria
X-rays generated with the applied voltage V , when an electron loses all
energy in a single collision.
Answer 1.3 Electrons are drawn out from cathode by applying the high voltage of
ate
tens of thousands of V between two metallic electrodes installed in the X-ray tube
in vacuum. The electrons collide with anode at high speed. The velocity of electrons
is given by,
mv2 2eV
eV D ! v2 D
2 m
yM
where e is the electric charge of the electron, V the applied voltage across the
ls
o
electrodes, m the mass of the electron, and v the speed of the electron before the
To
collision. When values of rest mass me D 9:110 1031 .kg/ as mass of electron,
nd
elementary electron charge e D 1:602 1019 .C/ and V D 3 104 .V/ are used for
ra
rite
Therefore, the speed of electron just before impact is about one-third of the speed
wi
Some electrons release all their energy in a single collision. However, some other
dit
electrons behave differently. The electrons slow down gradually due to successive
FE
collisions. In this case, the energy of electron (eV) which is released partially and
PD
yS
the corresponding X-rays (photon) generated have less energy compared with the
l
energy (hmax ) of the X-rays generated when electrons are stopped with one colli-
Fil
sion. This is a factor which shows the maximum strength moves toward the shorter
PD
wavelength sides, as X-rays of various wavelengths generate, and higher the inten-
sity of the applied voltage, higher the strength of the wavelength of X-rays (see
Fig. 1). Every photon has the energy h, where h is the Planck constant and the
rar
frequency.
The relationship of eV D hmax can be used, when electrons are stopped in one
impact and all energy is released at once. Moreover, frequency () and wavelength
() are described by a relation of D c=, where c is the speed of light. Therefore,
the relation between the wavelength SWL in m and the applied voltage V may be
Lib
given as follows:
This relation can be applied to more general cases, such as the production of electro-
magnetic waves by rapidly decelerating any electrically charged particle including
l
ria
10
100kV
ate
80kV
Intensity [a.u.]
4
60kV
0
0.01 0.02
yM 40kV
0.05
20kV
0.1
rite
nd
ra
To
ls
o
0.2 0.4
Wavelength [nm]
eW
one of the electrons in L shell falls into the vacancy produced by knocking
dit
an electron out of the K-shell, and its wavelength is 0.1936 nm. Obtain the
FE
Answer 1.4 Consider the process in which an L shell electron moves to the vacancy
PD
created in the K shell of the target (Fe) by collision with highly accelerated electrons
from a filament. The wavelength of the photon released in this process is given by
, (with frequency ). We also use Planck’s constant h of .6:626 1034 Js/ and
the velocity of light c of .2:998 108 ms1 /. Energy per photon is given by,
rar
hc
E D h D
Using Avogadro’s number NA , one can obtain the energy difference E related to
Lib
Reference: The electrons released from a filament have sufficient kinetic energy and
collide with the Fe target. Therefore, an electron of K-shell is readily ejected. This
gives the state of FeC ion left in an excited state with a hole in the K-shell. When
l
this hole is filled by an electron from an outer shell (L-shell), an X-ray photon is
ria
emitted and its energy is equal to the difference in the two electron energy levels.
This variation responds to the following electron arrangement of FeC .
Before release K1 L8 M14 N2
After release K2 L7 M14 N2
ate
Question 1.5 Explain atomic density and electron density.
Na D
NA
M
:
nd
ra
rite
To
ls
o (1)
M .kg=mol/, respectively.
Fre
tud
The electron density Ne of a substance consisting of single element is given by,
th
wi
NA
Ne D Z (2)
or
M
dit
FE
Each atom involves Z electrons (usually Z is equal to the atomic number) and the
unit of Ne is also .m3 /.
PD
yS
the number of atoms or that of electrons per unit mass (kg), when excluding den-
PD
sity, . They are frequently called “atomic density” or “electron density.” However,
it should be kept in mind that the number per m3 (per unit volume) is completely
different from the number per 1 kg (per unit mass). For example, the following val-
ues of atomic number and electron number per unit mass (D1kg) are obtained for
rar
aluminum with the molar mass of 26.98 g and the atomic number of 13:
0:6022 1024
Na D D 2:232 1025 .kg1 /
26:98 103
0:6022 1024
13 D 2:9 1026 .kg1 /
Lib
Ne D
26:98 103
Since the density of aluminum is 2:70 Mg=m3 D 2:70 103 kg=m3 from reference
table (Appendix A.2), we can estimate the corresponding values per unit volume as
Na D 6:026 1028 .m3 / and Ne D 7:83 1029 .m3 /, respectively.
Reference: Avogadro’s number provides the number of atom (or molecule) included
in one mole of substance. Since the atomic weight is usually expressed by the num-
ber of grams per mole, the factor of 103 is required for using Avogadro’s number
l
in the SI unit system.
ria
Question 1.6 The energy of a photoelectron, Eej , emitted as the result of pho-
toelectron absorption process may be given in the following with the binding
energy EB of the electron in the corresponding shell:
ate
Eej D h EB
Here, h is the energy of incident X-rays, and this relationship has been
obtained with an assumption that the energy accompanying the recoil of atom,
which necessarily occurs in photoelectron absorption, is negligible.
yM
Calculate the energy accompanying the recoil of atom in the following
ls
o
condition for Pb. The photoelectron absorption process of K shell for Pb was
To
made by irradiating X-rays with the energy of 100 keV against a Pb plate and
nd
assuming that the momentum of the incident X-rays was shared equally by
ra
Answer 1.6 The energy of the incident X-rays is given as 100 keV, so that its
wi
momentum can be described as being 100 keV=c, using the speed of light c. Since
or
the atom and photoelectron shared the momentum equally, the recoil energy of atom
dit
FE
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram for the photo electron absorption process assuming that the momentum
of the incident X-rays was shared equally by atom and photoelectron. Energy of X-ray radiation is
Lib
100 keV
On the other hand, one should consider for the atom that 1amu D 931:5103 keV
is used in the same way as the energy which is the equivalent energy amount of
the rest mass for electron, me . The molar mass of 207.2 g for Pb is equivalent to
207.2 amu, so that the mass of 1 mole of Pb is equivalent to the energy of 207:2
931:5 103 D 193006:8 103 keV=c.
When the speed of recoil atom is v and the molar mass of Pb is MA , its energy
l
can be expressed by 12 MA v2 . According to the given assumption and the momen-
ria
tum described as p D MA v, the energy of the recoil atom, ErA , may be obtained
as follows:
1 p2 .50/2
ErA D M A v2 D D D 0:0065 103 .keV/
2 2MA 2 .193006:8 103 /
ate
The recoil energy of atom in the photoelectron absorption process shows just a
very small value as mentioned here using the result of Pb as an example, although
the recoil of the atom never fails to take place.
Reference:
1:66054 1027 .2:99792 108 /2
Energy of 1 amu D
yM 1:60218 1019
ls
o
D 9:315 108 .eV/
On the other hand, the energy of an electron with rest mass me D 9:109 1031 .kg/
To
can be obtained in the following with the relationship of 1 .eV/ D 1:602 1019 .J/:
nd
ra
1 1 1
D R.Z SM /2
l
2
Fil
2
(1)
n1 n2
PD
The wavelength of the X-ray photon ./ corresponds to the shifting of an electron
from the shell of the quantum number n2 to the shell of the quantum number of n1 .
Here, Z is the atomic number and SM is a screening constant.
rar
En D (2)
h2 n21
Here, h is a Planck constant and m represents the mass of electron. The energy of
this photon is given by,
l
hc
The following equation will also be obtained, if the relationship of E D h D
ria
is employed while using the velocity of photon, c:
1 2 2 me 4 2 1 1
D Z 2
2 (4)
ch3 n1 n2
ate
If the value of electron mass is assumed to be rest mass of electron and a compar-
ison of (1) with (4) is made, the Rydberg constant R can be estimated. It may be
noted that the term of .Z SM /2 in (1) could be empirically obtained from the
measurements on various characteristic X-rays as reported by H.G.J. Moseley in
1913.
RD
2 2 me 4
ch 3
D
yM
2 .3:142/2 .9:109 1028 / .4:803 1010 /4
To
ls
o
.2:998 1010 / .6:626 1027 /3
D 109:743 103 .cm1 / D 1:097 107 .m1 /
rite
nd
ra
(5)
The experimental value of R can be obtained from the ionization energy (13.6 eV)
eW
system), 4:803 1010 esu has been used for the elemental electron charge e. Con-
wi
version into the SI unit system is given by (SI unit velocity of light 101 ) (e.g.,
or
1:602 1019 Coulomb 2:998 1010 cm=s 101 D 4:803 1010 esu
l
Fil
PD
2 2 e 4
RD (6)
ch3
rar
1 1 1
D C (7)
m mp
Here, m is electron mass and mP is nucleus (proton) mass.The detected difference
is quite small, but the value of mP depends on the element. Then, it can be seen
Lib
from the relation of (6) and (7) that a slightly different value of R is obtained for
each element. However, if a comparison is made with a hydrogen atom, there is a
difference of about 1,800 times between the electron mass me D 9:109 1031 kg
and the proton mass which is mP D 1:67 1027 kg. Therefore, the relationship of
(6) is usually treated as D m, because mP is very large in comparison with me .
Reference: The definition of the Rydberg constant in the SI unit is given in the form
where the factor of .1=4 0 / is included by using the dielectric constant 0 .8:854
1012 F=m/ in vacuum for correlating with nucleus charge Ze .
l
2
ria
2 2 e 4 1 me 4
RD D
ch3 4 0 8 02 ch3
9:109 1031 .1:602 1019 /4
D
8 .8:854 1012 /2 .2:998 108 / .6:626 1034 /3
ate
9:109 .1:602/4 10107
D D 1:097 107 .m1 /
8 .8:854/2 .2:998/ .6:626/3 10118
Question 1.8 When the X-ray diffraction experiment is made for a plate
yM
sample in the transmission mode, it is readily expected that absorption
ls
becomes large and diffraction intensity becomes weak as the sample thickness
To
o
increases. Obtain the thickness of a plate sample which makes the diffrac-
radiation.
nd
tion intensity maximum and calculate the value of aluminum for the Cu-K˛
ra
rite
t
eW
dx
x t-x
Fre
tud
I0 I
th
Surface Back
wi
side side
or
dit
Answer 1.8 X-ray diffraction experiment in the transmission mode includes both
PD
absorption and scattering of X-rays. Let us consider the case where the sample
thickness is t, the linear absorption coefficient , the scattering coefficient S , and
the intensity of incident X-rays I0 as referred to Fig. A.
Since the intensity of the incident X-rays reaching the thin layer dx which is at
rar
distance of x from the sample surface is given by I0 ex , the scattering intensity
dIx0 from the thin layer dx (with scattering coefficient S ) is given by the following
equation:
dIx0 D SI0 ex dx (1)
The scattering intensity dIx passes through the distance of .t x/ in the sample
Lib
and the absorption during this passage is expressed by the form of e.t x/ . There-
fore, the scattering intensity of the thin layer dx after passing through the sample
may be given in the following form:
The scattering intensity of the overall sample will be equal to the result obtained
by integrating the intensity of the thin layer dx with respect to the sample thickness
from zero to t. Z t
l
I D SI0 et dx D SI0 t et (3)
ria
0
dI 1
D SI0 .et tet / D 0; t D 1 ! tD (4)
dt
ate
We can find the values of mass absorption coefficient .=/ and density ./
of aluminum for Cu-K˛ radiation in the reference table (e.g., Appendix A.2). The
results are .=/ D 49:6 cm2=g and D 2:70 g=cm3, respectively. The linear
absorption coefficient of aluminum is calculated in the following:
D
yM
D 49:6 2:70 D 133:92 .cm1/
nd
To
ls
o
Therefore, the desired sample thickness t can be estimated as follows:
ra
rite
1 1
eW
(1) Obtain a simple relation to give the sample thickness x required to reduce
dit
.density D 7:76 106 g=m3 / for Mo-K˛ radiation, using the relation
l
Fil
obtained in (1).
PD
Answer 1.9 Let us consider the intensity of the incident X-rays as I0 and that of the
transmitted X-rays as I . Then,
rar
I D I0 ex (1)
I0
If the condition of I D 2 is imposed, taken into account, one obtains,
Lib
I0
D Iex (2)
2
1
D ex (3)
2
When the logarithm of both sides is taken, we obtain log 1 log 2 D x log e.
The result is log 2 D x, as they are log1 D 0, and loge D 1. Here, natural
logarithm is used and the required relation is given as follows:
l
ria
log2 0:693
xD ' (4)
The values of mass absorption coefficients of Fe and Cr for the Mo-K˛ radiation
are 37:6 and 29:9 cm2 =g obtained from Appendix A.2, respectively. The concentra-
ate
tion of Cr is given by 17 mass %, so that the weight ratio of two alloy components
can be set as wFe D 0:83 and wCr D 0:17. Then, the mass absorption coefficient of
the alloy is expressed in the following:
D wFe C wCr
Alloy Fe Cr
yM
7:76 106 g=m3 D 7:76 g=cm3. We obtain,
nd
ls
D 0:83 .37:6/ C 0:17 .29:9/ D 36:3 .cm2=g/
To
o
Next, note that the unit of the density of the Fe–Cr alloy is expressed in cgs,
ra
rite
281:7
wi
or
Answer 1.10 The atomic weight of Li, Nb, and oxygen (O) and their mass absorp-
PD
tion coefficients for Cu-K˛ radiation are obtained from Appendix A.2, as follows:
Li 6.941 0.5
Nb 92.906 145
O 15.999 11.5
Lib
The molar weight(molar mass) M per 1 mole of LiNbO3 is given in the following:
l
Then, the mass absorption coefficient of lithium niobate can be obtained as follows:
X
ria
D wj D 0:047 0:5 C 0:628 145 C 0:325 11:5
LiNbO3 j
D 94:8 .cm2 =g/
ate
Question 1.11 A thin plate of pure iron is suitable for a filter for Co-K˛
radiation, but it is also known to easily oxidize in air. For excluding such
difficulty,we frequently utilize crystalline hematite powder (Fe2 O3 :density
5:24106 g=m3 ). Obtain the thickness of a filter consisting of hematite powder
which reduces the intensity of Co-Kˇ radiation to 1/500 of the K˛ radiation
yM ls
case. Given condition is as follows. The intensity ratio between Co-K˛ and
To
o
Co-Kˇ is found to be given by 5:1 without a filter. The packing density of
powder sample is known usually about 70% of the bulk crystal.
eW
nd
ra
rite
Answer 1.11 The atomic weight of Fe and oxygen (O) and their mass absorption
coefficients for Co-K˛ and Co-Kˇ radiations are obtained from Appendix A.2, as
Fre
tud
follows:
th
wi
159:687
The mass absorption coefficients of hematite crystals for Co-K˛ and Co-Kˇ radia-
tions are, respectively, to be calculated.
˛
D 0:699 57:2 C 0:301 18:0 D 45:4 .cm2 =g/
Lib
Fe2 O3
ˇ
D 0:699 342 C 0:301 13:3 D 243:1 .cm2=g/
Fe2 O3
It is noteworthy that the density of hematite in the filter presently prepared is equiv-
alent to 70% of the value of bulk crystal by considering the packing density, so that
we have to use the density value of f D 5:24 0:70 D 3:67 g=cm3 Therefore, the
l
value of the linear absorption coefficient of hematite powder packed into the filter
ria
for Co-K˛ and Co-Kˇ radiations will be, respectively, as follows:
˛
˛ D f D 45:4 3:67 D 166:6 .cm1 /
Fe2 O3
ˇ
ate
ˇ D f D 24:1 3:67 D 892:2 .cm1 /
Fe2 O3
The intensity ratio of Co-K˛ and Co-Kˇ radiations before and after passing through
the filter consisting of hematite powder may be described in the following equation:
yM ICoKˇ
ICoK˛
I ˇ eˇ t
D 0˛ t
I0 e ˛
nd
To
ls
o
From the given condition, the ratio between I0˛ and I0ˇ is 5:1 without filter, and it
ra
rite
should be 500:1 after passing through the filter. They are expressed as follows:
eW
1 1 eˇ t 1
D ! D e.˛ ˇ /t
Fre
tud
500 5 e˛ t 100
th
wi
Take the logarithm of both sides and obtain the thickness by using the values of ˛
and ˇ .
or
dit
FE
Question 1.12 For discussing the influence of X-rays on the human body
etc., it would be convenient if the effect of a substance consisting of multi-
rar
elements, such as water (H2 O) and air (N2 , O2 , others), can be described by
information of each constituent element (H, O, N, and others) with an appro-
priate factor. For this purpose, the value of effective element number ZN is
often used and it is given by the following equation:
q
Lib
ZN D 2:94
a1 Z12:94 C a2 Z22:94 C
l
of nitrogen, 23.2% of oxygen, and 1.3% of argon in weight ratio.
ria
Answer 1.12 Water (H2 O) consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom,
whereas the number of electrons are one for hydrogen and eight for oxygen. The
values of atomic weight per mole (molar mass) of hydrogen and oxygen (molar
ate
mass) are 1.008 and 15.999 g, respectively. Each electron density per unit mass is
given as follows:
0:6022 1024
For hydrogen NeH D 1 D 0:597 1024 .g1 /
1:008
0:6022 1024
For oxygen NeO D
yM15:999
8 D 0:301 1024 .g1 /
nd
To
ls
o
In water (H2 O), the weight ratio can be approximated by 2=18 for hydrogen and
ra
and 0:301 1024 .16=18/ D 0:2676 1024 ,respectively, so that the number
eW
0:0663
aH D D 0:199
or
0:3339
dit
0:2262
aO D D 0:801
FE
0:3339
p
PD
yS
ZN D
2:94
0:199 12:94 C 0:801 82:94
p p
l
Fil
2:94 2:94
D 0:199 C 362:007 D 362:206 D 7:42
PD
1 1
Here, we use the relationship of ZN D X y ! lnZN D y1 lnX ! ZN D e y lnX
On the other hand, the molar masses of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon are 14.01,
rar
0:6022 1024
For nitrogen NeN D 0:755 7 D 0:2272 1024
Lib
14:01
0:6022 1024
For oxygen NeO D 0:232 8 D 0:0699 1024
15:999
0:6022 1024
For argon NeAr D 0:013 18 D 0:0035 1024
39:948
l
0:2272
ria
aN D D 0:756
0:3006
0:0699
aO D D 0:232
0:3006
0:0035
aAr D D 0:012
ate
0:3006
Accordingly, the effective atomic number of air is estimated in the following:
p
ZN D
2:94
0:756 72:94 C 0:232 82:94 C 0:012 182:94
p p
D
2:94
yM
230:73 C 104:85 C 58:84 D
Fre
eW2:94
nd
ra
rite
394:42 D 7:64
To
ls
o
tudPD
dit
FE
wi
or
th
yS Fil
PD
l
rar
Lib
http://www.springer.com/978-3-642-16634-1
l
ria
ate
Man
er
dT
oo
ls
rit
dy wi
Fr
th
W
ee
Stu
PD
ill
F
PD
FE
or
dit
ry
bra
Li
Radiographic Testing
Radiography is used in a very wide range of aplications including medicine,
l
engineering, forensics, security, etc. In NDT, radiography is one of the most
ria
important and widely used methods. Radiographic testing (RT) offers a
number of advantages over other NDT methods, however, one of its major
disadvantages is the health risk associated with the radiation.
ate
In general, RT is method of inspecting materials for hidden flaws by
using the ability of short wavelength electromagnetic radiation
(high energy photons) to penetrate various materials. The intensity
of the radiation that penetrates and passes through the material is
yM
ls
either captured by a radiation sensitive film (Film Radiography) or
oo
by a planer array of radiation sensitive sensors (Real-time
dT
Radiography). Film radiography is the oldest approach, yet it is still
an
er
the most widely used in NDT.
rit
W
ee
Fr
ud
Basic Principles
ith
rw
ito
l
ria
Advantages
Both surface and internal discontinuities can be detected.
Significant variations in composition can be detected.
ate
It has a very few material limitations.
Can be used for inspecting hidden areas (direct access to surface is not required)
Very minimal or no part preparation is required.
Permanent test record is obtained.
yM
Good portability especially for gamma-ray sources.
ls
oo
dT
Disadvantages
an
er
Hazardous to operators and other nearby personnel.
rit
High degree of skill and experience is required for exposure and interpretation.
W
ee
rw
PHYSICS OF RADIATION
ary
spectrum they ocupy frequency ranges that are higher than ultraviolate radiation. In
terms of frequency, gamma rays generaly have higher frequencies than X-rays as seen
in the figure . The major distenction between X-rays and gamma rays is the origion
Li
where X-rays are usually artificially produced using an X-ray generator and gamma
radiation is the product of radioactive materials. Both X-rays and gamma rays are
waveforms, as are light rays, microwaves, and radio waves. X-rays and gamma rays
cannot been seen, felt, or heard. They possess no charge and no mass and, therefore,
are not influenced by electrical and magnetic fields and will generally travel in straight
lines. However, they can be diffracted (bent) in a manner similar to light.
l
ria
ate
yM
ls
oo
dT
an
er
rit
W
ee
Electromagentic radiation act somewhat like a particle at times in that they occur as
Fr
ud
small “packets” of energy and are referred to as “photons”. Each photon contains a
ith
rw
certain amount (or bundle) of energy, and all electromagnetic radiation consists of
ito
these photons. The only difference between the various types of electromagnetic
Ed
radiation is the amount of energy found in the photons. Due to the short wavelength
St PD
F
of X-rays and gamma rays, they have more energy to pass through matter than do the
ll
other forms of energy in the electromagnetic spectrum. As they pass through matter,
Fi
PD
they are scattered and absorbed and the degree of penetration depends on the kind of
ary
They pass through matter until they have a chance to encounter with an atomic
particle.
Their degree of penetration depends on their energy and the matter they are
traveling through.
They have enough energy to ionize matter and can damage or destroy living cells.
Page No. 209 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
X-Radiation
l
X-rays are just like any other kind of electromagnetic radiation. They can be produced
in packets of energy called photons, just like light. There are two different atomic
ria
processes that can produce X-ray photons. One is called Bremsstrahlung (a German
term meaning “braking radiation”) and the other is called K-shell emission. They can
both occur in the heavy atoms of tungsten which is often the material chosen for the
ate
target or anode of the X-ray tube.
Both ways of making X-rays involve a change in the state of electrons. However,
Bremsstrahlung is easier to understand using the classical idea that radiation is emitted
when the velocity of the electron shot at the tungsten target changes. The negatively
yM
ls
charged electron slows down after swinging around the nucleus of a positively charged
oo
tungsten atom and this energy loss produces X-radiation. Electrons are scattered
dT
elastically or inelastically by the positively charged nucleus. The inelastically scattered
an
er
electron loses energy, and thus produces X-ray photon, while the elastically scattered
rit
electrons generally change their direction significantly but without loosing much of
W
ee
their energy.
Fr
ud rw
ith
Bremsstrahlung Radiation
ito
Ed
The Bremsstrahlung photons generated within the target material are attenuated as
they pass through, typically, 50 microns of target material. The beam is further
attenuated by the aluminum or beryllium vacuum window. The results are the
Li
elimination of the low energy photons, 1 keV through 15 keV, and a significant
reduction in the portion of the spectrum from 15 keV through 50 keV. The spectrum
from an X-ray tube is further modified by the filtration caused by the selection of filters
used in the setup.
l
closed “shells” of different energies. The K-shell is the
ria
lowest energy state of an atom. An incoming electron
can give a K-shell electron enough energy to knock it out
of its energy state. About 0.1% of the electrons produce
K-shell vacancies; most produce heat. Then, a tungsten
ate
electron of higher energy (from an outer shell) can fall
into the K-shell. The energy lost by the falling electron
shows up as an emitted X-ray photon. Meanwhile,
higher energy electrons fall into the vacated energy state in the outer shell, and so on.
yM
ls
After losing an electron, an atom remains ionized for a very short time (about 10-14
oo
dT
second) and thus an atom can be repeatedly ionized by the incident electrons which
arrive about every 10-12 second. Generally, K-shell emission produces higher-intensity
an
er
X-rays than Bremsstrahlung, and the X-ray photon comes out at a single wavelength.
rit
W
ee
Fr
ud ith
Gamma Radiation
rw
ito
Gamma radiation is one of the three types of natural radioactivity. Gamma rays are
Ed
electromagnetic radiation just like X-rays. The other two types of natural radioactivity
St F
are alpha and beta radiation, which are in the form of particles. Gamma rays are the
PD
Gamma radiation is the product of radioactive atoms. Depending upon the ratio of
ary
Alpha Particles
Certain radioactive materials of high atomic mass
l
(such as Ra-226, U-238, Pu-239), decay by the
ria
emission of alpha particles. These alpha particles are
tightly bound units of two neutrons and two protons
each (He-4 nucleus) and have a positive charge.
Emission of an alpha particle from the nucleus results
ate
in a decrease of two units of atomic number (Z) and
four units of mass number (A). Alpha particles are
emitted with discrete energies characteristic of the
particular transformation from which they originate.
yM
All alpha particles from a particular radionuclide
ls
oo
transformation will have identical energies.
dT
an
er
Beta Particles
rit
W
A nucleus with an unstable ratio of neutrons to
ee
Fr
Gamma-rays
br
A nucleus which is in an excited state (unstable nucleus) may emit one or more
photons of discrete energies. The emission of gamma rays does not alter the number
Li
of protons or neutrons in the nucleus but instead has the effect of moving the nucleus
from a higher to a lower energy state (unstable to stable). Gamma ray emission
frequently follows beta decay, alpha decay, and other nuclear decay processes.
l
The quantity which expresses the radiation producing potential of a given amount of
radioactive material is called “Activity”. The Curie (Ci) was originally defined as that
ria
amount of any radioactive material that disintegrates at the same rate as one gram of
pure radium. The International System (SI)
unit for activity is the Becquerel (Bq), which is
ate
that quantity of radioactive material in which
one atom is transformed per second. The
radioactivity of a given amount of radioactive
material does not depend upon the mass of
material present. For example, two one-curie
yM
ls
oo
sources of the same radioactive material
dT
might have very different masses depending
an
upon the relative proportion of non-
er
rit
radioactive atoms present in each source. W
ee
number of Curies or Becquerels per unit mass or volume. Each gram of Cobalt-60 will
rw
ito
contain approximately 50 Ci. Iridium-192 will contain 350 Ci for every gram of material.
Ed
The higher specific activity of iridium results in physically smaller sources. This allows
St F
technicians to place the source in closer proximity to the film while maintaining the
PD
In order to find the remaining activity of a certain material with a known half-life value
after a certain period of time, the following formula may be used. The formula
l
calculates the decay fraction (or the remaining fraction of the initial activity) as:
ria
Where;
ate
: decay fraction (i.e., remaining fraction of the initial activity)
: Half-Life value (hours, days, years, etc.)
: Elapsed time (hours, days, years, etc.)
yM
ls
oo
Or alternatively, the equitation can be solved to find the time required for activity to
dT
decay to a certain level as:
an
er
rit
W
ee
Fr
ud rw
ith
energy levels and at different rates. It is important to understand the terms used to
ll
Radiation Energy
The energy of the radiation is responsible for its ability to penetrate matter. Higher
energy radiation can penetrate more and higher density matter than low energy
radiation. The energy of ionizing radiation is measured in electronvolts (eV). One
br
industrial Gamma ray sources. These isotopes emit radiation in two or three discreet
wavelengths. Cobalt-60 will emit 1.17 and 1.33 MeV gamma rays, and Iridium-192 will
l
emit 0.31, 0.47, and 0.60 MeV gamma rays. It can be seen from these values that the
ria
energy of radiation coming from Co-60 is more than twice the energy of the radiation
coming from the Ir-192. From a radiation safety point of view, this difference in energy
is important because the Co-60 has more material penetrating power and, therefore, is
more dangerous and requires more shielding.
ate
Intensity and Exposure
Radiation intensity is the amount of energy passing through a given area that is
yM
perpendicular to the direction of radiation travel in a given unit of time. One way to
ls
oo
measure the intensity of X-rays or gamma rays is to measure the amount of ionization
dT
they cause in air. The amount of ionization in air produced by the radiation is called the
an
exposure. Exposure is expressed in terms of a scientific unit called a Roentgen (R). The
er
unit roentgen is equal to the amount of radiation that ionizes 1 cm3 of dry air (at 0°C
rit
W
and standard atmospheric pressure) to one electrostatic unit of charge, of either sign.
ee
Fr
ud
Most portable radiation detection safety devices used by radiographers measure
ith
Ionization
ll
Fi
PD
As penetrating radiation moves from point to point in matter, it loses its energy
ary
through various interactions with the atoms it encounters. The rate at which this
energy loss occurs depends upon the type and energy of the radiation and the density
and atomic composition of the matter through which it is passing.
The various types of penetrating radiation impart their energy to matter primarily
br
through excitation and ionization of orbital electrons. The term “excitation” is used to
describe an interaction where electrons acquire energy from a passing charged particle
but are not removed completely from their atom. Excited electrons may subsequently
Li
emit energy in the form of X-rays during the process of returning to a lower energy
state. The term “ionization” refers to the complete removal of an electron from an
atom following the transfer of energy from a passing charged particle.
Because of their double charge and relatively slow velocity, alpha particles have a
relatively short range in matter (a few centimeters in air and only fractions of a
l
millimeter in tissue). Beta particles have, generally, a greater range.
ria
Since they have no charge, gamma-rays and X-rays
proceeds through matter until there is a chance of
interaction with a particle. If the particle is an
electron, it may receive enough energy to be
ate
ionized, whereupon it causes further ionization by
direct interactions with other electrons. As a result,
gamma-rays and X-rays can cause the liberation of
electrons deep inside a medium. As a result, a given
yM
ls
gamma or X-ray has a definite probability of
oo
dT
passing through any medium of any depth.
an
er
rit
W
Newton's Inverse Square Law
ee
Fr
ud
Any point source which spreads its influence equally in
ith
rw
above. The relation between intensity and distance according to the inverse square law
can be expresses as:
Li
All measures of exposure or dose rate will drop off by the inverse square law. For
example, if the received dose of radiation is 100 mR/hr at 2 cm from a source, it will be
l
0.01 mR/hr at 2 m.
ria
Interaction between Penetrating Radiation and Matter (Attenuation)
ate
When X-rays or gamma rays are directed into an
object, some of the photons interact with the
particles of the matter and their energy can be
absorbed or scattered. This absorption and
yM
scattering is called “Attenuation”. Other photons
ls
oo
travel completely through the object without
dT
interacting with any of the material's particles. The
an
number of photons transmitted through a material
er
rit
depends on the thickness, density and atomic W
number of the material, and the energy of the
ee
Fr
ud
individual photons.
ith
rw
Even when they have the same energy, photons travel different distances within a
ito
material simply based on the probability of their encounter with one or more of the
Ed
Where;
l
: initial (unattenuated) intensity
ria
: linear attenuation coefficient per unit distance
: distance traveled through the matter
ate
The “linear attenuation coefficient” ( ) describes the fraction of a beam of X-rays or
gamma rays that is absorbed or scattered per unit thickness of the absorber (10% per
cm thickness for the previous example).
yM
Using the transmitted intensity equation above, linear attenuation coefficients can be
ls
oo
used to make a number of calculations. These include:
dT
an
The intensity of the energy transmitted through a material when the incident X-
er
rit
ray intensity, the material and the material thickness are known.
W
The intensity of the incident X-ray energy when the transmitted X-ray intensity,
ee
The thickness of the material when the incident and transmitted intensity, and the
rw
The material can be determined from the value of when the incident and
Ed
St
often easier to locate attenuation data in terms of the “mass attenuation coefficient”.
Tables and graphs of the mass attenuation coefficients for chemical elements and for
ary
several compounds and mixtures as a function of radiation energy (in keV) are
available in literature (such information can be found at the National Institute for
Standards and Technology website).
Since a linear attenuation coefficient is dependent on the density of a material, the
br
mass attenuation coefficient is often reported for convenience. Consider water for
example. The linear attenuation for water vapor is much lower than it is for ice
because the molecules are more spread out in vapor so the chance of a photon
Li
Half-Value Layer
l
The thickness of any given material where 50% of the incident energy has been
attenuated is known as the half-value layer (HVL). The HVL is expressed in units of
ria
distance (mm or cm). Like the attenuation coefficient, it is photon energy dependant.
Increasing the penetrating energy of a stream of photons will result in an increase in a
material's HVL.
ate
The HVL is inversely proportional to the attenuation coefficient. If an incident energy of
1 and a transmitted energy of 0.5 are plugged into the intensity attenuation equation
introduced earlier, solving for which will correspond to the HVL gives:
yM
ls
oo
dT
an
er
The HVL is often used in radiography simply because
it is easier to remember values and perform simple rit
W
ee
Approximate HVL for various materials when radiation is from a gamma-ray source:
Half-Value Layer (mm)
l
ria
Concrete Steel Lead Tungsten Uranium
Source
Iridium-192 44.5 12.7 4.8 3.3 2.8
Cobalt-60 60.5 21.6 12.5 7.9 6.9
ate
Approximate HVL for some materials when radiation is from an X-ray source:
yM
ls
oo
X-ray Tube Voltage
dT
Lead Concrete
(kV)
an
50 0.06 4.32
er
rit
W
100 0.27 15.10
ee
Sources of Attenuation
The attenuation that results due to the interaction between penetrating radiation and
matter is not a simple process. A single interaction event between a primary X-ray
br
photon and a particle of matter does not usually result in the photon changing to some
other form of energy and effectively disappearing. Several interaction events are
usually involved and the total attenuation is the sum of the attenuation due to
Li
state with the emission of an X-ray characteristic of the atom. This subsequent
emission of lower energy photons is generally
l
absorbed and does not contribute to (or hinder) the
ria
image making process. Photoelectron absorption is
the dominant process for X-ray absorption up to
energies of about 500 keV. Photoelectric absorption
is also dominant for atoms of high atomic numbers.
ate
Compton scattering (C) occurs when the incident X-ray photon is deflected from its
original path by an interaction with an electron. The electron gains energy and is
ejected from its orbital position. The X-ray photon
yM
loses energy due to the interaction but continues
ls
oo
to travel through the material along an altered
dT
path. Since the scattered X-ray photon has less
an
energy, it, therefore, has a longer wavelength
er
rit
than the incident photon. W
ee
Pair production (PP) can occur when the X-ray photon energy is greater than 1.02
Fr
ud ith
MeV, but really only becomes significant at energies around 10 MeV. Pair
rw
production occurs when an electron and positron are created with the annihilation
ito
of the X-ray photon. Positrons are very short lived and disappear (positron
Ed
St
atomic number.
X-ray Generators
Li
The major components of an X-ray generator are the tube, the high voltage generator,
the control console, and the cooling system. As discussed earlier in this material, X-rays
are generated by directing a stream of high speed electrons at a target material such as
tungsten, which has a high atomic number. When the electrons are slowed or stopped
by the interaction with the atomic particles of the target, X-radiation is produced. This
is accomplished in an X-ray tube such as the one shown in the figure.
l
The tube cathode (filament) is heated with a low-voltage current of a few amps. The
ria
filament heats up and the electrons in the wire become loosely held. A large electrical
potential is created between the cathode and the anode by the high-voltage
generator. Electrons that break free of the cathode are strongly attracted to the anode
target. The stream of electrons between the cathode and the anode is the tube
ate
current. The tube current is measured in
milliamps and is controlled by regulating
the low-voltage heating current applied to
the cathode. The higher the temperature
yM
ls
of the filament, the larger the number of
oo
dT
electrons that leave the cathode and travel
an
to the anode. The milliamp or current
er
setting on the control console regulates
rit
W
the filament temperature, which relates to
ee
the speed at which the electrons travel and strike the anode.
ito
Ed
A focusing cup is used to concentrate the stream of electrons to a small area of the
target called the “focal spot”. The focal spot size is an important factor in the system's
ability to produce a sharp image. Much of the energy applied to the tube is
transformed into heat at the focal spot of the anode. As mentioned above, the anode
target is commonly made from tungsten, which has a high melting point in addition to
Page No. 222 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
a high atomic number. However, cooling of the anode by active or passive means is
necessary. Water or oil re-circulating systems are often used to cool tubes. Some low
l
power tubes are cooled simply with the use of thermally conductive materials and heat
ria
radiating fins.
In order to prevent the cathode from burning up and to prevent arcing between the
anode and the cathode, all of the oxygen is removed from the tube by pulling a
vacuum. Some systems have external vacuum pumps to remove any oxygen that may
ate
have leaked into the tube. However, most industrial X-ray tubes simply require a
warm-up procedure to be followed. This warm-up procedure carefully raises the tube
current and voltage to slowly burn any of the available oxygen before the tube is
operated at high power.
yM
ls
oo
In addition, X-ray generators usually have a filter along the beam path (placed at or
dT
near the x-ray port). Filters consist of a thin sheet of material (often high atomic
an
number materials such as lead, copper, or brass) placed in the useful beam to modify
er
rit
the spatial distribution of the beam. Filtration is required to absorb the lower-energy
W
X-ray photons emitted by the tube before they reach the target in order to produce a
ee
Fr
ud
cleaner image (since lower energy X-ray photons tend to scatter more).
ith
rw
of the source material. As the material gets rid of the neutron, energy is released in the
form of gamma rays. Two of the most common industrial gamma-ray sources for
industrial radiography are Iridium-192 and Cobalt-60. In comparison to an X-ray
generator, Cobalt-60 produces energies comparable to a 1.25 MV X-ray system and
Iridium-192 to a 460 kV X-ray system. These high energies make it possible to
penetrate thick materials with a relatively short exposure time. This and the fact that
Page No. 223 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
sources are very portable are the main reasons that gamma sources are widely used
for field radiography. Of course, the disadvantage of a radioactive source is that it can
l
never be turned off and safely managing the source is a constant responsibility.
ria
Physical size of isotope materials varies between manufacturers, but generally an
isotope material is a pellet that measures 1.5 mm x 1.5 mm. Depending on the level of
activity desired, a pellet or pellets are
loaded into a stainless steel capsule
ate
and sealed by welding. The capsule is
attached to short flexible cable called
a pigtail.
yM
The source capsule and the pigtail are housed in a
ls
oo
shielding device referred to as a exposure device or
dT
camera. Depleted uranium is often used as a
an
shielding material for sources. The exposure device
er
for Iridium-192 and Cobalt-60 sources will contain rit
W
22 kg and 225 kg of shielding materials,
ee
Fr
ud
respectively. Cobalt cameras are often fixed to a
ith
When the source is not being used to make an exposure, it is locked inside the
ito
Ed
exposure device.
St PD
F
attached to opposite ends of the exposure device. The guide tube often has a
Fi
PD
device and into position in the collimator at the end of the guide tube. At the end of
the exposure time, the source is cranked back into the exposure device. There is a
series of safety procedures, which include several radiation surveys, that must be
accomplished when making an exposure with a gamma source.
l
ria
ate
yM
ls
oo
dT
an
er
rit
W
ee
Fr
ud ith
Radiographic Film
rw
ito
radiation-sensitive silver halide crystals (such as silver bromide or silver chloride). The
F
PD
layers about 0.012 mm thick. An adhesive undercoat fastens the emulsion to the film
Fi
PD
base and a very thin but tough coating covers the emulsion to protect it against minor
ary
abrasion. The typical total thickness of the X-ray film is approximately 0.23 mm.
Though films are made to be sensitive for X-ray or gamma-ray, yet they are also
sensitive to visible light. When X-rays,
gamma-rays, or light strike the film, some
of the halogen atoms are liberated from
br
Film Selection
Selecting the proper film and developing the optimal radiographic technique for a
l
particular component depends on a number of different factors;
ria
Composition, shape, and size of the part being examined and, in some cases, its
weight and location.
Type of radiation used, whether X-rays from an X-ray generator or gamma rays
from a radioactive source.
ate
Kilovoltage available with the X-ray equipment or the intensity of the gamma
radiation.
Relative importance of high radiographic detail or quick and economical results.
yM
ls
oo
Film Packaging
dT
Radiographic film can be purchased in a number of different packaging options and
an
er
they are available in a variety of sizes. The most basic form is as individual sheets in a
rit
box. In preparation for use, each sheet must be loaded into a cassette or film holder in
W
ee
Industrial X-ray films are also available in a form in which each sheet is enclosed in a
rw
light-tight envelope. The film can be exposed from either side without removing it
ito
from the protective packaging. A rip strip makes it easy to remove the film in the
Ed
St
Packaged film is also available in the form of rolls where that allows the radiographer
ll
Fi
PD
to cut the film to any length. The ends of the packaging are sealed with electrical tape
in the darkroom. In applications such as the radiography of circumferential welds and
ary
the examination of long joints on an aircraft fuselage, long lengths of film offer great
economic advantage.
Film Handling
br
X-ray film should always be handled carefully to avoid physical strains, such as
pressure, creasing, buckling, friction, etc. Whenever films are loaded in semi-flexible
holders and external clamping devices are used, care should be taken to be sure
Li
pressure is uniform. Marks resulting from contact with fingers that are moist or
contaminated with processing chemicals, as well as crimp marks, are avoided if large
films are always grasped by the edges and allowed to hang free. Use of envelope-
packed films avoids many of these problems until the envelope is opened for
processing.
Page No. 226 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
l
ria
Radiographic Sensitivity
The usual objective in radiography is to produce an image showing the highest amount
of detail possible. This requires careful control of a number of different variables that
ate
can affect image quality. Radiographic sensitivity is a measure of the quality of an
image in terms of the smallest detail or discontinuity that may be detected.
Radiographic sensitivity is dependant on the contrast and the definition of the image.
Radiographic contrast is the degree of density (darkness)
yM
ls
difference between two areas on a radiograph. Contrast makes
oo
it easier to distinguish features of interest, such as defects, from
dT
the surrounding area. The image to the right shows two
an
er
radiographs of the same stepwedge. The upper radiograph has a
rit
high level of contrast and the lower radiograph has a lower level
W
ee
radiograph.
PD
ll
Fi
Radiographic definition is the abruptness of change in going from one area of a given
PD
radiographic density to another. Like contrast, definition also makes it easier to see
ary
l
After taking a radiographic image of a part and processing the film, the resulting
darkness of the film will vary according to the amount of radiation that has reached
ria
the film through the test object. As mentioned earlier, the darker areas indicate more
exposure and liter areas indicate less exposure. The processed film (or image) is usually
viewed by placing it in front of a screen providing white light illumination of uniform
ate
intensity such that the light is transmitted through the film such that the image can be
clearly seen. The term “radiographic density” is a measure of the degree of film
darkening (darkness of the image). Technically it should be called “transmitted density”
when associated with transparent-base film since it is a measure of the light
transmitted through the film. Radiographic density is the logarithm of two
yM
ls
oo
measurements: the intensity of light incident on the film ( ) and the intensity of light
dT
transmitted through the film ( ). This ratio is the inverse of transmittance.
an
er
rit
W
ee
Fr
ud
Similar to the decibel, using the log of the ratio allows ratios of significantly different
ith
sizes to be described using easy to work with numbers. The following table shows
rw
ito
numeric examples of the relationship between the amount of transmitted light and the
Ed
1.0 100% 1 0
ary
0.1 10% 10 1
0.01 1% 100 2
0.001 0.1% 1000 3
0.0001 0.01% 10000 4
br
From the table, it can be seen that a density reading of 2.0 is the result of only one
percent of the incident light making it through the film. At a density of 4.0 only 0.01%
of transmitted light reaches the far side of the film. Industrial codes and standards
Li
typically require a radiograph to have a density between 2.0 and 4.0 for acceptable
viewing with common film viewers. Above 4.0, extremely bright viewing lights is
necessary for evaluation.
Film density is measured with a densitometer which simply measures the amount of
light transmitted through a piece of film using a photovoltic sensor.
Page No. 228 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
l
consideration when producing a radiograph. The scattered
ria
photons create a loss of contrast and definition. Often, secondary
radiation is thought of as radiation striking the film reflected from
an object in the immediate area, such as a wall, or from the table
or floor where the part is resting.
ate
Control of side scatter can be achieved by moving objects in the
room away from the film, moving the X-ray tube to the center of
the vault, or placing a collimator at the exit port, thus reducing
yM
the diverging radiation surrounding the central beam.
ls
oo
dT
When scarered radiation comes from objects behind the film, it is often called
an
“backscatter”. Industry codes and standards often require
er
rit
that a lead letter “B” be placed on the back of the cassette
W
to verify the control of backscatter. If the letter “B” shows
ee
from the lead “B” located on the back side of the film.
F
PD
The control of backscatter radiation is achieved by backing the film in the cassette with
ll
Fi
a sheet of lead that is at least 0.25 mm thick such that the sheet will be behind the film
PD
(called “lead screens”) in front and behind the film (0.125 mm thick in front and 0.25
mm thick behind).
br
Radiographic Contrast
As mentioned previously, radiographic contrast describes the differences in
photographic density in a radiograph. The contrast between different parts of the
Li
image is what forms the image and the greater the contrast, the more visible features
become. Radiographic contrast has two main contributors; subject contrast and film
(or detector) contrast.
Subject Contrast
Subject contrast is the ratio of radiation intensities transmitted through different areas
l
of the component being evaluated. It is dependant on the absorption differences in the
ria
component, the wavelength of the primary radiation, and intensity and distribution of
secondary radiation due to scattering.
It should be no surprise that absorption differences within the subject will affect the
ate
level of contrast in a radiograph. The larger the difference in thickness or density
between two areas of the subject, the larger the difference in radiographic density or
contrast. However, it is also possible to radiograph a
particular subject and produce two radiographs
yM
having entirely different contrast levels. Generating
ls
oo
X-rays using a low kilovoltage will generally result in
dT
a radiograph with high contrast. This occurs because
an
low energy radiation is more easily attenuated.
er
Therefore, the ratio of photons that are transmitted rit
W
through a thick and thin area will be greater with
ee
Fr
ud
low energy radiation.
ith
rw
thickness that can be imaged. This means that more areas of different thicknesses will
F
PD
be visible in the image. Therefore, the goal is to balance radiographic contrast and
ll
latitude so that there is enough contrast to identify the features of interest but also to
Fi
PD
make sure the latitude is great enough so that all areas of interest can be inspected
ary
with one radiograph. In thick parts with a large range of thicknesses, multiple
radiographs will likely be necessary to get the necessary density levels in all areas.
Film Contrast
br
Film contrast refers to density differences that result due to the type of film being
used, how it was exposed, and how it was processed. Since there are other detectors
besides film, this could be called detector contrast, but the focus here will be on film.
Li
Exposing a film to produce higher film densities will generally increase the contrast in
the radiograph.
A typical film characteristic curve, which shows how a film responds to different
amounts of radiation exposure, is shown in the figue. From the shape of the curves, it
can be seen that when the film has not seen many photon interactions (which will
Page No. 230 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
result in a low film density) the slope of the curve is low. In this region of the curve, it
takes a large change in exposure to produce a small change in film density. Therefore,
l
the sensitivity of the film is relatively low. It can be
ria
seen that changing the log of the relative exposure
from 0.75 to 1.4 only changes the film density from
0.20 to about 0.30. However, at film densities above
2.0, the slope of the characteristic curve for most
ate
films is at its maximum. In this region of the curve, a
relatively small change in exposure will result in a
relatively large change in film density. For example,
changing the log of relative exposure from 2.4 to 2.6
would change the film density from 1.75 to 2.75.
yM
ls
oo
Therefore, the sensitivity of the film is high in this
dT
region of the curve. In general, the highest overall
an
film density that can be conveniently viewed or
er
rit
digitized will have the highest level of contrast and W
contain the most useful information.
ee
Fr
ud
As mentioned previously, thin lead sheets (called “lead screens”) are typically placed
ith
rw
on both sides of the radiographic film during the exposure (the film is placed between
ito
the lead screens and inserted inside the cassette). Lead screens in the thickness range
Ed
of 0.1 to 0.4 mm typically reduce scatter radiation at energy levels below 150 kV.
St PD
F
Above this energy level, they will emit electrons to provide more exposure of the film,
ll
Other type of screens called “fluorescent screens” can alternatively be used where
ary
they produce visible light when exposed to radiation and this light further exposes the
film and increases density and contrast.
Radiographic Definition
br
Geometric Factors
The loss of definition resulting from geometric factors of the radiographic equipment
and setup is refered to as “geometric unsharpness”. It occurs because the radiation
Page No. 231 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
does not originate from a single point but rather over an area. The three factors
controlling unsharpness are source size, source to object distance, and object to
l
detector (film) distance. The effects of these three factors on image defenetion is
ria
illustrated by the images below (source size effect; compare A & B, source to object
distance; compare B & D, and object to detector distance; compare B & C).
ate
yM
ls
oo
dT
an
er
rit
W
ee
Fr
ud Ed
rw
ito
ith
St
PD
Fi
PD
ll
F
ary
unsharpness can also be decreased by increasing the source to object distance, but this
comes with a reduction in radiation intensity. The object to detector distance is usually
kept as small as possible to help minimize unsharpness. However, there are situations,
Li
such as when using geometric enlargement, when the object is separated from the
detector, which will reduce the definition.
In general, in order to produce the highest level of definition, the focal-spot or source
size should be as close to a point source as possible, the source-to-object distance
l
Codes and standards used in industrial radiography require that geometric
ria
unsharpness be limited. In general, the allowable amount is 1/100 of the material
thickness up to a maximum of 1 mm. These values refer to the width of penumbra
shadow in a radiographic image.
ate
The amount of geometric unsharpness ( ) can be
calculated using the following geometric formula:
yM
ls
oo
Where;
dT
: source focal-spot size
an
: distance from the source to the front surface
er
rit
of the object W
: distance from the front surface of the object
ee
Fr
ud
to the detector (or the thickness of the object
ith
will be a cord that passes through its centerline. As the cord is moved away from the
centerline, the thickness gradually decreases. It is sometimes difficult to locate the
edge of a void due to this gradual change in thickness.
Li
Lastly, any movement of the specimen, source or detector during the exposure will
reduce definition. Similar to photography, any movement will result in blurring of the
image. Vibration from nearby equipment may be an issue in some inspection
situations.
Page No. 233 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
l
film is capable of producing an image with a higher level of definition than is a coarse
ria
grain film. Wavelength of the radiation will influence apparent graininess. As the
wavelength shortens and penetration increases, the apparent graininess of the film will
increase. Also, increased development of the film will increase the apparent graininess
of the radiograph.
ate
The use of fluorescent screens also results in lower definition. This occurs for a couple
of different reasons. The reason that fluorescent screens are sometimes used is
because incident radiation causes them to give off light that helps to expose the film.
yM
However, the light they produce spreads in all directions, exposing the film in adjacent
ls
oo
areas, as well as in the areas which are in direct contact with the incident radiation.
dT
Fluorescent screens also produce screen mottle on radiographs. Screen mottle is
an
associated with the statistical variation in the numbers of photons that interact with
er
the screen from one area to the next. rit
W
ee
Fr
ud ith
In film radiography, the number of photons reaching the film determines how dense
Ed
St
the film will become when other factors such as the developing time are held constant.
F
PD
The number of photons reaching the film is a function of the intensity of the radiation
ll
Fi
and the time that the film is exposed to the radiation. The term used to describe the
PD
used. Relative exposure is the ratio of two exposures. For example, if one film is
exposed at 100 kV for 6 mA.min and a second film is exposed at the same energy for 3
l
mA.min, then the relative exposure would be 2.
ria
The location of the characteristic curves of different films along the x-axis relates to the
speed of the film. The farther to the right that a curve is on the chart, the slower the
film speed (Film A has the highest speed while film C has the lowest speed). The shape
of the characteristic curve is largely independent of the wavelength of the X-ray or
ate
gamma ray, but the location of the curve along the x-axis, with respect to the curve of
another film, does depend on radiation quality.
Film characteristic curves can be used to adjust the exposure used to produce a
yM
radiograph with a certain density to an exposure that will produce a second radiograph
ls
oo
of higher or lower film density. The curves can also be used to relate the exposure
dT
produced with one type of film to exposure needed to produce a radiograph of the
an
same density with a second type of film.
er
rit
W
Example 1: Adjusting the Exposure to Produce a Different Film Density
ee
Fr
ud
A type B Film was exposed with 140 kV at 1 mA for 10 seconds (i.e., 10 mA.s) and
ith
the resulting radiograph had a density of 1.0. If the desired density is 2.5, what
rw
From the graph, the log of the relative exposure of a density of 1.0 is 1.62 and the log
F
PD
of the relative exposure when the density of the film is 2.5 is 2.12.
ll
10 0.5 = 3.16
ary
l
log of the relative exposure that produces the same
ria
density on Film B is 2.12.
The difference between the two values is 0.3.
10 0.3 = 2
So the exposure for Film B must be:
ate
30 mA.s x 2 = 60 mA.s (at 130 kV)
Exposure Calculations
yM
Properly exposing a radiograph is often a trial and error process, as there are many
ls
oo
variables that affect the final radiograph. Some of the variables that affect the density
dT
of the radiograph include:
an
er
rit
The spectrum of radiation produced by the X-ray generator.
W
The voltage potential used to generate the X-rays (kV).
ee
Fr
Ed
F
The thickness of the material that the radiation must travel through.
PD
The concentration of the film processing chemicals and the contact time.
The current industrial practice is to develop a procedure that produces an acceptable
density by trail for each specific X-ray generator. This process may begin using
published exposure charts to determine a starting exposure, which usually requires
br
some refinement.
However, it is possible to calculate the density of a radiograph to an acceptable degree
Li
of accuracy when the spectrum of an X-ray generator has been characterized. The
calculation cannot completely account for scattering but, otherwise, the relationship
between many of the variables and their effect on film density is known. Therefore,
the change in film density can be estimated for any given variable change. For
example, from Newton's Inverse Square Law, it is known that the intensity of the
radiation varies inversely with the square of the distance from the source. It is also
Page No. 236 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
known that the intensity of the radiation transmitted through a material varies
exponentially with the linear attenuation coefficient and the thickness of the material.
l
By calculating the intensity from these equations one can directly calculate the
ria
required exposure knowing that the exposure is inversely related to the intensity as:
The figure below shows exemplary exposure charts for two materials for a specific X-
ate
ray generator for the flowing parameters: film density of 2.0 without screens, 910 mm
source-to-film distance, Industrex AA film & 7 minutes development time.
yM
ls
oo
dT
an
er
rit
W
ee
Fr
ud Ed
rw
ito
ith
St
PD
Fi
PD
ll
F
For gamma-ray sources, however, the required exposure can be more easily calculated
ary
since the radiation spectrum is well known for each different radiation source. The
exposure is usually expressed in
Curie-Time units and the data
can be represented in the form
of chars or in tabulated form.
br
It should be noted that such charts are valid for the specified parameters, but of course
using the data in the charts one can calculate the exposure for different set of
l
parameters such as different source-to-film distance, different type of film, or different
ria
density.
Example 1:
ate
A 25 mm thick Aluminum plate is to be radiographed on type C film without screens
using X-ray generator at 80 kV and 500 mm distance. What is the minimum required
exposure time to get 3.0 density (for same development parameters as used for the
chart, and considering the film used for the chart to be type A) knowing that the max
current setting for the X-ray machine is 20 mA?
yM
ls
oo
Answer: 190 s
dT
an
Example 2:
er
rit
A 12.5 mm thick Steel plate is to be radiographed without screens using Ir-192 source
W
at 455 mm distance. Knowing that the source activity was 100 Ci before 30 days, what
ee
is the required exposure time (for same density, film type, and development parameters
Fr
ud
as used for the chart) if the plate is to be place behind a 50 mm thick concrete wall
ith
Answer: 104 s
Ed
St Fi
PD
ll
F
To make such calculations more easy, radiographic modeling calculators and programs
PD
l
image quality indicators (IQIs), which are also referred to as penetrameters. IQIs
ria
provide means of visually informing the film interpreter of the contrast sensitivity and
definition of the radiograph. The IQI indicates that a specified amount of change in
material thickness will be detectable in the radiograph, and that the radiograph has a
certain level of definition so that the density changes are not lost due to unsharpness.
ate
Without such a reference point, consistency and quality could not be maintained and
defects could go undetected.
IQIs should be placed on the source side of the part over a section with a material
yM
thickness equivalent to the region of interest. If this is not possible, the IQI may be
ls
oo
placed on a block of similar material and thickness to the region of interest. When a
dT
block is used, the IQI should be the same distance from the film as it would be if placed
an
directly on the part in the region of interest. The IQI
er
should also be placed slightly away from the edge of rit
W
the part so that at least three of its edges are visible
ee
Fr
ud
in the radiograph.
ith
rw
Image quality indicators take many shapes and forms due to the various codes or
ito
standards that invoke their use. The two most commonly used IQI types are: the hole-
Ed
St
type and the wire IQIs. IQIs come in a variety of material types so that one with
F
PD
used.
Fi
PD
ary
Hole-Type IQIs
ASTM Standard E1025 gives detailed requirements for the design and material group
classification of hole-type image quality indicators. Hole-type IQIs are classified in eight
groups based on their radiation absorption characteristics.
br
Wire IQIs
ASTM Standard E747 covers the radiographic examination of
l
materials using wire IQIs to control image quality. Wire IQIs consist
ria
of a set of six wires arranged in order of increasing diameter and
encapsulated between two sheets of clear plastic. Wire IQIs are
grouped in four sets each having different range of wire diameters.
The set letter (A, B, C or D) is shown in the lower right corner of
ate
the IQI. The number in the lower left corner indicates the material
group.
yM
ls
Film Processing
oo
dT
As mentioned previously, radiographic film consists of a transparent, blue-tinted base
an
er
coated on both sides with an emulsion. The emulsion consists of gelatin containing
rit
microscopic, radiation sensitive silver halide crystals, such as silver bromide and silver
W
ee
chloride. When X-rays, gamma rays or light rays strike the crystals or grains, some of
Fr
ud
the Br- ions are liberated leaving the Ag+ ions. In this condition, the radiograph is said
ith
to contain a latent (hidden) image because the change in the grains is virtually
rw
ito
undetectable, but the exposed grains are now more sensitive to reaction with the
Ed
developer.
St PD
F
When the film is processed, it is exposed to several different chemical solutions for
ll
Fi
controlled periods of time. Film processing basically involves the following five steps:
PD
Development: The developing agent gives up electrons to convert the silver halide
ary
grains to metallic silver. Grains that have been exposed to the radiation develop
more rapidly, but given enough time the developer will convert all the silver ions
into silver metal. Proper temperature control is needed to convert exposed grains
to pure silver while keeping unexposed grains as silver halide crystals.
br
Stopping the development: The stop bath simply stops the development process by
diluting and washing the developer away with water.
Li
Fixing: Unexposed silver halide crystals are removed by the fixing bath. The fixer
dissolves only silver halide crystals, leaving the silver metal behind.
Washing: The film is washed with water to remove all the processing chemicals.
Drying: The film is dried for viewing.
Page No. 240 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
l
automatically by machine, excellent radiographs require a high degree of consistency
ria
and quality control.
Viewing Radiographs
ate
After the film processing, radiographs are viewed
using a light-box (or they can be digitized and
viewed on a high resolution monitor) in order to be
interpreted. In addition to providing diffused,
yM
ls
oo
adjustable white illumination of uniform intensity,
dT
specialized industrial radiography light-boxes
an
include magnifying and masking aids. When
er
rit
handing the radiographs, thin cotton gloves should W
be worn to prevent fingerprints on the radiographs.
ee
Fr
ud Ed
rw
ito
ith
St
PD
Fi
PD
ll
F
ary
br
Li
RADIATION SAFETY
l
Radiation Health Risks
ria
As mentioned previously, the health risks associated with the radiation is considered to
be one the major disadvantages of radiogaphy. The amount of risk depends on the
amount of radiation dose received, the time over which the dose is received, and the
ate
body parts exposed. The fact that X-ray and gamma-ray radiation are not detectable by
the human senses complicates matters further. However, the risks can be minimized
and controlled when the radiation is handled and managed properly in accordance to
the radiation safety rules. The active laws all over the world require that individuals
yM
working in the field of radiography receive training on the safe handling and use of
ls
oo
radioactive materials and radiation producing devices.
dT
an
Today, it can be said that radiation ranks among the most thoroughly investigated (and
er
rit
somehow understood) causes of disease. The primary risk from occupational radiation
W
exposure is an increased risk of cancer. Although scientists assume low-level radiation
ee
exposure increases one's risk of cancer, medical studies have not demonstrated
Fr
ud ith
Type of radiation involved. All kinds of ionizing radiation can produce health effects.
ll
The main difference in the ability of alpha and beta particles and gamma and X-rays
Fi
PD
to cause health effects is the amount of energy they have. Their energy determines
ary
how far they can penetrate into tissue and how much energy they are able to
transmit directly or indirectly to tissues.
Size of dose received. The higher the dose of radiation received, the higher the
likelihood of health effects.
Rate at which the dose is received. Tissue can receive larger dosages over a period
br
of time. If the dosage occurs over a number of days or weeks, the results are often
not as serious if a similar dose was received in a matter of minutes.
Part of the body exposed. Extremities such as the hands or feet are able to receive a
Li
greater amount of radiation with less resulting damage than blood forming organs
housed in the upper body.
The age of the individual. As a person ages, cell division slows and the body is less
sensitive to the effects of ionizing radiation. Once cell division has slowed, the
effects of radiation are somewhat less damaging than when cells were rapidly
dividing.
Biological differences. Some individuals are more sensitive to radiation than others.
l
ria
Studies have not been able to conclusively determine the cause of such differences.
ate
There are many sources of harmful, high energy radiation. Industrial radiographers are
mainly concerned with exposure from X-ray generators and radioactive isotopes.
However, it is important to understand
that eighty percent of human exposure
yM
comes from natural sources such as
ls
oo
radon gas, outer space, rocks and soil,
dT
and the human body. The remaining
an
twenty percent comes from man-made
er
rit
radiation sources, such as those used W
in medical and dental diagnostic
ee
Fr
ud
procedures.
ith
rw
One source of natural radiation is cosmic radiation. The earth and all living things on it
ito
are constantly being bombarded by radiation from space. The sun and stars emit
Ed
electromagnetic radiation of all wavelengths. The dose from cosmic radiation varies in
St PD
F
different parts of the world due to differences in elevation and the effects of the
ll
earth’s magnetic field. Radioactive materials are also found throughout nature where
Fi
PD
they occur naturally in soil, water, plants and animals. The major isotopes of concern
ary
for terrestrial radiation are uranium and the decay products of uranium, such as
thorium, radium, and radon. Low levels of uranium, thorium, and their decay products
are found everywhere. Some of these materials are ingested with food and water,
while others, such as radon, are inhaled. The dose from terrestrial sources varies in
different parts of the world. Locations with higher concentrations of uranium and
br
thorium in their soil have higher dose levels. All people also have radioactive isotopes,
such as potassium-40 and carbon-14, inside their bodies. The variation in dose from
one person to another is not as great as the variation in dose from cosmic and
Li
terrestrial sources.
There are also a number of manmade radiation sources that present some exposure to
the public. Some of these sources include tobacco, television sets, smoke detectors,
combustible fuels, certain building materials, nuclear fuel for energy production,
nuclear weapons, medical and dental X-rays, nuclear medicine, X-ray security systems
Page No. 243 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
and industrial radiography. By far, the most significant source of man-made radiation
exposure to the average person is from medical procedures, such as diagnostic X-rays,
l
nuclear medicine, and radiation therapy.
ria
Measures Relative to the Biological Effects of Radiation Exposure
There are four measures of radiation that radiographers will commonly encounter
ate
when addressing the biological effects of working with X-rays or gamma-rays. These
measures are: Exposure, Dose, Dose Equivalent, and Dose Rate. A short description of
these measures and their units is given below
Exposure: Exposure is a measure of the strength of a radiation field at some point in
yM
air (the amount of charge produced in a unit mass of air when the interacting photons
ls
oo
are completely absorbed in that mass). This is the measure made by radiation survey
dT
meters since it can be easily and directly measured. The most commonly used unit of
an
er
exposure is the “roentgen” (R).
rit
W
Dose or Absorbed Dose: While exposure is defined for air, the absorbed dose is the
ee
Fr
amount of energy that ionizing radiation imparts to a given mass of matter. In other
ud ith
words, the dose is the amount of radiation absorbed by and object. The SI unit for
rw
absorbed dose is the “gray” (Gy), but the “rad” (Radiation Absorbed Dose) is
ito
commonly used (1 Gy = 100 rad). Different materials that receive the same exposure
Ed
St
may not absorb the same amount of radiation. In human tissue, one Roentgen of X-ray
F
PD
or gamma radiation exposure results in about one rad of absorbed dose. The size of
ll
Fi
the absorbed dose is dependent upon the intensity (or activity) of the radiation source,
PD
the distance from the source, and the time of exposure to radiation.
ary
Dose Equivalent: The dose equivalent relates the absorbed dose to the biological
effect of that dose. The absorbed dose of specific types of radiation is multiplied by a
“quality factor” to arrive at the dose equivalent. The SI unit is the “Sievert” (Sv), but the
“rem” (Roentgen Equivalent in Man) is commonly used (1 Sv = 100 rem). The table
br
Gamma Ray 1 1 1
Beta Particles 1 1 1
Thermal Neutrons 1 5 5
Fast Neutrons 1 10 10
Alpha Particles 1 20 20
Page No. 244 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Dose Rate: The dose rate is a measure of how fast a radiation dose is being received.
Dose rate is usually presented in terms of mR/hr, mrem/hr, rad/min, mGy/sec, etc.
l
Knowing the dose rate, allows the dose to be calculated for a period of time.
ria
Controlling Radiation Exposure
When working with radiation, there is a concern for two types of exposure: acute and
ate
chronic. An acute exposure is a single accidental exposure to a high dose of radiation
during a short period of time. An acute exposure has the potential for producing both
non-stochastic and stochastic effects. Chronic exposure, which is also sometimes called
“continuous exposure”, is long-term, low level overexposure. Chronic exposure may
yM
ls
result in stochastic health effects and is likely to be the result of improper or
oo
inadequate protective measures.
dT
an
The three basic ways of controlling exposure to harmful radiation are: 1) limiting the
er
rit
time spent near a source of radiation, 2) increasing the distance away from the source,
W
3) and using shielding to stop or reduce the level of radiation.
ee
Fr
ud Ed
rw
ito
ith
St
PD
Fi
PD
ll
F
ary
Time
The radiation dose is directly proportional to the time spent in the radiation.
br
Therefore, a person should not stay near a source of radiation any longer than
necessary. If a survey meter reads 4 mR/h at a particular location, a total dose of 4 mR
will be received if a person remains at that location for one hour. The
Li
received dose can be simply calculated as: Dose = Dose Rate x Time
When using a gamma camera, it is important to get the source from the
shielded camera to the collimator (a device that shields radiation in some
directions but allow it pass in one or more other directions) as quickly as
possible to limit the time of exposure to the unshielded source.
Page No. 245 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Distance
Increasing distance from the source of radiation will reduce
l
the amount of radiation received. As radiation travels from
ria
the source, it spreads out becoming less intense. This
phenomenon can be expressed by the Newton inverse
square law, which states that as the radiation travels out
from the source, the dosage decreases inversely with the
ate
square of the distance: I1 / I2 = D22/ D12
Shielding
The third way to reduce exposure to radiation is to place something between the
yM
ls
oo
radiographer and the source of radiation. In general, the more
dT
dense the material the more shielding it will provide. Lead and
an
concrete are the most commonly used radiation shielding materials
er
rit
primarily because they are easy to work with and are readily
W
available materials. Concrete is commonly used in the construction
ee
of radiation vaults. Some vaults will also be lined with lead sheeting
Fr
ud ith
Exposure Limits
PD
ll
guidelines established for radiation exposure have had two principal objectives: 1) to
prevent acute exposure; and 2) to limit chronic exposure to “acceptable” levels.
Current guidelines are based on the conservative assumption that there is no safe level
of exposure. This assumption has led to the general philosophy of not only keeping
br
exposures below recommended levels or regulation limits but also maintaining all
exposure “as low as reasonably achievable” (ALARA). ALARA is a basic requirement of
current radiation safety practices. It means that every reasonable effort must be made
Li
to keep the dose to workers and the public as far below the required limits as possible.
In general, most international radiation safety codes specify that the dose rate must
not exceed 2mR/hour in any unrestricted area. The specifications for the accumulated
dose per year differ between radiation workers and non-workers. The limits are as
follows:
Page No. 246 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
l
Most international codes set the annual limit of exposure for industrial radiographers
ria
who generally are not concerned with an intake of
radioactive material as follows:
1) the more limiting of:
ate
A total effective dose equivalent of 5 rem
(0.05 Sv)
or
The sum of the deep-dose equivalent to
yM
any individual organ or tissue other than
ls
oo
the lens of the eye being equal to 50 rem
dT
(0.5 Sv).
an
er
2) The annual limits to the lens of the eye, to rit
W
ee
The shallow-dose equivalent is the external dose to the skin of the whole-body or
ll
Fi
extremities from an external source of ionizing radiation. This value is the dose
PD
The lens dose equivalent is the dose equivalent to the lens of the eye from an
external source of ionizing radiation. This value is the dose equivalent at a tissue
depth of 0.3 cm.
The deep-dose equivalent is the whole-body dose from an external source of ionizing
br
(this is 10% of the dose limit that normally applies to radiation workers). The same limit
also applies to persons under the age of 18 years.
l
ria
Non-radiation Workers and the General Public
The dose limit to non-radiation workers and members of the public is only 2% of the
annual occupational dose limit. Therefore, a non-radiation worker can receive a whole
ate
body dose of no more that 0.1 rem/year from industrial ionizing radiation. This
exposure would be in addition to the 0.3 rem/year from natural background radiation
and the 0.05 rem/year from man-made sources such as medical X-rays.
yM
ls
oo
Over-Dose Health Symptoms
dT
an
Listed below are some of the probable prompt and delayed effects of certain doses of
er
rit
radiation when the doses are received by an individual within a twenty-four hour
W
period.
ee
Fr
ud
0-25 rem No injury evident. First detectable blood change at 5 rem.
ith
rw
St
400-500 rem Median Lethal Dose (MLD) 50% of exposures are fatal.
Fi
PD
l
because of poor health
ria
400 - 500 rem
First Day Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea, usually in the first few hours
ate
First Week Symptoms may continue
Second Week Epilation, loss of appetite
Third Week Hemorrhage, nosebleeds, inflammation of mouth and throat,
yM
ls
diarrhea, emaciation
oo
dT
Fourth Week Rapid emaciation and mortality rate around 50%
an
er
rit
W
Radiation Detectors
ee
Fr
ud ith
broad categories:
ito
Ed
Dose measuring instruments are those that measure the total amount of exposure
received during a measuring period. The dose measuring instruments, or dosimeters,
Li
that are commonly used in industrial radiography are small devices which are designed
to be worn by an individual to measure the exposure received by the individual. An
analogy can be made between these instruments and the odometer of a car because
both are measuring accumulated units.
Survey Meters
The survey meter is the most important resource a radiographer has
l
to determine the presence and intensity of radiation. There are many
ria
different models of survey meters available to measure radiation in
the field. They all basically consist of a detector and a readout
display. Analog and digital displays are available. Most of the survey
meters used for industrial radiography use a gas filled detector.
ate
Gas filled detectors consists of a gas filled cylinder with two electrodes having a voltage
applied to them. Whenever the device is brought near radioactive substances, the gas
becomes ionized. The electric field created by the potential difference between the
anode and cathode causes the electrons of each ion pair to move to the anode while
yM
ls
oo
the positively charged gas atom is drawn to the cathode. This results in an electrical
dT
signal that is amplified, correlated to exposure and displayed as a value.
an
er
Audible Alarm Rate Meters rit
W
ee
Fr
Audible alarms are devices that emit a short "beep" or "chirp" when a
ud ith
replacements for survey meters. Modern survey meters have this alarm
ary
in the pocket. The principal advantage of a pocket dosimeter is its ability to provide the
wearer an immediate reading of his or her radiation exposure. It also has the
advantage of being reusable. The limited range, inability to provide a permanent
Li
record, and the potential for discharging and reading loss due to dropping or bumping
are a few of the main disadvantages of a pocket dosimeter.
The two types commonly used in industrial radiography are the Direct Read Pocket
Dosimeter and the Digital Electronic Dosimeter.
l
fountain pen. The accumulated dose value can be read by pointing the instrument at a
ria
light source and observing the internal fiber
through a system of built-in lenses. The fiber is
viewed on a translucent scale which is graduated
in units of exposure. Typical industrial
ate
radiography pocket dosimeters have a full scale
reading of 200 mR but there are designs that will record
higher amounts. During the shift, the dosimeter reading
should be checked frequently. The measured exposure
should be recorded at the end of each shift.
yM
ls
oo
dT
Digital Electronic Dosimeter
an
These dosimeters measure both dose information and dose rate and
er
display them in digital form. Also, some Digital Electronic Dosimeters
rit
W
include an audible alarm feature which emits an audible signal or
ee
Film Badges
ll
Fi
rays and beta particles. The detector is, as the name implies, a
piece of radiation sensitive film. The film is packaged in a light
proof, vapor proof envelope preventing light, moisture or
chemical vapors from affecting the film. Film badges need to be
br
worn correctly so that the dose they receive accurately represents the dose the wearer
receives. Whole body badges are worn on the body between the neck and the waist,
often on the belt or a shirt pocket.
Li
The film is contained inside a film holder or badge. The badge incorporates a series of
filters to determine the quality of the radiation. Radiation of a given energy is
attenuated to a different extent by various types of absorbers. Therefore, the same
quantity of radiation incident on the badge will produce a different degree of
darkening under each filter. By comparing these results, the energy of the radiation
Page No. 251 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
l
open window to determine radiation exposure due to beta
ria
particles (since beta particles are shielded by a thin amount of
material).
The major advantages of a film badge as a personnel monitoring device are that it
provides a permanent record, it is able to distinguish between different energies of
ate
photons, and it can measure doses due to different types of radiation. It is quite
accurate for exposures greater than 100 mR. The major disadvantages are that it must
be developed and read by a processor (which is time consuming) and prolonged heat
exposure can affect the film.
yM
ls
oo
dT
Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD)
an
er
Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD) are often used instead of the film badge. Like a
rit
W
film badge, it is worn for a period of time (usually 3 months or less) and then must be
ee
A TLD has a phosphor, such as lithium fluoride (LiF) or calcium fluoride (CaF), in a solid
PD
temperatures, the radiation interacts with the phosphor crystal causing some of the
atoms in the material to produce free electrons and become ionized. The free
electrons are trapped and locked into place in the imperfections in the crystal lattice
structure.
br
Heating the crystal causes the crystal lattice to vibrate, releasing the trapped electrons
in the process. Released electrons return to the original ground state, releasing the
captured energy from ionization as light, hence the name thermoluminescent. Instead
Li
of reading the optical density (blackness) of a film, as is done with film badges, the
amount of light released versus the heating of the individual pieces of
thermoluminescent material is measured. The “glow curve” produced by this process is
then related to the radiation exposure. The process can be repeated many times.
Safety Controls
Since X-ray and gamma radiation are not detectable by the human senses and the
l
resulting damage to the body is not immediately apparent, a variety of safety controls
ria
are used to limit exposure. The two basic types of radiation safety controls used to
provide a safe working environment are engineered and administrative controls.
Engineered controls include shielding, interlocks, alarms, warning signals, and material
ate
containment. Administrative controls include postings, procedures, dosimetry, and
training.
Engineered controls such as shielding and door interlocks are used to contain the
yM
radiation in a cabinet or a “radiation vault”. Fixed shielding materials are commonly
ls
oo
high density concrete and/or lead. Door interlocks are used to immediately cut the
dT
power to X-ray generating equipment if a door is accidentally
an
er
opened when X-rays are being produced. Warning lights are
used to alert workers and the public that radiation is being rit
W
ee
used. Sensors and warning alarms are often used to signal that
Fr
ud
a predetermined amount of radiation is present. Safety
ith
When portable radiography is performed, most often it is not practical to place alarms
Ed
St
or warning lights in the exposure area. Ropes (or cordon off tape)
F
PD
and signs are used to block the entrance to radiation areas and to
ll
Fi
Restricted areas: Areas with a dose rate higher than 300 mR/h must be secure so that
nobody can enter this area. If anybody accidently enters this area, radiation must be
terminated and the person must be checked. Access is only permitted under specific
Li
conditions and if there is an absolute need for it, the body dose should be calculated
and the personal dose measured.
Control areas: These are areas with dose rates which are equivalent to or higher than
0.75 mR/h. Control areas must be cordoned off and provided with a radiation warning
signs.
Page No. 253 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
l
ria
X-ray film:
The X-ray film is the medium that record the image of part exposed with X-rays. The x-ray film
is somewhat similar to photographic film in its basic composition. However unlike photographic
ate
film, the light (or radiation) sensitive emulsion is usually coated on both sides of the base of X-
ray film so that it can be used with intensifying screens.
yM an
dT
ls
1: Film base: The central portion of the x-ray film is the base which supports the fragile
oo
photographic emulsion on both of its surface. Ideally the base must be flexible as well as quite
i
strong so that the films can be repeatedly snapped into x-ray illuminators (Viewing boxes).
g
er
rit
a
Secondly, it must withstand any geometric distortion due to the heat of the developing process
Ty
W
and finally, the base must provide a uniform, highly transparent, optical background.
ee
tud Fr
P
Historically, photographic glass plates were used as the X-ray film base followed by
ith
S
cellulose nitrate in early 1920’s. Later cellulose triacetate base was developed in 1924 to avoid
r
rw
D
ito
the highly flammable nature of cellulose nitrate. Finally, a stronger, thinner, more
Ed
dimensionally stable film base made of polyester was developed in 1960 and that has replaced
S DF
2: Film Emulsion: The X-ray film emulsion is composed of a mixture of gelatin (derived from
cadaver bones) and small silver halide crystals (grains). The gelatin serves as a matrix which
keeps the silver halide grains well dispersed and prevents their clumping. The developing and
fixing solutions can penetrate the gelatin very rapidly without changing the strength or
permanence of the gelatin. Small crystal grains of silver halide (1.0 to 1.5 microns in diameter)
comprise the light sensitive substance in the emulsion. These grains, known as silver-iodo-
l
bromide, are typically between 90 and 99% silver bromide and between 1 and 10% silver
ria
iodide.
The atoms in the silver-iodo-bromide crystal are arranged in a cubic lattice and each
crystal contains many point defects, where a silver ion is displaced and is free to move through
ate
the crystal. It is the mobility of these silver ions that contributes to the formation of the latent
image. In its pure form the silver halide crystal has low photographic sensitivity. The emulsion
is sensitized by heating it under controlled conditions with a reducing agent containing sulphur.
This result in the production of silver sulphide at a site on the surface of the crystal referred to
as a sensitivity speck. It is the sensitivity speck that traps electrons to begin formation of the
latent image centres.
yM an
dT
oo
ls
In the process of film exposure, the energy from absorbing a photon of light is sufficient
to liberate an electron from a bromide ion in the crystal. The electron travels freely through the
i
crystal until it is trapped at a site of crystal imperfection such as a dislocation defect or a
g
er
sensitivity speck composed of an AgS molecule. A free silver ion is attracted to the negative
rit
a
charge and combines with the charge (is reduced) to form an atom of metallic silver (which is
Ty
W
optically black). The single atom of silver acts as an electron trap for another electron and then
ee
tud
attracts another atom of silver which is then reduced to metallic silver. This process continues
Fr
r S
rw
3: Adhesive layer: In general, the emulsion and the base do not adhere to each other. For this
D
ito
Ed
reason, the emulsion must be attached to the film base using a thin layer of suitable adhesive
DF
4: Protective layer: To protect the emulsion, which would be easily scratched and damaged by
PD
normal handling, a very thin outer protective layer is applied (again usually made of gelatin).
ry
Double coated: These are routine purpose x-ray films having photosensitive coatings on
both sides of base and used with double screen cassette with the film sandwiched between the
screens. Such films require lesser exposure factors and lesser processing times. For example
the image can be produced in 1/2 the time required to produce an image on the single sided
film.
l
ria
2. On the basis of use with intensifying screens:
Screen films: These films are used along with intensifying screens and are therefore
ultimately exposed by light and not the X-rays. These films require lesser exposure factors and
ate
processing time for development of radiographic image. The emulsion coating of such films is
also thinner. Such films are versatile and used for most general purpose diagnostic
radiography.
yM an
dT
oo
ls
i
g
er
rit
a
Ty
W
ee
tud Fr
P
ith
S
Non-screen films: These films are used without intensifying screens and require more
r
rw
exposure factors and prolonged processing time for production of comparable radiographic
D
ito
Ed
density to that of non-screen films. They have relatively thicker emulsion and therefore
DF
radiographic image formed on such films have excellent details. Such films are used for specific
S lP
purposes such as detection of hail-line fracture or any subtle tissue change that remains
Fil
PD
from traditionally used calcium tungstate intensifying screens is blue light. Therefore, it is
imperative that the films to be used with such intensifying screens must be sensitive more
towards blue light. The photographic emulsion containing silver bromide is coincidently cream
coloured that absorbs ultraviolet and blue light, but reflects green and red light and therefore
such films have been used without any problem with calcium tungustate intensifying screens.
However many rare earth intensifying screens principally emit greener lights and
l
therefore, x-ray films to be used with such screens should be made sensitive to greener
ria
spectrum of light as well. For this, suitable dyes are added in their photosensitive emulsion of
the films. (Such green light sensitive orthochromatic films also require suitable change in x-ray
darkroom safe light colour and intensity). Now a day blue light emitting rare earth intensifying
ate
screens are also available.
“High lite” films from 3M company were more or less not sensitive to room light
(particularly yellow lights) and therefore, allowed all the procedures of dark room in a
yellow lighted room.
g
er
rit
a
Faster films require lesser exposure but produce grainy images that lack definition. They
Ty
W
ee
also have narrow film latitude. Speed wise x-ray films may be categorized as following-
tud Fr
r S
rw
D
ito
Ultrafast films
Ed
DF
Standard speed films are versatile as they have wide film latitude but require greater exposure.
S lP
Film Latitude: It refers to the range of exposure factors that produce diagnostically useful range
Fil
of radiographic densities.
PD
ry
5. Films should be handled delicately and any accidental splashing of processing solutions
should be avoided.
6. Films should not be used after their expiry period.
7. If an x-ray film has been exposed, the cassette should immediately be transferred to the
dark room or in a lead shielded box to avoid inadvertent subsequent exposures
particularly in cases where serial radiography is being done.
l
8. The wet processed film should be kept upright in a film drier for its drying.
ria
9. The wet films should never be touched with fingers to avoid finger marks over films.
Intensifying screen:
ate
These screens are fitted in x-ray cassettes and interact with x-rays to convert most of
their radiant energy (>95%) in to visible light thereby, exposing the x-ray film finally with light
(and not the x-rays). The amount of light emitted by the intensifying screen is proportional to
the amount of x-radiation passing through it.
oo
the use of intensifying screens allow reduction in the exposure factors without affecting the
i
g
er
rit
a
The intensifying screen typically has following components-
Ty
W
1. Base: Provides a strong, smooth, but flexible support for the fluorescent layer. This is
ee
tud Fr
P
constructed usually from paper, cardboard or polyester with total thickness not exceeding
ith
r S
rw
D
ito
2. Substratum: It is the bonding layer between the base & the phosphor layer. It may be
reflective, absorptive or transparent in nature.
Li
3. Phosphor (Fluorescent) Layer: This is the “active” layer of the intensifying screen that
consists of fluorescent crystals, which emit light when struck by x-radiation. Examples of
typical phosphor materials include calcium tungstate & rare earth phosphors. Earlier
barium lead sulphate and zinc cadmium sulphide were also used as phosphor materials.
The rare earth screens may have any of the following types of phosphor material-
l
Terbium activated gadolinium oxysulphide
ria
Terbium activated lanthanum oxysulphide
Terbium activated yttrium oxysulphide
Thulium activated lanthanum oxybromide
ate
X-ray absorption efficiency and their light conversion ratio of rare earth screens are far
superior to calcium tungustate type films. For example rare earth screen film combination
has 12 times faster speed than par speed tungustate screen film combination and
exposure is reduced by 15-50%.
4.
qualities.
yM an
dT
ls
Super-coat: This is a transparent external protective layer which helps in resisting surface
oo
abrasion. It is constructed from cellulose acetate and has anti-static and waterproofing
i
g
er
rit
a
Fluorescence: It is a kind of luminescence where a cold (nonglowing) substance releases
Ty
W
electromagnetic radiation in the form of visible light while absorbing another form of energy,
ee
but ceases to emit the radiation immediately upon the cessation of the input energy. The
tud Fr
P
emission of light from an intensifying screen during absorption of X-rays is one example of
ith
S
fluorescence.
r
rw
D
ito
Ed
The material in the cassette box must be as little absorbing as possible. Presently, the
Fil
best material for this is carbon fibre, giving a very rigid structure combined with low density
PD
ry
ia l
te r
Radiography a
Ref: ra
n
y M d To
ols
http://www.ge-mcs.com/download/x-ray/GEIT-30158EN_industrial-radiography-image-forming-techniques.pdf
rit
e
d
http://onlineshowcase.tafensw.edu.au/ndt/content/radiographic/task8/accessible.htm
W
r ee
http://radiopaedia.org/articles/pair-production
F
u th
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_image
i
St
EME-062
F ill
P DF
E di t o rw
a r y PD
i b r
L Page No. 260 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
y M
nd
T o ols
d
W
base are applied: r ee
F
• a layer of hardened gelatine
(a) to protect the emulsion Edi
• emulsion layer (b) which isill PD
suspended in gelatine, PDF
F
t
St
o
u
rw
i th
sensitive to radiation
a r
• a very thin layer called the y
r
substratum (c) which bonds
b
the emulsion layer to the
base
i
L Page No. 261 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Radiographic image
ia l
Latent image
te r
a
(A latent image is an invisible image produced by the exposure to light of a photosensitive
material such as photographic film.)(Ref: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_image)
When light or X-radiation strikes a sensitive
receiving a sufficient quantity of radiation
extremely small particles of silver halide
y M e r
d T o
ls
oemulsion, the portions
an undergo a change;
rit crystals are converted into
d
W
ee
metallic silver. F r
r
Development is the process by which a latent image is converted
b
into a visible image. This result is obtained by selective reduction
i
into black metallic silver of the silver halide crystals in the emulsion.
d
W
differing brightness, dependent onFreethe local optical densities
S u
(amount of silver particles) of the
t F
ito
r w ith developed emulsion.
a r
PD
y
r
Density is measured by a densitometer.
b
Industrial radiography on conventional film covers a density range
i
from 0 to 4, a difference corresponding with a factor 10,000.
ia l
Contrast te r
• The contrast of an image is defined a as the
relative brightness between
y M
rit
e r an
d T o ols
a r y
D2 on an X-ray film is the density difference
between them and is usually termed the
b r
radiographi o trast .
i
L Page No. 264 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
ia l
•
Characteristic curve (density curve)
te r
The characteristic or density curve indicates the
relationship between increasing exposures and
resulting density. By exposure (E) is meant the a
radiation dose on the film emulsion. It is the
product of radiation intensity (Io) and exposure rtime
(t), therefore: rit
yeMan
dT
o ols
d
W
E = Io.t r ee
F
•
The ratio between different exposures
t u t o
i th
r w and related
densities is not usually plotted onEadi linear scale but
on a logarithmic scale; i.e. density
Density (D) of a photographic F
P
SDF D versus log E.
ill emulsion does not
a r
PD
increase linearly with exposure
y (E) over the entire
density range, but has a shape as in figure. The
lower part of the curve (a- is alled the toe , the
r
middle part (b- is alled the straight li e li ear
b
portio , a d the upper part -d) is called the
i
shoulder .
ia l
Film speed (sensitivity)
te r
In radiography the relationship between a
exposure (in C/kg) and resulting
commonly referred to as film
y M er
a nd
rit speed.
ols
T density is
o
d
W
r ee
Graininess F
on an illuminated F
t u
E di t o rw
i th
r y
variations are visible in a grainy sort of structure.
a
This isual i pressio is alled grai i ess a d a
b r
measurement of this phenomenon establishes a
i
degree of gra ularity .
L Page No. 266 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Film interpretation
and reference radiographs
ia l
The common term for film interpretation is film viewing. Film
te r
viewing in fact means the evaluation of the image quality of a
radiograph for compliance with the code requirements a and the
M l s
interpretation of details of any possible defect d T oo visible on the film.
For this purpose, the film is placed in front n of an illuminated screen
of appropriate brightness/luminance.
d
areas of low density need to be imasked Fr
e e
ir t e
y
ra
W The edges of the film and
to avoid glare.
St u
tor
• right ess of the illu i Pated
• de sity of the radiographFi
l l
w
DF
th
The following conditions arediimportant
E
s ree lu i a e
for good film interpretation:
a r
P
y
D
• diffusio a d e e ess of the illu i ated s ree
• a ie t light i the ie i g roo
i b r
• fil ie er’s eye-sight
Poor viewing conditions may cause important defect information on
L
a radiograph to go unseen.
ia l
• The lassi fil a e ie ed
te r
after photochemical treatment (wet
process) on a film viewing screen.
a
Defects or irregularities in the
object cause variations in film
density (brightness or rit
er
a nd
T
y M
o ols
d
transparency). The parts of the W
r ee
films which have received more with F
a r
PD
y
• Digital radiography gives the same
shades of black and white images,
i b r
but viewing and interpretation is
done on a computer screen (VDU).
ia l
te r
a
rit
y
e Mra
nd To
ols
d
W
ee
Fr
St uFi ll P
D F Ed
ito rw
ith
a ry PD
i b r
L Page No. 269 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
X-ray Videos
ia l
te r
x-ray inspection of CAN: a
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=acljU7PoDS4
case study of x-ray y M rit
er
a nd
T o ols
d
W
r ee
F
F
S
ill
tP
uDF
E di t o rw
=2&list=PLML1Ygt3lPBV0f9qL3sHn4qyAb9x5RAAY
i th
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ksv1JEOWlvw&index
a
PD
r y
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eLYLzBpprYM
b
having an x-ray
i r
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dybncisweZE
L Page No. 270 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound waves (typically in
l
the range between 0.5 and 15 MHz) to conduct examinations and
ria
make measurements. Besides its wide use in engineering
applications (such as flaw detection/evaluation, dimensional
measurements, material characterization, etc.), ultrasonics are also
ate
used in the medical field (such as sonography, therapeutic
ultrasound, etc.).
In general, ultrasonic testing is based on the capture and
quantification of either the reflected waves (pulse-echo) or the
yM
ls
transmitted waves (through-transmission). Each of the two types is
o
To
used in certain applications, but generally, pulse echo systems are
d
more useful since they require one-sided access to the object being inspected.
an
er
rit
W
ee
Basic Principles
Fr
ud rw
ith
pulser/receiver is an electronic
Fi
PD
signal by the transducer and is displayed on a screen. Knowing the velocity of the
waves, travel time can be directly related to the distance that the signal traveled. From
the signal, information about the reflector location, size, orientation and other
features can sometimes be gained.
l
ria
The primary advantages and disadvantages when compared to other NDT methods
are:
Advantages
ate
It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to other
NDT methods.
Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is used.
yM
ls
It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and estimating size and
o
To
shape.
d
an
Minimal part preparation is required.
er
It provides instantaneous results.
rit
W
Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
ee
Disadvantages
ll
Fi
Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
ary
Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration and the
characterization of flaws.
PHYSICS OF ULTRASOUND
l
Wave Propagation
ria
Ultrasonic testing is based on the vibration in materials which is generally referred to
as acoustics. All material substances are comprised of atoms, which may be forced into
vibrational motion about their equilibrium positions. Many different patterns of
vibrational motion exist at the atomic level; however, most are irrelevant to acoustics
ate
and ultrasonic testing. Acoustics is focused on particles that contain many atoms that
move in harmony to produce a mechanical wave. When a material is not stressed in
tension or compression beyond its elastic limit, its individual particles perform elastic
oscillations. When the particles of a medium are displaced from their equilibrium
yM
ls
positions, internal restoration forces arise. These elastic restoring forces between
o
To
particles, combined with inertia of the particles, lead to the oscillatory motions of the
d
an
medium.
er
In solids, sound waves can propagate in four rit
W
principal modes that are based on the way
ee
Fr
ud
the particles oscillate. Sound can propagate
ith
the figure.
l
direction of propagation. Shear waves require
ria
an acoustically solid material for effective
propagation, and therefore, are not effectively
propagated in materials such as liquids or
gasses. Shear waves are relatively weak when
ate
compared to longitudinal waves. In fact, shear
waves are usually generated in materials using
some of the energy from longitudinal waves.
yM
ls
o
To
Modes of Sound Wave Propagation
d
an
In air, sound travels by the compression and rarefaction of air molecules in the
er
rit
direction of travel. However, in solids, molecules can support vibrations in other
W
directions. Hence, a number of different types of sound waves are possible. Waves can
ee
Fr
As mentioned previously, longitudinal and transverse (shear) waves are most often
St PD
F
elliptical or complex vibrations of the particles make other waves possible. Some of
Fi
PD
these wave modes such as Rayleigh and Lamb waves are also useful for ultrasonic
inspection.
ary
Though there are many different modes of wave propagation, the table summarizes
the four types of waves that are commonly used in NDT.
Wave Type Particle Vibration
br
Since longitudinal and transverse waves were discussed previously, surface and plate
waves are introduced here.
Surface (or Rayleigh) waves travel at the surface of a relatively thick solid material
penetrating to a depth of one wavelength. A surface wave is a combination of
l
both a longitudinal and transverse motion which results in an elliptical motion as
ria
shown in the image. The major axis of the ellipse is perpendicular to the surface of
the solid. As the depth of an individual atom from the
surface increases, the width of its elliptical motion
decreases. Surface waves are generated when a
ate
longitudinal wave intersects a surface slightly larger
than the second critical angle and they travel at a
velocity between .87 and .95 of a shear wave.
Rayleigh waves are useful because they are very
yM
sensitive to surface defects (and other surface
ls
o
features) and they follow the surface around curves.
To
Because of this, Rayleigh waves can be used to inspect
d
an
areas that other waves might have difficulty reaching.
er
rit
W
ee
Plate (or Lamb) waves are similar to surface waves except they can only be
Fr
ud
generated in materials a few wavelengths thick (thin plates). Lamb waves are
ith
rw
complex vibrational waves that propagate parallel to the test surface throughout
ito
the thickness of the material. They are influenced a great deal by the test wave
Ed
frequency and material thickness. Lamb waves are generated when a wave hits a
St PD
F
surface at an incident angle such that the parallel component of the velocity of
ll
the wave (in the source) is equal to the velocity of the wave in the test material.
Fi
PD
Lamb waves will travel several meters in steel and so are useful to scan plate,
wire, and tubes.
ary
o With Lamb waves, a number of modes of particle vibration are possible, but
the two most common are symmetrical and asymmetrical. The complex
motion of the particles is similar to the elliptical orbits for surface waves.
Symmetrical Lamb waves move in a symmetrical
br
l
wavelength, frequency, and velocity. The wavelength is directly proportional to the
ria
velocity of the wave and inversely proportional to the frequency of the wave. This
relationship is shown by the following equation:
ate
Where;
: wavelength (m)
: velocity (m/s)
yM
ls
: frequency (Hz)
o
dTo
The velocity of sound waves in a certain medium is fixed where it is a characteristic of
an
that medium. As can be noted from the equation, an increase in frequency will result
er
rit
in a decrease in wavelength. For instance, the velocity of longitudinal waves in steel is
W
5850 m/s and that results in a wavelength of 5.85 mm when the frequency is 1 MHz.
ee
Fr
ud ito
rw
ith
In ultrasonic testing, the inspector must make a decision about the frequency of the
PD
transducer that will be used in order to control the wavelength. The wavelength of the
ll
Fi
A general rule of thumb is that a discontinuity must be larger than one-half the
ary
wavelengths). Resolution is the ability of the system to locate discontinuities that are
close together within the material or located near the part surface. Resolution also
generally increases as the frequency increases.
Li
The wave frequency can also affect the capability of an inspection in adverse ways.
Therefore, selecting the optimal inspection frequency often involves maintaining a
balance between the favorable and unfavorable results of the selection. Before
selecting an inspection frequency, the material's grain structure and thickness, and the
discontinuity's type, size, and probable location should be considered. As frequency
Page No. 276 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
increases, sound tends to scatter from large or course grain structure and from small
imperfections within a material. Cast materials often have coarse grains and thus
l
require lower frequencies to be used for evaluations of these products. Wrought and
ria
forged products with directional and refined grain structure can usually be inspected
with higher frequency transducers.
Since more things in a material are likely to scatter a portion of the sound energy at
higher frequencies, the penetration depth (the maximum depth in a material that
ate
flaws can be located) is also reduced. Frequency also has an effect on the shape of the
ultrasonic beam. Beam spread, or the divergence of the beam from the center axis of
the transducer, and how it is affected by frequency will be discussed later.
yM
It should be mentioned, so as not to be misleading, that a number of other variables
ls
o
will also affect the ability of ultrasound to locate defects. These include the pulse
dTo
length, type and voltage applied to the crystal, properties of the crystal, backing
an
material, transducer diameter, and the receiver circuitry of the instrument. These are
er
discussed in more detail in a later section. rit
W
ee
Fr
ud ith
and both inertial and elastic restoring forces act upon each particle.
A mass on a spring has a single resonant frequency (natural frequency) determined by
its spring constant k and its mass m. Within the elastic limit of any material, there is a
linear relationship between the displacement of a particle and the
br
as F = k x.
properties of the material and is independent of the amplitude of the sound wave.
Newton's Second Law says that the force applied to a particle will be balanced by the
l
particle's mass and the acceleration of the particle. Mathematically, Newton's Second
ria
Law is written as F = m a. Hooke's Law then says that this force will be balanced by a
force in the opposite direction that is dependent on the amount of displacement and
the spring constant. Therefore, since the applied force and the restoring force are
equal, m a = k x can be written.
ate
Since the mass m and the spring constant k are constants for any given material, it can
be seen that the acceleration a and the displacement x are the only variables. It can
also be seen that they are directly proportional. For instance, if the displacement of
the particle increases, so does its acceleration. It turns out that the time that it takes a
yM
ls
particle to move and return to its equilibrium position is independent of the force
o
To
applied. So, within a given material, sound always travels at the same speed no matter
d
an
how much force is applied when other variables, such as temperature, are held
er
constant.
rit
W
ee
Fr
ud ith
Of course, sound does travel at different speeds in different materials. This is because
ito
Ed
the mass of the atomic particles and the spring constants are different for different
St F
materials. The mass of the particles is related to the density of the material, and the
PD
relationship between the speed of sound in a solid and its density and elastic constants
PD
Where;
: speed of sound (m/s)
: elastic constant “in a given direction” (N/m2)
: density (kg/m3)
Li
This equation may take a number of different forms depending on the type of wave
(longitudinal or shear) and which of the elastic constants that are used. It must also be
mentioned that the subscript “ ” attached to “ ” in the above equation is used to
indicate the directionality of the elastic constants with respect to the wave type and
Page No. 278 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
direction of wave travel. In isotropic materials, the elastic constants are the same for
all directions within the material. However, most materials are anisotropic and the
l
elastic constants differ with each direction. For example, in a piece of rolled aluminum
ria
plate, the grains are elongated in one direction and compressed in the others and the
elastic constants for the longitudinal direction differs slightly from those for the
transverse or short transverse directions.
For longitudinal waves, the speed of sound in a solid material can be found as:
ate
yM
ls
o
Where;
To
: speed of sound for longitudinal waves (m/s)
d
an
: Young’s modulus (N/m2)
er
rit
: Poisson’s ratio W
ee
Fr
ud
While for shear (transverse) waves, the speed of sound is found as:
ith
rw
ito
Ed
St PD
F
Where;
ll
Fi
PD
From the above equations, it can be found that longitudinal waves travel faster than
shear waves (longitudinal waves are approximately twice as fast as shear waves). The
table below gives examples of the compressional and shear sound velocities in some
br
metals.
Material Compressional velocity Shear velocity
Li
l
idealized materials, sound pressure (signal amplitude) is reduced due to the spreading
ria
of the wave. In natural materials, however, the sound amplitude is further weakened
due to the scattering and absorption. Scattering is the reflection of the sound in
directions other than its original direction of propagation. Absorption
is the conversion of the sound energy to other forms of energy. The
ate
combined effect of scattering and absorption is called attenuation.
Attenuation is generally proportional to the square of sound frequency.
The amplitude change of a decaying plane wave can be expressed as:
yM
ls
o
Np (Neper) is a logarithmic dimensionless
To
quantity and it can be converted to Decibels
d
Where;
an
: initial (unattenuated) amplitude by dividing it by 0.1151.
er
rit
: attenuation coefficient (Np/m) W Decibel is a more common unit when
: traveled distance (m) relating the amplitudes of two signals.
ee
Fr
ud ito
rw
ith
The Decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit that describes a ratio of two measurements. The difference
Ed
The intensity of sound waves (I) is quantified by measuring the variation in sound pressure using a
PD
transducer, and then the pressure is transferred to a voltage signal. Since the intensity of sound
ary
waves is proportional to the square of the pressure amplitude, the ratio of sound intensity in
decibels can be expressed as:
where;
br
l
number of decibels between two adjacent signals is measured and this value is divided
ria
by the time interval between them. This calculation produces an attenuation
coefficient in decibels per unit time. Then knowing the velocity of sound it can be
converted to decibels per unit length.
ate
Acoustic Impedance
Sound travels through materials under the influence of sound pressure. Because
molecules or atoms of a solid are bound elastically to one another, the excess pressure
yM
ls
o
results in a wave propagating through the solid.
dTo
The acoustic impedance ( ) of a material is defined as the product of its density ( ) and
an
er
the velocity of sound in that material ( ).
rit
W
ee
Fr
ud
Where;
ith
: density (kg/m3)
ito
Ed
The table gives examples of the acoustic impedances for some materials:
ll
Fi
Water Air
PD
Acou. Imp.
2 17.1 x 106 41.6 x 106 46.1 x 106 28 x 106 1.48 x 106 413
(kg/m s)
l
or boundary between one medium and another.
ria
The fraction of the incident wave intensity that is reflected can be derived based on
the fact that particle velocity and local particle pressures must be continuous across
the boundary. When the acoustic impedances of the materials on both sides of the
boundary are known, the fraction of the incident wave intensity that is reflected (the
ate
reflection coefficient) can be calculated as:
Multiplying the reflection coefficient by
100 yields the amount of energy reflected
as a percentage of the original energy.
yM
ls
o
To
Where are the acoustic impedances of the two materials at the interface.
d
an
er
Since the amount of reflected energy plus the transmitted energy must equal the total
rit
W
amount of incident energy, the “transmission coefficient” is calculated by simply
ee
Taking for example a water steel interface and calculating the reflection and
rw
previous table), we get = 0.88 and = 0.12. This means that the amount of energy
Ed
St F
transmitted into the second material is only 12% while 88% is reflected back at the
PD
that to be -1.1 dB and -18.4 dB respectively. The negative sign indicates that
PD
individually, the amount of reflected and transmitted energy is smaller than the
ary
incident energy.
If reflection and transmission at interfaces is followed through the
component, only a small percentage of the original energy makes it
back to the transducer, even when loss by attenuation is ignored.
br
surface of the steel and reflects back through the front surface on
its way back to the transducer. At the water steel interface (front
surface), 12% of the energy is transmitted. At the back surface,
88% of the 12% that made it through the front surface is reflected.
This is 10.6% of the intensity of the initial incident wave. As the
wave exits the part back through the front surface, only 12% of
Page No. 282 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
l
material is not considered. Should it be considered, the amount of signal received back
ria
by the transducer would be even smaller.
Q: What portion of the signal will be reflected at an Air-Steel interface?
ate
A: 99.996%
yM
ls
When an ultrasonic wave passes through an interface between two materials at an
o
To
oblique angle, and the materials have different indices of refraction, both reflected and
d
an
refracted waves are produced. This also occurs with light, which is why objects seen
er
across an interface appear to be shifted relative to where they really are. For example,
rit
W
if you look straight down at an object at the bottom of a glass of water, it looks closer
ee
The figure shows the case where plane sound waves traveling
St F
that is still in the first material. As a result, this causes the wave
to bend and change its direction (this is referred to as
“refraction”).
Snell's Law describes the relationship between the angles and
br
Where;
Page No. 283 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
l
: the angles of incident and refracted waves respectively
ria
Note that in the diagram, there is a reflected longitudinal wave ( ) shown. This wave
is reflected at the same angle as the incident wave because the two waves are
traveling in the same material, and hence have the same velocities. This reflected wave
ate
is unimportant in our explanation of Snell's Law, but it should be remembered that
some of the wave energy is reflected at the interface.
yM
ls
o
Mode Conversion
dTo
an
When sound travels in a solid material, one form of wave energy can be transformed
er
rit
into another form. For example, when a longitudinal wave hits an interface at an angle,
W
some of the energy can cause particle movement in
ee
Fr
ud
the transverse direction to start a shear wave. Mode
ith
In the previous section, it was pointed out that when sound waves pass through an
interface between materials having different acoustic velocities, refraction takes place
at the interface. The larger the difference in acoustic velocities between the two
materials, the more the sound is refracted. However, the converted shear wave is not
Li
refracted as much as the longitudinal wave because shear waves travel slower than
longitudinal waves. Therefore, the velocity difference between the incident
longitudinal wave and the shear wave is not as great as it is between the incident and
refracted longitudinal waves. Also note that when a longitudinal wave is reflected
inside the material, the reflected shear wave is reflected at a smaller angle than the
Page No. 284 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
reflected longitudinal wave. This is also due to the fact that the shear velocity is less
than the longitudinal velocity within a given material.
l
Snell's Law holds true for shear waves as well as longitudinal waves and can be written
ria
as follows:
ate
Where;
: the longitudinal wave velocities in the
first and second materials respectively
: the shear wave velocities in the first
yM
ls
o
and second materials respectively
dTo
: the angles of incident and refracted
an
longitudinal waves respectively
er
: the angles of the converted reflected rit
W
ee
Critical Angles
ito
Ed
St
When a longitudinal wave moves from a slower to a faster material (and thus the wave
F
PD
is refracted), there is an incident angle that makes the angle of refraction for the
ll
“longitudinal wave” to become 90°. This is angle is known as “the first critical angle”.
Fi
PD
The first critical angle can be found from Snell's law by putting in an angle of 90° for
ary
the angle of the refracted ray. At the critical angle of incidence, much of the acoustic
energy is in the form of an inhomogeneous compression wave, which travels along the
interface and decays exponentially with depth from the interface. This wave is
sometimes referred to as a "creep wave". Because of their inhomogeneous nature and
the fact that they decay rapidly, creep waves are not used as extensively as Rayleigh
br
converted shear wave propagates into the material. For this reason, most angle beam
transducers use a shear wave so that the signal is not complicated by having two
waves present.
In many cases there is also an incident angle that makes the angle of refraction for the
“shear wave” to become 90°. This is known as the “second critical angle” and at this
Page No. 285 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
point, all of the wave energy is reflected or refracted into a surface following shear
wave or shear creep wave. Slightly beyond the second critical angle, surface (Rayleigh)
l
waves will be generated.
ria
The incident angle for angle-beam transducers is somewhere between the first and
second critical angles such that a shear wave, at a desired angle, is introduced into the
material being inspected.
ate
The figure shows the mode of waves introduced into a steel surface as a function of
the incident angle of the wave generated by the transducer. It can be seen from the
figure that the incident angle for angle
beam (shear) transducers ranges
yM
between 30° to 55°. But it is important
ls
o
to remember that, due to refraction,
dTo
the angle of the shear wave inside the
an
material is completely different than
er
the incident angle. rit
W
ee
Fr
ud ith
from an ultrasonic transducer, it does not originate from a single point, but instead
originates from many points along the surface of the piezoelectric element. This results
ll
Fi
PD
in a sound field with many waves interacting or interfering with each other.
ary
When waves interact, they superimpose on each other, and the amplitude of the
sound pressure at any point of interaction is the sum of the amplitudes of the two
individual waves. First, let's consider two identical waves that originate from the same
point. When they are in phase (so that the peaks and valleys of one are exactly aligned
with those of the other), they combine to double the pressure of either wave acting
br
is the sum of the wave amplitudes for all points along the wave.
When the origins of the two interacting waves are not the
l
same, it is a little harder to picture the wave interaction, but
ria
the principles are the same. Up until now, we have primarily
looked at waves in the form of a 2D plot of wave amplitude
versus wave position. However, anyone that has dropped
something in a pool of water can picture the waves radiating
ate
out from the source with a circular wave front. If two objects
are dropped a short distance apart into the pool of water,
their waves will radiate out from their sources and interact
with each other. At every point where the waves interact, the amplitude of the particle
yM
ls
displacement is the combined sum of the amplitudes of the particle displacement of
o
To
the individual waves.
d
an
As stated previously, sound waves originate from multiple points along the face of the
er
rit
transducer. The image shows what the sound field would look like if the waves
W
originated from just three points (of course there are more than three points of origin
ee
Fr
ud
along the face of a transducer). It can be seen that where the waves interact near the
ith
face of the transducer and as a result there are extensive fluctuations and the sound
rw
field develops.
Wave Diffraction
Diffraction involves a change in direction of waves as they
br
l
ria
Piezoelectric Transducers
The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the conversion of
returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for ultrasonic
testing. This conversion is done by the transducer using a piece of piezoelectric
ate
material (a polarized material having some parts of the molecule positively charged,
while other parts of the molecule are negatively charged) with electrodes attached to
two of its opposite faces. When an electric field is applied across the material, the
polarized molecules will align themselves with the
yM
ls
electric field causing the material to change
o
To
dimensions. In addition, a permanently-polarized
d
an
material such as quartz (SiO2) or barium titanate
er
(BaTiO3) will produce an electric field when the
rit
W
material changes dimensions as a result of an
ee
zirconate titanate.
ary
The thickness of the active element is determined by the desired frequency of the
transducer. A thin wafer element vibrates with a wavelength that is twice its thickness.
Therefore, piezoelectric crystals are cut to a thickness that is 1/2 the desired radiated
wavelength. The higher the frequency of the transducer, the thinner the active
br
element.
Li
factors, including material, mechanical and electrical construction, and the external
mechanical and electrical load conditions, influence the behavior of a transducer.
l
ria
ate
yM
ls
o
dTo
A cut away of a typical contact transducer is shown in the figure. To get as much
an
er
energy out of the transducer as possible, an impedance matching layer is placed
rit
between the active element and the face of the transducer. Optimal impedance
W
ee
matching is achieved by sizing the matching layer so that its thickness is 1/4 of the
Fr
ud
desired wavelength. This keeps waves that are reflected within the matching layer in
ith
phase when they exit the layer. For contact transducers, the matching layer is made
rw
from a material that has an acoustical impedance between the active element and
ito
Ed
between the active element and water. Contact transducers also incorporate a wear
PD
plate to protect the matching layer and active element from scratching.
ll
Fi
PD
The backing material supporting the crystal has a great influence on the damping
ary
frequency noted on a transducer is the central frequency and depends primarily on the
backing material. Highly damped transducers will respond to frequencies above and
below the central frequency. The broad frequency range provides a transducer with
high resolving power. Less damped transducers will exhibit a narrower frequency
range and poorer resolving power, but greater penetration.
Page No. 289 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
The central frequency will also define the capabilities of a transducer. Lower
frequencies (0.5MHz-2.25MHz) provide greater energy and penetration in a material,
l
while high frequency crystals (15.0MHz-25.0MHz) provide reduced penetration but
ria
greater sensitivity to small discontinuities.
ate
The sound that emanates from a piezoelectric transducer does not originate from a
point, but instead originates from most of the surface of the piezoelectric element. The
sound field from a typical piezoelectric transducer is shown in the figure where lighter
colors indicating higher intensity. Since the ultrasound originates from a number of
yM
ls
o
points along the transducer face, the ultrasound intensity along the beam is affected
To
by constructive and destructive wave
d
an
interference as discussed previously. This
er
rit
wave interference leads to extensive W
fluctuations in the sound intensity near
ee
The pressure waves combine to form a relatively uniform front at the end of the near
field. The area beyond the near field where the ultrasonic beam is more uniform is
ary
called the “far field”. The transition between the near field and the far field occurs at a
distance, , and is sometimes referred to as the "natural focus" of a flat (or unfocused)
transducer. Spherical or cylindrical focusing changes the structure of a transducer field
by "pulling" the point nearer the transducer. The area just beyond the near field is
br
where the sound wave is well behaved and at its maximum strength. Therefore,
optimal detection results will be obtained when flaws occur in this area.
For a round transducer (often referred to as piston source transducer), the near field
Li
Where;
l
ria
Transducer Beam Spread
As the sound waves exits the near field and propegate through the material, the sound
beam continiously spreads out. This phenomenon is usually referred to as beam spread
ate
but sometimes it is also referred to as beam divergence or ultrasonic diffraction. It
should be noted that there is actually a difference between beam spread and beam
divergence. Beam spread is a measure of the
whole angle from side to side of the beam in the
yM
far field. Beam divergence is a measure of the
ls
o
To
angle from one side of the sound beam to the
d
central axis of the beam in the far field. Therefore,
an
beam spread is twice the beam divergence.
er
rit
W
Although beam spread must be considered when performing an ultrasonic inspection,
ee
it is important to note that in the far field, or Fraunhofer zone, the maximum sound
Fr
ud ith
pressure is always found along the acoustic axis (centerline) of the transducer.
rw
Therefore, the strongest reflections are likely to come from the area directly in front of
ito
the transducer.
Ed
St PD
F
Beam spread occurs because the vibrating particle of the material (through which the
wave is traveling) do not always transfer all of their energy in the direction of wave
ll
Fi
PD
propagation. If the particles are not directly aligned in the direction of wave
propagation, some of the energy will get transferred off at an angle. In the near field,
ary
constructive and destructive wave interference fill the sound field with fluctuation. At
the start of the far field, however, the beam strength is always greatest at the center of
the beam and diminishes as it spreads outward.
The beam spread is largely influenced by the frequency and diameter of the
br
Where;
: the beam divergence angle from centerline to point where signal is at half
strength
l
: sound velocity in the material
ria
: diameter of the transducer
: frequency of the transducer
Transducer Types
ate
Ultrasonic transducers are manufactured for a variety of applications and can be
custom fabricated when necessary. Careful attention must be paid to selecting the
proper transducer for the application. It is important to choose transducers that have
the desired frequency, bandwidth, and focusing to optimize inspection capability. Most
yM
ls
often the transducer is chosen either to enhance the sensitivity or resolution of the
o
To
system.
d
an
Transducers are classified into two major groups according to the application.
er
rit
W
Contact transducers are used for direct contact inspections, and are generally
ee
have an ergonomic design so that they are easy to grip and move along
ito
materials are used to remove the air gap between the transducer and the
ll
Fi
l
usefulness for a variety of applications. The flat contact transducer shown above is
ria
used in normal beam inspections of relatively flat surfaces, and where near surface
resolution is not critical. If the surface is curved, a shoe that matches the curvature of
the part may need to be added to the face of the transducer. If near surface resolution
is important or if an angle beam inspection is needed, one of the special contact
ate
transducers described below might be used.
Dual element transducers contain two independently
operated elements in a single housing. One of the elements
yM
transmits and the other receives the ultrasonic signal. Dual
ls
o
To
element transducers are especially well suited for making
d
measurements in applications where reflectors are very near
an
the transducer since this design eliminates the ring down
er
effect that single-element transducers experience (when rit
W
single-element transducers are operating in pulse echo mode,
ee
Fr
ud
the element cannot start receiving reflected signals until the element has
ith
stopped ringing from its transmit function). Dual element transducers are
rw
when inspecting for near surface defects. The two elements are angled
St F
towards each other to create a crossed-beam sound path in the test material.
PD
ll
Fi
l
introduce a refracted shear wave into the test material.
ria
Transducers can be purchased in a variety of fixed angles
or in adjustable versions where the user determines the
angles of incidence and refraction. In the fixed angle
versions, the angle of refraction that is marked on the
ate
transducer is only accurate for a particular material, which
is usually steel. The most commonly used refraction angles for
fixed angle transducers are 45°, 60° and 70°. The angled sound
path allows the sound beam to be reflected from the backwall to
yM
improve detectability of flaws in and around welded areas. They are also used to
ls
o
generate surface waves for use in detecting defects on the surface of a component.
dTo
an
Normal incidence shear wave transducers are unique because they allow the
er
rit
introduction of shear waves directly into a test piece without the use of an angle
W
beam wedge. Careful design has enabled manufacturing of transducers with
ee
Paint brush transducers are used to scan wide areas. These long and narrow
ito
transducers are made up of an array of small crystals and that make it possible to
Ed
St
scan a larger area more rapidly for discontinuities. Smaller and more sensitive
F
PD
transducers are often then required to further define the details of a discontinuity.
ll
Fi
PD
ary
Couplant
A couplant is a material (usually liquid) that facilitates the transmission of ultrasonic
energy from the transducer into the test specimen. Couplant is generally necessary
because the acoustic impedance mismatch between air and solids is large. Therefore,
br
nearly all of the energy is reflected and very little is transmitted into the test material.
The couplant displaces the air and makes it possible to get more sound energy into the
test specimen so that a usable ultrasonic signal can be obtained.
Li
l
the part are immersed in the couplant, which is typically water.
ria
This method of coupling makes it easier to maintain consistent
coupling while moving and manipulating the transducer and/or
the part.
ate
Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMATs)
Electromagnetic-acoustic transducers (EMAT) are a modern type of ultrasonic
transducers that work based on a totally different physical principle than piezoelectric
yM
ls
o
transducers and, most importantly, they do not need
To
couplant. When a wire is placed near the surface of an
d
an
electrically conducting object and is driven by a current
er
rit
at the desired ultrasonic frequency, eddy currents will W
be induced in a near surface region of the object. If a
ee
Pulser-Receivers
Li
Ultrasonic pulser-receivers are well suited to general purpose ultrasonic testing. Along
with appropriate transducers and an oscilloscope, they can be used for flaw detection
and thickness gauging in a wide variety of metals, plastics, ceramics, and composites.
Ultrasonic pulser-receivers provide a unique, low-cost ultrasonic measurement
Page No. 295 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
capability. Specialized portable equipment that are dedicated for ultrasonic inspection
merge the pulser-receiver with the scope display in one small size battery operated
l
unit.
ria
The pulser section of the instrument generates
short, large amplitude electric pulses of controlled
energy, which are converted into short ultrasonic
pulses when applied to an ultrasonic transducer.
ate
Control functions associated with the pulser circuit
include:
Pulse length or damping: The amount of time the pulse is applied to the transducer.
yM
Pulse energy: The voltage applied to the transducer. Typical pulser circuits will apply
ls
o
To
from 100 volts to 800 volts to a transducer.
d
an
In the receiver section the voltage signals produced by the transducer, which represent
er
the received ultrasonic pulses, are amplified. The amplified signal is available as an
rit
W
output for display or capture for signal processing. Control functions associated with
ee
Signal rectification: The signal can be viewed as positive half wave, negative half
rw
Reject control
ll
Fi
PD
ary
Data Presentation
Ultrasonic data can be collected and displayed in a number of different formats. The
three most common formats are known in the NDT world as A-scan, B-scan and C-scan
presentations. Each presentation mode provides a different way of looking at and
br
A-Scan Presentation
The A-scan presentation displays the amount of received ultrasonic energy as a
function of time. The relative amount of received energy is plotted along the vertical
axis and the elapsed time (which may be related to the traveled distance within the
material) is displayed along the horizontal axis. Most instruments with an A-scan
Page No. 296 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
display allow the signal to be displayed in its natural radio frequency form (RF), as a
fully rectified RF signal, or as either the positive or negative half of the RF signal. In the
l
A-scan presentation, relative discontinuity size can be estimated by comparing the
ria
signal amplitude obtained from an unknown reflector to that from a known reflector.
Reflector depth can be determined by the position of the signal on the horizontal time
axis.
ate
yM
ls
o
dTo
an
In the illustration of the A-scan presentation shown in the figure, the initial pulse
er
generated by the transducer is represented by the signal IP, which is near time zero. As
rit
W
the transducer is scanned along the surface of the part, four other signals are likely to
ee
appear at different times on the screen. When the transducer is in its far left position,
Fr
ud
only the IP signal and signal A, the sound energy reflecting from surface A, will be seen
ith
rw
on the trace. As the transducer is scanned to the right, a signal from the backwall BW
ito
will appear later in time, showing that the sound has traveled farther to reach this
Ed
surface. When the transducer is over flaw B, signal B will appear at a point on the time
St PD
F
scale that is approximately halfway between the IP signal and the BW signal. Since the
IP signal corresponds to the front surface of the material, this indicates that flaw B is
ll
Fi
PD
about halfway between the front and back surfaces of the sample. When the
transducer is moved over flaw C, signal C will appear earlier in time since the sound
ary
travel path is shorter and signal B will disappear since sound will no longer be
reflecting from it.
B-Scan Presentation
br
The B-scan presentation is a type of presentation that is possible for automated linear
scanning systems where it shows a profile (cross-sectional) view of the test specimen.
In the B-scan, the time-of-flight (travel time) of the sound waves is displayed along the
Li
vertical axis and the linear position of the transducer is displayed along the horizontal
axis. From the B-scan, the depth of the reflector and its approximate linear dimensions
in the scan direction can be determined. The B-scan is typically produced by
establishing a trigger gate on the A-scan. Whenever the signal intensity is great enough
to trigger the gate, a point is produced on the B-scan. The gate is triggered by the
Page No. 297 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
sound reflected from the backwall of the specimen and by smaller reflectors within the
material. In the B-scan image shown previously, line A is produced as the transducer is
l
scanned over the reduced thickness portion of the specimen. When the transducer
ria
moves to the right of this section, the backwall line BW is produced. When the
transducer is over flaws B and C, lines that are similar to the length of the flaws and at
similar depths within the material are drawn on the B-scan. It should be noted that a
limitation to this display technique is that reflectors may be masked by larger reflectors
ate
near the surface.
C-Scan Presentation
The C-scan presentation is a type of presentation that is possible
yM
ls
for automated two-dimensional scanning systems that provides
o
To
a plan-type view of the location and size of test specimen
d
an
features. The plane of the image is parallel to the scan pattern
er
of the transducer. C-scan presentations are typically produced
rit
W
with an automated data acquisition system, such as a computer
ee
the transducer is scanned over the test piece. The relative signal
Ed
a color for each of the positions where data was recorded. The C-scan presentation
ll
provides an image of the features that reflect and scatter the sound within and on the
Fi
PD
High resolution scans can produce very detailed images. The figure
shows two ultrasonic C-scan images of a US quarter. Both images
were produced using a pulse-echo technique with the transducer
scanned over the head side in an immersion scanning system. For
the C-scan image on the top, the gate was set to capture the
br
image on the bottom, the gate was moved to record the intensity
of the sound reflecting from the back surface of the coin. The
details on the back surface are clearly visible but front surface
features are also still visible since the sound energy is affected by
these features as it travels through the front surface of the coin.
Page No. 298 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
l
Normal Beam Inspection
ria
Pulse-echo ultrasonic measurements can determine the location of a discontinuity in a
part or structure by accurately measuring the time required for a short ultrasonic pulse
generated by a transducer to travel through a thickness of material, reflect from the
ate
back or the surface of a discontinuity, and be returned to the transducer. In most
applications, this time interval is a few microseconds or less. The two-way transit time
measured is divided by two to account for the down-and-back travel path and
multiplied by the velocity of sound in the test material. The result is expressed in the
yM
ls
well-known relationship:
o
dTo
an
er
rit
W
Where is the distance from the surface to the discontinuity in
ee
Precision ultrasonic thickness gages usually operate at frequencies between 500 kHz
ito
Ed
and 100 MHz, by means of piezoelectric transducers that generate bursts of sound
St F
waves when excited by electrical pulses. Typically, lower frequencies are used to
PD
materials.
Li
Angle beam inspection is somehow different than normal beam inspection. In normal
beam inspection, the backwall echo is always present on the scope display and when
l
the transducer basses over a discontinuity a new echo will appear between the initial
ria
pulse and the backwall echo. However, when scanning a surface using an angle beam
transducer there will be no reflected echo on the scope display unless a properly
oriented discontinuity or reflector comes into the beam path.
ate
If a reflection occurs before the sound waves reach the backwall, the reflection is
usually referred to as “first leg reflection”. The angular distance (Sound Path) to the
reflector can be calculated using the same formula used for normal beam transducers
(but of course using the shear velocity instead of the longitudinal velocity) as:
yM
ls
o
dTo
an
er
rit
W
where is the shear sound velocity in the material.
ee
Fr
ud
Knowing the angle of refraction for the transducer,
ith
rw
If a reflector came across the sound beam after it has reached and reflected off the
backwall, the reflection is usually referred to as “second leg reflection”. In this case, the
“Sound Path” (the total sound path
br
l
lack of side-wall fusion, lack of intermediate-pass fusion, lack of root penetration,
ria
undercutting, and longitudinal or transverse cracks. With the exception of single gas
pores all the listed defects are usually well detectable using ultrasonics.
Ultrasonic weld inspections are typically performed using straight beam transducer in
ate
conjunction with angle beam transducers.
A straight beam transducer, producing a longitudinal wave at normal incidence into
the test piece, is first used to locate any laminations in or near the heat-affected
zone. This is important because an angle beam transducer may not be able to
yM
ls
provide a return signal from a laminar flaw.
o
To
The second step in the inspection involves using an angle beam transducer to
d
an
inspect the actual weld. This inspection may include the root, sidewall, crown, and
er
rit
heat-affected zones of a weld. The process involves scanning the surface of the
W
ee
material around the weldment with the transducer. This refracted sound wave will
Fr
ud
bounce off a reflector (discontinuity) in the path of the sound beam.
ith
rw
thickness as:
where is the material thickness.
Based on such calculations, the inspector can identify the transducer locations on the
br
surface of the material corresponding to the face, sidewall, and root of the weld.
The angle of refraction for the angle beam transducer used for inspection is usually
chosen such that ( ). Doing so, the second leg of the
Li
beam will be normal to the side wall of the weldment such that lack of fusion can be
easily detected (the first leg will also be normal to the other wall). However, for
improving the detectability of the different types of weld discontinuities, it is
recommended to repeat the scanning using several transducers having different angles
of refraction. Page No. 301 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
l
flaw is well known, the length of a crack can be determined by a technique known as
ria
“crack tip diffraction”.
One common application of the tip diffraction technique is to determine the length of
a crack originating from on the backside of a flat plate as shown below. In this case,
ate
when an angle beam transducer is
scanned over the area of the flaw, an
echo appears on the scope display
because of the reflection of the
yM
sound beam from the base of the
ls
o
crack (top image). As the transducer
dTo
moves, a second, but much weaker,
an
echo appears due to the diffraction
er
of the sound waves at the tip of the rit
W
crack (bottom image). However,
ee
Fr
ud
since the distance traveled by the
ith
on the scope.
St PD
F
Crack height ( ) is a function of the ultrasound shear velocity in the material ( ), the
ll
incident angle ( ) and the difference in arrival times between the two signal ( ).
Fi
PD
Since the beam angle and the thickness of the material is the same in both
ary
measurements, two similar right triangles are formed such that one can be overlayed
on the other. A third similar right triangle is made, which is comprised on the crack, the
length and the angle . The variable is really the difference in time but can
easily be converted to a distance by dividing the time in half (to get the one-way travel
time) and multiplying this value by the velocity of the sound in the material. Using
br
If the material is relatively thick or the crack is relatively short, the crack base echo and
the crack tip diffraction echo could appear on the scope display simultaneously (as
l
seen in the figure). This can be attributed to the divergence
ria
of the sound beam where it becomes wide enough to cover
the entire crack length. In such case, though the angle of the
beam striking the base of the crack is slightly different than
the angle of the beam striking the tip of the crack, the
ate
previous equation still holds reasonably accurate and it can
be used for estimating the crack length.
yM
Calibration Methods
ls
o
To
Calibration refers to the act of evaluating and adjusting the precision and accuracy of
d
an
measurement equipment. In ultrasonic testing, several forms of calibrations must
er
rit
occur. First, the electronics of the equipment must be calibrated to ensure that they
W
are performing as designed. This operation is usually performed by the equipment
ee
manufacturer and will not be discussed further in this material. It is also usually
Fr
ud ith
necessary for the operator to perform a "user calibration" of the equipment. This user
rw
use in a large variety of applications. The user must "calibrate" the system, which
Ed
St
includes the equipment settings, the transducer, and the test setup, to validate that
F
PD
contained in the received signal. The figure shows some of the most commonly used
reference standards for the calibration of ultrasonic equipment. Reference standards
are used to validate that the equipment and the setup provide similar results from one
day to the next and that similar results are produced by different systems. Reference
br
standards also help the inspector to estimate the size of flaws. In a pulse-echo type
setup, signal strength depends on
both the size of the flaw and the
Li
signal. By comparing the signal from the reference standard to that received from the
actual flaw, the inspector can estimate the flaw size.
l
The material of the reference standard should be the same as the material being
ria
inspected and the artificially induced flaw should closely resemble that of the actual
flaw. This second requirement is a major limitation of most standard reference
samples. Most use drilled holes and notches that do not closely represent real flaws. In
most cases the artificially induced defects in reference standards are better reflectors
ate
of sound energy (due to their flatter and smoother surfaces) and produce indications
that are larger than those that a similar sized flaw would produce. Producing more
"realistic" defects is cost prohibitive in most cases and, therefore, the inspector can
only make an estimate of the flaw size.
yM
ls
o
Reference standards are mainly used to calibrate instruments prior to performing the
dTo
inspection and, in general, they are also useful for:
an
er
Checking the performance of both angle-beam and normal-beam transducers
rit
W
(sensitivity, resolution, beam spread, etc.)
ee
A wide variety of standard calibration blocks of different designs, sizes and systems of
ary
units (mm or inch) are available. The type of standard calibration block used is
dependent on the NDT application and the form and shape of the object being
evaluated. The most commonly used standard calibration blocks are those of the;
International Institute of Welding (IIW), American Welding Society (AWS) and
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM). Only two of the most commonly
br
This block is a general purpose calibration block that can be used for calibrating angle-
beam transducers as well as normal beam transducers. The material from which IIW
blocks are prepared is specified as killed, open hearth or electric furnace, low-carbon
steel in the normalized condition and with a grain size of McQuaid-Ehn No. 8. Official
IIW blocks are dimensioned in the metric system of units.
Page No. 304 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
l
the transducer as well as the instrument where that
ria
includes; angle-beam exit (index) point, beam angle,
beam spared, time base, linearity, resolution, dead zone,
sensitivity and range setting.
ate
The figure below shows some of the uses of the block.
yM
ls
o
dTo
an
er
rit
W
ee
Fr
ud Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
PD
Fi
PD
ll
F
ary
The miniature angle-beam block is used in a somewhat similar manner as the as the
IIW block, but is smaller and lighter. The miniature angle-beam block is primarily used
in the field for checking the characteristics of angle-beam transducers.
Li
instrument in terms of metal distance. The small hole provides a reflector for checking
beam angle and for setting the instrument gain.
l
ria
Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC)
Acoustic signals from the same reflecting surface will
have different amplitudes at different distances from
ate
the transducer. A distance amplitude correction (DAC)
curve provides a means of establishing a graphic
“reference level sensitivity” as a function of the
distance to the reflector (i.e., time on the A-scan
yM
ls
display). The use of DAC allows signals reflected from
o
To
similar discontinuities to be evaluated where signal
d
attenuation as a function of depth has been correlated.
an
er
DAC will allow for loss in amplitude over material depth (time) to be represented
rit
graphically on the A-scan display. Because near field length and beam spread vary
W
ee
according to transducer size and frequency, and materials vary in attenuation and
Fr
ud
velocity, a DAC curve must be established for each different situation. DAC may be
ith
rw
employed in both longitudinal and shear modes of operation as well as either contact
ito
must be constant.
The same method is used for constructing DAC curves for angle beam transducers,
however in that case both the first and second leg reflections can be used for
constructing the DAC curve.
Page No. 306 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
307 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
308 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
309 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
310 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
311 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
312 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
313 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
314 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
315 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
316 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
317 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
318 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
319 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
320 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
321 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
322 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
323 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
324 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
325 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
326 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
327 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
328 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
329 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
330 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
331 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
332 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
333 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
334 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
335 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
336 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
337 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
338 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
339 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
340 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
341 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
342 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
343 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
344 of 356.
Li
br
PD
ary
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Stu
Fr
ee
W
rit
er
Non - Destructive Testing
an
dy dT
oo
M ls
ate
Page No.
ria
l
345 of 356.
Non - Destructive Testing
Gail R Stultz
l
gstultz@modalshop.com
ria
Richard W Bono
rbono@modalshop.com
Mark I Schiefer
mschiefer@modalshop.com
ate
3149 East Kemper Rd.
Cincinnati, OH 45241
Abstract
yMFr
ee
W
er
rit
an
To
d
ols
ud
Rapid conversion of machined parts to powdered metal and cast is driving industries, especially
ith
automotive. Due to the high expectations of both primary manufacturers and end consumers,
rw
defects cannot be tolerated even in million piece quantities. There is, in effect, a growing
ito
requirement for zero defect supply chain commitments. To achieve zero defect output,
Ed
manufacturers are making the commitment to move to online NDT. This type of online inspection
St
requires accuracy, reliability, and high throughput. Resonant Acoustic Method NDT (RAM NDT)
DF
provides a proven technique exhibiting these pivotal performance requirements and automates
ll P
economically. RAM NDT tests, reports and screens for most common part flaws in a manner
Fi
similar to the way NASA tests flight hardware and automotive manufacturers validate their new
PD
car designs. Utilizing structural dynamics and statistical variation, RAM NDT provides mature,
laboratory proven technology in a robust, economical, process-friendly manner.
ary
1. Motivational Example
As with most powdered metal component suppliers, Company ABC is already doing spot
magnetic particle testing on batches of parts from a given production run. The problem starts
br
when a customer, say an automotive manufacturer, experiences field failures. The result is that
Company ABC is put on parts-hold and has to pay for both containment and 100% field
inspection on the customer site. At the risk of permanently damaging the company’s reputation
and losing both existing and new business, significantly larger part batches are subjected to
Li
magnetic particle inspection, with 100% of the production lots inspected via a 300% visual part
sort – where each part is visually inspected by three separate technicians. Everyone who can be
pulled from another job is pulled in to help out during this time of crisis. To ensure necessary
quality, 100% end-of-line part inspection must be implemented; traditional NDT techniques such
as magnetic particle, liquid penetrant, eddy current and X-ray, or purely visual inspection, are
painstaking, subjective manual processes. As a result, rarely does the 100% inspection continue,
and the cycle of “flawed-parts roulette” continues.
l
ria
Providing relief and security for the high volume manufacturer, RAM NDT offers reliable
inspection, with quantitative, objective results. This technique is easily automated to eliminate
human error with fast throughput for cost effective 100% inspection, simple and straightforward
with minimal disruption to production. RAM NDT is a volumetric, resonant inspection technique
that measures the structural integrity of each part to detect defects on a component level. With a
large number of successes on the production lines of powdered metal, cast and forged parts, RAM
ate
NDT is the simple, effective solution to this common problem.
2. History
yM
The history of NDT techniques used for quality control testing in part manufacturing dates back
ols
to the beginning of the industrial manufacturing era. Initially, the basic visual inspection of the
To
operators themselves served as the primary means of monitoring part acceptability. More
d
sophisticated NDT techniques evolved, and magnetic particle inspection eventually became the
an
de facto standard for testing ferrous metallic components such as castings, forgings and, more
er
recently, powdered metals. This subjective and visual technology has remained essentially
rit
unchanged for the past 50+ years, yet continues to be the most common inspection tool for such
W
parts.
ee
Fr
ud
Traditional NDT techniques focus on detecting and diagnosing defects. They use visual
ith
techniques or imaging to scan for any indication of defects. For the case presented in our
rw
motivational example, identifying the type of defect itself is secondary to identifying the
ito
defective parts. While diagnosing specific defects is applicable when evaluating and inspecting
Ed
some systems, such as gas pipelines or similar, it is not appropriate for high volume 100%
St
manufactured part inspection. For these components it is of primary importance to detect if a part
DF
is non-conforming rather than why. Therefore, an end-of-line “go/no go” objective inspection,
ll P
Scanning methods include magnetic particle testing (MT), ultrasonic testing (UT), eddy
current/electromagnetic testing (ET), dye penetrant testing (PT), X-ray/radiographic testing (RT)
ary
and visual testing (VT). The fundamental difference between these traditional NDT techniques
and resonant inspection (RI) is this scanning methodology. Scanning methods are manual and
require subjective interpretation by an operator. As a result, the operator requires a certain level
of technical training and/or certification to properly diagnose such indications of defect and infer
the effects on the functionality of a part. Additionally, whenever such a technique requires the
judgment of an operator, overall reliability suffers. In Juran’s Quality Handbook, Juran states
that operators average only 80% reliability – this statistic is a reflection of the human
br
interpretation factor, not the accuracy of the techniques themselves, see ref 1. None of these
scanning techniques allow for efficient, cost effective or reliable quality control testing of 100%
of manufactured parts of any appreciable volume. It should be noted that in some cases eddy
current techniques can be implemented as a “whole part” test by using an encircling coil, easily
Li
automated with high throughput. However, in these cases the effectiveness of ET’s flaw
detection is reduced, limited to detecting on certain types or configurations of surface flaws.
Resonant inspection, conversely, measures the structural response of a part and evaluates it
against the statistical variation from a control set of good parts to screen defects. Its volumetric
approach tests the whole part, both for external and internal structural flaws or deviations,
l
providing objective and quantitative results. This structural response is a unique and measurable
ria
signature, defined by a component’s mechanical resonances. These resonances are a function of
part geometry and material properties and are the basis for RI techniques. By measuring the
resonances of a part, one determines the structural characteristics of that part in a single test.
Typical flaws and defects adversely affecting the structural characteristics of a part are given in
Table 1 for powdered metal, cast and forged applications. Many of the traditional NDT
techniques previously discussed can detect these flaws as well, but often only RI can detect all in
ate
a single test, throughout the entire part (including deep sub-surface defects), in an automated and
objective fashion.
yM
Cracks Cracks Cracks
ols
Cold shuts Missed or double strikes Chips
To
Porosity Porosity Voids
d
Hardness/density Hardness Hardness/density
an
Inclusions Inclusions Inclusions
er
rit
Heat treat Heat treat Heat treat
W
Compressive & residual stress Quenching problems Decarb
ee
contaminants contaminants
Missed processes/operations Missed Missed
ito
processes/operations processes/operations
Ed
St DF
ll P
After defective parts have been sorted with RI, complimentary traditional NDT techniques may
provide a means for subjective diagnosis on the smaller subset of parts. This is useful for
Fi
determining a defect’s root cause and ultimately improving the production processes. Table 2
PD
provides a generic NDT selection table stating the capabilities of the various methods. The
ary
ASME has published standards that detail each of the traditional NDT methodologies mentioned
here, see ref 2-8.
ET MT/PT UT RT RAM
Defect Type
br
l
Speed/Training/Cost
ria
Part throughput Medium Low High Low High
Training requirements High High Medium High Low
Overall inspection costs Medium Medium High High Low
Automation Capacity
Quantitative results Yes/No No Yes/No No Yes
ate
Automation requirements Medium N/A Complex Complex Easy
Automation cost Medium N/A High High Low/Medium
3. Theoretical Background
yM ols
Modal analysis is defined as the study of the dynamic characteristics of a mechanical structure or
To
system. All structures, even structures such as metal gears or similar parts that are apparently
rigid to the human eye, undergo deformation. These deformations can be described using modal
d
an
analysis. Specifically, all structures have mechanical resonances, where the structure itself
er
amplifies any energy imparted to it at certain frequencies. For example, tuning forks or bells will
rit
vibrate at very specific frequencies, their natural frequencies, for long periods of time with just a
W
small tap. The sound that is made is directly due to these natural frequencies. In fact, any noise
ee
consistency of parts.
rw
For illustrative purposes, consider the single degree-of-freedom (SDOF) mass, spring, damper
ito
system in Figure 1. It has one DOF because its state can be be determined b one quantity (x), the
Ed
displacement of the mass. The elements of this simplified model are the mass (m), stiffness (k)
St DF
and damping (c). The energy imparted into the system by the excitation force (f) is stored in the
ll P
system as kinetic energy of the mass and potential energy of the spring and is dissipated by the
damping. The mathematical representation of the SDOF system, which is called its equations of
Fi
.
mẍ(t) + cx(t) + kx(t) = f(t)
ary
(1)
The solution to the equation of motion produces an eigenvalue problem which yields the
undamped natural frequency as
>n = k
m (2)
br
Equation (2) reveals the natural frequencies, or resonances, of a system that are determined by its
mass (i.e., volume and density) and stiffness (i.e., Young's modulus and cross-sectional
geometry). While in Equation (2) holds only for an SDOF system, the underlying relationship of
Li
mass and stiffness can be generalized for more complex systems. That is, an increase in stiffness
will increase the natural frequency and an increase in mass will decrease the natural frequency.
For example, consider the strings on a guitar. The larger diameter strings (more mass) produce
lower tones than the smaller strings (less mass). Also, a string has a higher pitch when tightened
(increased stiffness) than when loosened (decreased stiffness). It is these fundamental properties
of the resonances of a system that RAM NDT utilizes to evaluate the integrity and consistency of
parts.
l
ria
Stiffness Damping
k c
ate
Displacement Mass Excitation Force
x m f
yM ols
Figure 1. Single Degree of Freedom (SDOF) discrete parameter model
To
d
The natural frequencies are global properties of a given structure and the presence of structural
an
defects causes shifts in these resonances. For example, a crack will change the stiffness in the
er
region near the crack and a variation in density or the presence of porosity will change the mass.
rit
A crack defect typically reduces the stiffness in the material, thus decreasing the natural
W
frequency. Similarly, porosity in a cast part reduces mass, thus increasing the natural frequency.
ee
These shifts are measurable if the defect is structurally significant with respect to the either the
Fr
ud
size or location of the flaw within a specific resonance mode shape. With some defects, a shift in
ith
resonant frequency can also be noticed audibly, such as a cracked bell that does not ring true.
rw
ito
Ed
An introductory overview of the resonant inspection technique and theoretical background has
Fi
previously been presented in Sections 2 and 3, respectively. This portion of the paper discusses
PD
in more detail the specific implementation of resonant inspection and the associated advantages
of the Resonant Acoustic Method.
ary
RI is basically experimental modal analysis simplified for application to high volume production
manufacturing and quality control testing. The generic, step-by-step procedure is as follows:
1. Excite the part with a known and repeatable force input. This force is typically generated
by a controlled impact or actuator providing broadband or sinusoidal energy over the
appropriate frequency range of analysis.
2. Measure the structural response of the part to the applied input force using a dynamic
br
4. Analyze the consistency of the frequency spectrum from part to part by comparing to a
spectral template created from known good parts. Mechanical resonances are indicated
as peaks in the frequency spectrum of the response. “Good” parts (structurally sound)
have consistent spectral signatures (i.e. the mechanical resonances are the same among
parts) while “bad” parts are different. Generally these templates are setup to evaluate the
consistency of the frequency and amplitude of ten or fewer peaks. Any deviation in (a
range of) peak frequency or amplitude constitutes a structurally significant difference that
l
provides a quantitative and objective part rejection.
ria
The Resonant Acoustic Method technique performs resonant inspection by impacting a part and
“listening” to its acoustic spectral signature with a microphone. The controlled impact provides
broadband input energy to excite the part and the microphone allows for a non-contact
measurement of the structural response. The part’s mechanical resonances amplify the broadband
input energy at its specific natural frequencies, measured by the microphone above the
ate
background noise in the test environment. An example of such a spectrum from 0 to 40 kHz is
given in Figure 2.
yMFr
ee
W
er
rit
an
To
d
ols
ud
Figure 2. Typical acoustic signature for powdered metal part.
ith
rw
Gross defects can often be distinguished directly by the human ear, but human hearing is
ito
subjective and limited to approximately 20 kHz maximum. By analyzing data beyond 20 kHz, to
Ed
upwards of 50 kHz, much smaller defects can be detected, even across production lots given
St DF
reasonable process control. Typically, these defects cause frequency shifts as shown in Figure 3.
These shifts are a function of how the specific defect affects the mechanical resonance, which is
ll P
dependent upon the specific defect location with respect to the deformation pattern of the
Fi
resonance. Fortunately, mechanical resonances are global properties of a structure, and generally
PD
a defect will alter at least one resonant frequency. For this reason, it is good practice to set up
ary
An additional signal processing tool for improving analysis and sorting of good parts versus
defective parts is implemented with a time delay function. Often times a defect may not cause a
substantial shift in resonant frequency, but instead reduces the structure’s capability to “hold its
l
tone” over time. By delaying the structural response measurement (many times just milliseconds)
ria
the resonant peak is not measurable from defective parts because the energy decays too rapidly.
The peak in the frequency spectrum disappears, shown in Figure 4. A practical example of this is
a cracked bell – when struck, it does not ring for an extended period of time as a “good” bell
would.
ate
technique causing the peak to “disappear”.
yM er
rit
an
To
d
ols
Figure 4. Data showing resonance of good part against defective part, processed using time delay
RAM NDT’s basic measurement procedure allows for easy automation and very high part testing
W
Expendable costs associated with such preparation, such as chemicals and waste removal, are
Fr
ud
eliminated. The single impact and non-contact response measurement (via microphone) can be
ith
made as a part is moving down a conveyor, often as fast as a part per second. The parts do not
rw
need to be physically stopped; nor are they required to be precisely located with expensive
ito
robotics on contact actuators and vibration pickups. Simple guides are typically adequate to
Ed
rotate/position the part for impact and allow flexibility to test many different types of parts or
St
geometries. Given this capacity for automation and throughput, and its quantitative analysis with
DF
objective results, RAM NDT is ideal for plant floor, high volume quality control test applications.
ll P
Fi
The core system components are shown in Figures 5 and 6. From the rugged microphone and
PD
industrial electric impactor to the NEMA 4 smart digital controller, the packaging is ideally suited
for dirty, plant environments such as ductile iron foundries. A typical conveyor system for fully
ary
Figure 5. Industrial electric impact hammer designed for millions of impacts and rugged
microphone for non-contact response measurement, shown mounted on conveyor section.
l
ria
Figure 6. Smart digital controller measures signals and processes data, independent of PC, with
internal digital relay outputs.
ate
testing parts.
yMFr
ee
W
er
rit
an
To
d
ols
Figure 7. Fully automated system on 4 ft conveyor section, shown with acoustic chamber for
ud
Successful implementation of RAM NDT depends upon proper setup of the accept/reject criteria
ith
ranges in the part template. Each type and/or geometry of part requires a separate template. Parts
rw
need to be tested in the same manufacturing state. Typically, templates can be setup quickly with
ito
just a few dozen parts in less than a ½ hour. This sample set should include both good parts
Ed
(ideally with at least several from different production batches) and parts with the expected
St
variety of flaws. It is recommended to validate the template and resulting part sort with a larger
DF
statistical data set of a few hundred pieces. Often other NDT techniques, for example magnetic
ll P
particle inspection, are complimentary in this regard, or destructive evaluations are commonly
Fi
used for correlation as well. Once the specific part’s template is verified for accuracy, large
PD
System validation can be performed using a controlled set of known parts. Parts of a given type,
both good and defective, are kept as “standards” and run through the automated system for
validation on a regular basis. Across batches over time, signatures often show trends where
mechanical resonances shift due to acceptable variations in material properties (density, etc.) or
process variations (heat treatment, etc.) By investing time upfront with this type of system
validation procedure, process engineers and technicians have a better understanding of their parts
br
and manufacturing processes and ensure the reliability of their inspection system.
The manufacturer of the powdered metal sprocket shown in Figure 8 below needed to automate
inspection, primarily for cracks and flawed teeth. The initial part template was set up using 70
samples. 30 of these were visually inspected as good parts, while the remaining 40 were
determined to have a variety of flaws such as broken, chipped and cracked teeth as shown in
Figure 9. Typical data from several parts is shown in Figure 10, where frequency shifts down
l
from cracks (two blue traces left of acceptance box) and up from broken teeth (red, pink and olive
ria
traces right of box) are clearly displayed against the two good samples (black/gray traces peak
within box). These physical flaws correlate nicely with the theory presented in Section 2. A
crack is simply a weaker spring (lower stiffness, k, in Eq. 1) and a broken tooth reduces mass
(lower mass, m, in Eq. 1) which affects the resonant frequency accordingly.
ate
yM To
ols
Figure 8. Powdered metal sprocket.
d
an
er
rit
W
ee
Fr
ud Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
PD
Fi
DF
ll P
ary
Figure 9. View of powdered metal sprocket with chipped, broken and cracked teeth, as indicated,
clockwise from top.
br
Li
l
ria
ate
Figure 10. Data at 6700 Hz resonance from 7 samples.
Results of this evaluation showed that the flawed samples could be reliably sorted from the good
parts. Of note, one of the “good” samples had significant shifts in resonances, indicating the
yM
presence of structural defects. (This is common, often related to the inability of visual scanning
ols
techniques such as magnetic particle testing to detect internal flaws.) Given the volumetric,
To
whole-part testing by RAM, this part was successfully sorted and contained where subjective,
visual inspection failed.
d
an
er
The resulting template configured for this sprocket was implemented successfully in production,
rit
with millions of parts reliably tested per year. Prior to RAM NDT, the facility was scrapping 6-
W
8% of production parts and still had field failures returned by their customers, all while trying to
ee
keep up with 100% inspection via magnetic particle testing. RAM NDT reduced this scrap rate to
Fr
ud
under 2% by eliminating false rejects (for example, a part that has a flaw indication on its surface
ith
yet is structurally sound.) Additionally, and more importantly, RAM NDT has prevented any
rw
6. Conclusion
DF
ll P
The RAM NDT technique serves quality minded manufacturers who are dissatisfied with visual
Fi
detection techniques such as magnetic particle, liquid penetrant, or X-ray, which are time
PD
consuming, costly and subjective. RAM NDT allows for simple integration of a turnkey system
ary
that is a reliable, fully automated method for quality control and process improvement. This
rapidly growing technique creates an economical, on-line inspection system that provides for zero
defect product supply. Unlike previous implementation of resonant inspection which are
excessively complicated and costly to automate, RAM NDT is fast, simple and reliable, and
easily re-configurable. As a result, powdered metal and casting manufacturers around the world
have proven the benefits of RAM NDT resonant inspection over their traditional inspection
techniques.
br
7. References
Li
[1] Juran, Joseph M. and Godfrey, A. Blanton, Fifth Edition, Juran’s Quality Handbook,
McGraw-Hill.
[2] ASTM E1444-01 Standard Practice for Magnetic Particle Examination.
l
[6] ASTM E2001-98 Standard Guide for Resonant Ultrasound Spectroscopy for Defect
ria
Detection.
[7] ASTM D4086-92a (1997) e1 Standard Practice for Visual Evaluation.
[8] ASTM E165-02 Standard Test Method for Liquid Penetrant Examination.
ate
yM Fr
W
ee
er
rit
an
To
d
ols
ud ito
Ed
rw
ith
St
PD
Fi
DF
ll P
ary
br
Li