Comparison UT v EC

Eddy Current (ET) Ultrasonic

(UT)

Probe

No Couplant needed
Couplant

EC Inspection Area

UT Inspection Area
Metal
Production of Eddy Currents
Magnetic Effect of an Electrical Current

DC CURRENT

MAGNETIC FIELD
 Magnetic Field of a Coil

North
+ ve

DC

- ve

South
 Magnetic Coupling

• When a magnetic field is brought into close proximity

with a conductive material the material is influenced by
the magnetic flux such that, when the flux changes, a
current is introduced into the conductor.
 Faraday’s Law
• States:
• “When a conductor cuts, by any means, the lines of force
of a magnetic field, an electromotive force (EMF) will be
induced into the conductor.”
Faraday’s Experiment
Magnetic Field of a Coil
North
AC

Primary
Field

South
Magnetic Field of a Coil
South
AC

Primary
Field

North
Magnetic Field of a Coil

Electrical current produces an encircling magnetic field.

Alternating electrical current produces an alternating
magnetic field.
The alternating magnetic field in the coil is called the
Primary Field.
When the coil (probe) is now brought close to a conductive
material a Secondary Field is produced and induces Eddy
Currents (EMF)
How Eddy Currents are Induced

AC Primary Field

Secondary Field
 Eddy Current Flaw Detection

Primary Field
AC Fault

Secondary Field
Eddy Current Flaw Detection
Eddy Current Flaw Detection
Eddy Current Flaw Detection
Eddy Current Flaw Detection
Eddy Current Flaw Detection
Eddy Current Flaw Detection
Eddy Current Flaw Detection
• In the previous slides the eddy currents produced by the
coil have been modified by the fault.
• Thus the magnetic field produced by the Eddy Currents
has been modified and the fault is identified.
FACTORS AFFECTING EDDY CURRENTS

• There are 7 main factors, which affect Eddy Currents.

 1. Conductivity:
• The ability of a material to permit the flow of electrical
current through it. In the majority of cases it is measured
in %I.A.C.S. (International Annealed Copper Standard
established in 1913.). Conductivity changes in a material
can be due to 5 Factors:

• ALLOYING
• HARDNESS
• INTERNAL STRESSES
• TEMPERATURE
• CLADDING
 Conductivity

Alloying
• Alloying is the combination of 2 or more materials to
form another material
• Each alloy has a different combination of materials or
a different heat treatment
• Eddy currents can easily distinguish between individual
alloys due to the changes in conductivity
Conductivity

Hardness
• Hardness will have a distinct effect on the conductivity
of a material
• Materials with different hardness may have the same
material makeup, but with a different heat treatment.
• Materials in service may be subjected to accidental
heat treatment, which can be detected by the change
in the conductivity of the material.
Conductivity

Temperature
• In a similar manner to Hardness, the actual
temperature of the material will affect the
conductivity.
• Generally an increase in the temperature of the
material will result in a decrease in conductivity.
Conductivity

Internal Stresses
• Internal stresses can cause a change in conductivity of
the base material in the regions of the internal
stresses.
Conductivity
Conductive Cladding
• Cladding layers can be used as a sacrificial layer on
some materials
• The material is generally softer than the parent
material
• This material will have an effect on the conductivity
measurement
• The uniformity of thickness of this material can also
be measured.
 2. Permeability:
• Is the ease with which a material can be magnetized. It
may be expressed as a ratio B/H, where B is the Flux
Density caused by the Magnetising Force H.
• OR
• The ability of the magnetic domains in a material to
become aligned when a magnetic field is place across it.
• High Permeability – Soft Irons
• Low Permeability – Hard Steels
• Note: Only applicable when inspecting of ferrous
materials.
Ferromagnetic, Paramagnetic, Diamagnetic

Ferromagnetic – Strong attraction to a magnetic field.

µ = >>1
Paramagnetic – Slightly attracted by a magnetic field.
µ = >1 (in some cases)
Diamagnetic – Materials repelled by a magnetic field.
µ = <1
 3. Frequency:
• This applies to the frequency of the Alternating Current
supplied to the EC Probe. The frequency effects the
depth of penetration of the EC Field. The Higher the
frequency the Less the EC Field penetrates the
material, the Lower the frequency the Greater the
penetration of the EC Field in the material.
 4. Geometry:
• A change in the geometry of a specimen will affect the
EC Field as the probe passes over it.
• Edge Effect – Scanning close to or into edges will affect
the eddy current signal.
• Thickness Effect - variations in thickness will affect the
eddy current signal.
• Mass Effect – Scanning into or along an internal or
external radius will affect the eddy current signal.
 5. Proximity :
• When the probe is moved away from the
surface of the specimen, the strength of the EC field
weakens. This is commonly known as lift off.
 6. Discontinuities
• Discontinuities, such as corrosion and cracks, causes a
distortion of the EC Field.
 7. Probe Handling
• Usual associated with hand held surface probe inspection
where the probe is not normal to the specimen, causing
distortion of the EC Field.
Review Factors Effecting Eddy Currents
Factors EC can be used to detect.
Conductivity. Flaws and discontinuities.
Permeability.
Material specification.
Frequency.
Thickness of non-conductive
Geometry. coatings.
Proximity. Material thickness.
Discontinuities.
Probe Handling.
 Analogue Instruments v
Impedance Plane Instruments
• When using an analogue (meter) instruments all the
affects caused by a change in the eddy current field are
displayed as a % deflection of the meter’s needle. This
can cause confusion in interpreting what has caused the
needle to deflect.
• To help improve interpretation of different Eddy Current
affects Impedance Plane Instruments can be used.
Impedance
Impedance is the total resistance to current flow in an ac
circuit, measured in Ohms, symbol Z
Impedance is made up of Inductive Reactance, Capacitive
Reactance and Resistance.
In Eddy Current inspection we only use Inductive
Reactance and Resistance
The resultant of these 2 factors can be represented as a
Vector Diagram (graph)
In Graphical Format Showing Different
Impedance Vectors

More Inductive Reactance

Less Resistance Inductive Reactance and
Resistance are Equal

Inductive
Reactance = XL
Less Inductive Reactance
More Resistance

Resistance = R
In Summary
Changes in the reaction between primary and secondary
magnetic fields cause changes in the coils IMPEDANCE.
These changes are caused by one or more of the factors
affecting Eddy Currents.
Vectors

As discussed each material has its own conductivity.

We can display the individual conductivities in graphical

format, by plotting there vector position, at a given
frequency.

The plot is known as a “Conductivity Curve”

The conductivity curve,
is a graph which shows Air 0.0% IACS
conductivity of
individual materials.
Titanium
3.3% IACS

Reactance Aluminium
Alloy 35%
IACS

Differing materials have

differing conductivity and fall
on unique places on the
conductivity curve.
Copper
100% IACS

Resistance
 The IMPEDANCE
Air PLANE display is a
window into the
Lift off changes the conductivity curve.
conductivity towards the
probe in air point. The window can be rotated
and zoomed to provide a
display screen.

A fault changes
conductivity
Reactance Al momentarily at a
tangent to the curve.

The direction of point

movement indicates the
reason for the change in
conductivity.

Resistance
Rotated Impedance Graph = Screen Display

Fault

Conductivity
Curve

Lift off Balance point of Al

 Impedance Plane Instruments

• The impedance changes received by the instrument is

displayed as a “flying spot” on the screen.
Typical Impedance Plane Signal Responses
 Flaw Detection

Primary Field
AC Fault

Secondary Field
Flaw Detection
Flaw Detection
Flaw Detection
Flaw Detection
Flaw Detection
Flaw Detection
Flaw Detection
Flaw Detection
Flaw Detection
Flaw Detection
Flaw Detection
Flaw Detection
Lift Off (Proximity)

AC
 Edge Effect

AC
Edge Effect
Edge Effect
Edge Effect
Edge Effect
Edge Effect
Edge Effect
Edge Effect
Edge Effect
Edge Effect
Edge Effect
Edge Effect
Edge Effect
Edge Effect
Edge Effect
Edge Effect
 Ferrous Effect

AC

Ferrous
Fastener
Ferrous Effect
Ferrous Effect
Ferrous Effect
Ferrous Effect
Ferrous Effect
Ferrous Effect
Ferrous Effect
Ferrous Effect
 Mass Effect

AC
Mass Effect
Mass Effect
Mass Effect
Mass Effect
Mass Effect
Mass Effect
Mass Effect
Mass Effect
Mass Effect
Mass Effect
Mass Effect
Mass Effect
Mass Effect
Mass Effect
Mass Effect
Summary of Typical Indications
Low Pass and High Pass Filters
Filters
Filters are used to reduce or eliminate unwanted signals.
There are 2 filters, Low Pass (LP) and High Pass (HP). LP
reduces high frequency components of signals and HP
reduce low frequency components of signals
The frequency of the Low and High Pass filters should not
be set so that there is no gap between them, this will
result in the inspection band width being zero and no
signal will be displayed.
The setting/adjustment of the filters should always be
carried by observing a sample defect signal scanned at
the desired inspection speed.
Low Pass Filters (LP)
A low pass filter is used for reducing and eliminating rapid
signal changes, such as electrical interference.
If a crack is traversed quickly, with a low pass filter used,
the instrument will treat it as a rapidly changing signal,
and the indication will be reduced.
When using a rotating probe, the low pass filter should
generally be set to the highest setting available to give
maximum bandwidth. This will allow the best resolution
of sharp defect signals.
Low Pass Filters
The table below provides information on the maximum
probe to work piece relative speeds

Filter Frequency Speed 1 in mm/s - max Speed 2 in mm/s - max

speed of movement using speed of movement using
1mm diameter probe or 2mm diameter probe or
two differential elements two differential elements
1mm apart 2mm apart)

1.5 kHz 3000 6000

300Hz 600 1200
10Hz 20 40
High Pass Filters (HP)
A high pass filter is used to reduce, or eliminate, slowly
varying signals from the displayed trace, such as drift due
to probe temperature change, material changes and
geometric effects.
In particular this is used with the motorised rotating
probe to reduce noise due to out of round holes, or probe
vibration.
If the probe does not traverse a crack quickly, when the
HP filter is being used, then the instrument will treat it a a
slowly varying signal and indication will be reduced.
High Pass Filters
The table below provides information of minimum probe
to work piece relative speeds
Filter frequency Speed 1 in mm/s - minimum Speed 2 in mm/s - minimum
speed of movement using speed of movement using
1mm diameter probe or two 2mm diameter probe or two
differential elements 1mm differential elements 2mm
apart. apart
5 Hz 10 20
25 Hz 50 100
50 Hz 100 200
100 Hz 200 400
200 Hz 400 800