Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ABHIJIT CHAKRABART!
Professo r, Department of Elcdrical Engineering
Bengal Engineering and Science University
Shibpur, Howrah
SUNITA HALDER
Lecturer, Department of Elect rical Engineering
Jada vpu r University
Kolkata
I
I
1
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II Jlen
Contents
Pre{ace ..... .................................... ..... ............. ........ ................ ,........ ......... ..." ................ ................. .... xiii
I. Introduction .................. " ............... " " " ............ """,,",,",, ............. ,,"",, ......... 1- 12
1.1 StruClurc o f oil. Power Syslan ............ ............................ ..................................................... I
1.2 The NC'Ccssity of Contro l o f oil. Power System ................................................................. 3
1.2,1 Cn ntmJ M c1brxls ..... . ... . ........ " .. "" . " ... " " .......... . 5
1.2.2 Advanta es of Co ute r Control ._.. ,.............................. _........................... .......... 5
12.3 Trpc:s of Computer Control Syslem ..... ..... ................. ............. ........ .... .................. 5
13 Power S tem R resentation ...... ,.... ,....................... .,...... ......... ,.... ,... ...... _.............. ,........ 6
1.4 Pov.'er System at Normal Operatin g State .. __ _.... _.... _........ _....... _._,........................ _............. 7
1.5 Operating Prob lems in Power Systems ........ ..................................................................... 8
1.5. 1 Loadabilicy of Transmiss io R Lines ........................................................................ 8
1.52 Frequency Dynamics of Tra nsmission Line ....................................................... 10
1.5.3 Overload and Frequency Decay Rate ......................................................... ,....... 10
1.5.4 Tra ns ient Stab ilicy Problem .................................... ,..... __ ...................................... 12
1 <; 5 power Osc illa tions ]3
1.5.6 Reac tive PO\\'er Limita tions and Voltage Contro l Problems ........... .................... 13
1.6 S«uricy AlllIl ys is and Contingency Evaluation ................................................. ,........... 13
12 Automatic Control IS
1.7. 1 Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC) ......... ................. ............................ 15
1.7.2 Automatic Voltage Control (AVC) ......... .......................... " ....... ............................ 16
1.7.3 Co ntrol Components in Power System ............................................... ................ 16
1.8 Use of Computers and Futun: Trends ..... .................... ,......................................... ........ 18
Exercises .... ...... .. ..... .. .. .. ..... ... . ..... .. .. ... ...... ..... ........... . ... ... ..... 19
•
I
CONTENTS
~{"dd1iu£ I)f Exci ter .. ........ ... ......_._._.... .__ ... __ ... ._..._..... .... .. .. .... .......- ', ·.. ..... _n._
....... E
.. .... . . .. . ... .. ... . .
15 Mode ll ing of Regulating Transformers (RTI .... .... ·....... ............. ... ............... .............. ", ... J2
2.6 Three·ph3~ Modelling ..,...... ,.... .. ..... ... ,... ... .... .... ......... u .. .. . . .. . . . , • • , . _ . . . . . . . . . . . __ • • • • • • • ' n .... .. .. n
•
,, , ......
I•
I .' ... .. ... .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .... .. .. . .. • • .. (6
•
: 3. Power Network l\'(atr ix 0 eratlons .................. __ .................... _ ............ 47- 119
, 11 lnt rodoction to [ r& n) Fo rrnu l~t ion ..... ........ .. .. ............ .... .... m 47
. . . . . . . . .. .. m ... . . . . .. ... . . . . . . " .. . . .. .
12 Nooal Method fo r Deve lop ment o f [ Y" ,,) ... .. .................. ,.. ... ...... ...... ..... ........... .. ...... n
I 33 Modification of {YlIgsj Due to Inclusion of Regu lating
Tra nsformer between Two Buses 57
3.4 Form-uion of [Y_l wi th Tr~nsfnnno::r Pre""nt in the line ............................................ (D
3.5 Development of [ Y&wI Using Singular Transformati on .................... .............................. 14
3.6 Development of [Y1I..J Matrix Using Coefficient Matrix ................................................ KZ
3.6.1 Steps of Algorithm to Develop [YIIm ] When chere is no Mutual
Coupli ng between Branches (Using Coefficient Matrix) .................................... 84
3.7 Formulation of Complete [ Ys.J for a General Network ................................................. 96
38 Modifica tion of [ Y_ l for Branch AddilionIDeletion ............................................. ....... 106
3.&1 Qe"elopntent nf [Ya..J by Step by Step [yJ Array Formation ........................ 107
3.9 [Ya. l Forma tion with Consideration of Mutually Coupled
,I linc:s Us ing Step by Step [y ] Formation ...................................................................... 110
3.10 Computational Aspe<:ts of ( YIIuoJ FormaTion .................................................................. II I
3. 11 [Zp..l Build ing by Step by Step Method ...... ................................................................ 11 1
, 3.11.1 ,\ddit;on of a Branch (or Link ) Zb from a New Bus to the Reference
Bus (Type_I Modification) (Fig. 3.18) ................................................................ 111
I 3.11.2 Additi on of a Branch (or Link) Zb from a Ne w Bus to an Old Bus
(Typc-2 ModificaTion) (Fig. 3. 19) ..................... ................................................... 112
3. 11J Addition of a Branch (or Link) Zb from an Old Bus 10 the Reference
Bus (Type-3 Modification) (Fig. 3.20) ....................................... .. .................. 113
3.1104 Add ition of a Branch (or Link) Zb between Two Old Buses
,,
,, (Type-4 Modification) (Fig. 3.21) ........................................................................ 114
3.!l.5 Add ition of Two Branches (Z. aDd Zt ) with Mutual Impedam:e (Z.)
betwccn Four Buses (Type-S Modificati on) (Fig. 3.22) .. __ ................................ 11 6
Exercises .................. ............ " ............................. .......... ......... ........ ............ .......... ........... ......... III
•
I,
Malenal, Jtor"
CONTENTS
I
,
The fundamental aim or this Ic)(t is to present a number of engineering and economic matters in power
system planning operation and control in a comprehensive way. The topics substantiated by a number
of illustrations and computer progralllS describe analytical methods of power system and their
operation and control. To understand the text, some acquaintance with the basic concepts in power
system as well as advanced calculus methods is needed.
The chapters have b« n methodically arranged, starting with the basic aspects of power
engineering problems. In each chapter, the relevant methods have been dealt with the help of suitable
computer-based examples. In a few se<:tions, while dealing with operalKmal problems, optimiution
methods have been preferred as they can be u5Cd without extensive mathematical proofs and arc
useful in solving practical problems.
The text begins with an introductory discussion on common operating problems and basic
lISpects of powe r system operation, including structures of power system, power system
representation. and representation of power system clements. Different co nventional models arc
brie fly described and analytical trealmCnts are presented to show the modeling concepts of power
apparatus like Synchr01lO11$ generator, transformer, transmission lines, motors, etc. Matrix operational
methods applicable to powe r network also get proper anention. Exhaustive analytical treaunents arc
presented for the conventional load flow methods. A ll the conventional methods of optimization are
explained with the help o f suitable examples. Some practical and applicational aspects of basic
philosophy of ALFC also form part of the discussion. Fundamental aspects of reactive power control
and voltage problems in transmission network followed by modem developme nts in this field including
advanced treatments have been detailed. Compu terized methods for the analysis of faulted power
system have been furnished as well.
The text is self-contained and thorough . It is intended for a one·semester course for
postgraduate students as well as II one-year course for senior undergraduate students in electrical
engineering. Practising engineers and researchers will also find the book suitable for their use.
The authors acknowledge the constant encouragement they received from the respected
Vice·Chancellors Prof. N.R. Banerje& of Bengal Engineering and &ience University. Shibpur and
Prof. A.N. Basu of Jadavpur University for th is project. They also express their gratitude 10 the
xiii
resp«live lk~ns, Registrars, and Head s of the lkpartments ofbolh these univers ities for offering all
facililies in course of preparation of Ihe manuscript.
The authors cordially invite any constructive criticism of or comment about the book.
Abllljit Chakrabuti
Sunil' Hallla-
NeighOOuring syst~
To Tic lin~ To
other ~ys lcm Other s)'litem
•~---- -- ---------- ----------------------- ------•
•• •
•I
, Tran'lni", ion level
•• •
--------l
•
;-;t::~~.:~r::.~:~--~!- --------- •
•
JL-_____________________l _, '"~:"jf;::cr
• •
f -----------------r--------------:
: Sub Iran~ nll!ion kId ~
Stand by
G",,·Sct
To _ Step down
---X---------- -!------
: Distribution k wl I
di~L
{H.T. OO<!sunlCrs)
•
Secondary di st.
( L T <<lOl<umcrs)
Transmission of power is usually done at HV / EHV / UHV range due to the kno",1'1 fact that it reduct'S
the power loss in the line as well as improves stability. The common transmission voltages acros.s the
globe are 3J kVI66 kVlIJ4 kV/ 1J2 kVII38 kVJI61 kV1220 kV1230 kV/345 kV/400 kV/500 kV in
the HV and EHV ranges and 765 kV/800 kVl llOO kV/ 1500 kV in the UIIV ranges in most partS of
the world whi le the generat ion voltages have commonly been 6 kV/ 11 kV/ 12.47 kV/I3.2 kV/ 13.& kV/
15 kVI16 kV122 kV (all an: line-to· line voltage).
In sub-transmis.sion leve l. the circuits diSTribute electric power to a number of distribution centres
in a cenain geographical region at a vohage leve l that typically varies between 1J kV and
138 kV, the most common grades being 3J kV/66 kVl flO kV/ 120 kV/ 132 kV. The sub-transmission
circuits may also receive electric power directly from any generator bus. Larger customers are mostly
served by sub-transmission leve l circuits. In small power systems. the sub-transmission level may
coincide with the distribution level.
The distribution le,·el consists of the d istribution circuits in the o"eral l region of distribution.
The larger consumers, i.e. high tension (H.T.) have been termed as primary distributors while low
tension (L. T.) consumers an: the secondary distributors. The consumers consuming energy between 3
kVand 23 kV an: H.T. consumers while the consumers in the category of I 10 V-4001440 V lie in the
class of secondary or L.T. consumer'S. The increasing demand on the electrical energy has led not on ly
to diversificat ion of the generation. transmission and distribution network but also raised the points of
proper utilisation and reliability of the e lectric pow ... r. This, in tum. has necessitated the pooling of
larger number of powcr systems into a common grid and consequently insisting for proper scheduling
of generat ion and demand. It also turned ou t that the incorporation of a large number of systems into
a common grid makes the operation of the entire system very sensitive to the operaling conditions.
Thus in addition to the study of po....er system opera/ion. the knowledge of p{)lver system ron/rol is
very much required in order to run the system economically and to maintain a continuous balance
between generation and varying load demand. In one way, the problems of dyn3m ic and transient
stability. steady state stability, voltage and frequenc), n:gu lation , power optimisation need to b<!
properly ana lysed and on the other hand, II mcthodology of overall system control is to be devised.
Digital co mputers arc the most e/Teet ive tool for the ana lysis of a power system.
The management and comrol of a power is a complex process and it requires proper
interaction between many levels. Figure 1.2 i ,~~. salient clements of Ihe cOnlrol hierarchy.
Manual cOnlrol is generally slower Ihan..·~!~i~-~ . . The a~ailabi1ity of digital computers has
resulted in consideration of digital ~~L . , coordinating the control parameters of
~arious le~e l s previously under La l ~ ~i'
.
Pr imary control at the lowest i, control structure is most fundamental for
the proper operation of the power s)"5tem. ,
lowest le~e l control was analog conlrol, but
small digital systems based on microcomputer
, , are now being imroduced , This comrol
inc ludes the control of go~emor set point and , and ~oltage con!T(l1 of the station.
The higher levels of control range for longer , , intervals and are largely manually controlled.
Howeve r. computer control schemes ha~e been for economic {O<Jd disp{J1eh and load
Power plant
.
I
Lower Ofdcr
e;t;t~~l
contro l
Manua! com",!
,
• I
,
••
••
••• lood fn:q. ~ont ro! Digital , load fn:q. CQflt.oJ
Manual
cont rol
••
••
",
,~ " ,onom;e Digital
control
,
• 0
,,, "
, , M:muall
digital
, control
,
C
Manual
System
", control
,
",
• Mauua'
•
•• syst,.n+
control
•
• •
f ill. 1.1 , conlrol SlruCtllt'C .
fl1!qllcm:y cOlllrol. Though unit commitment has been computerised in presen t-day power sys tems.
syslem maintenance and system pl ann ing are most ly manually controlled. Ada!'t;'"<' control. the newe r
control conce pt , is being imple mented to the sect ion in the power network fo r impleme nti ng most
desired operat ion.
When Ihe COnlro! is off-line, the computer is Ihe dala regarding the process Ihrough II
human operator. The computcr is not the actual system. The duty of the computer is
\0 process these data and output the results operator can ~ommend a control action.
In on-line systems. the computer i Ihe power system through suitable
intcrfacing circu it ry and receives Ihe nece$Silry data any human intervention. The com puler
processes the input data and outputs the result who then implemcnts the control action.
This is basically the simplest on- lin e control and is 1 as open-loop on-line control. It is also
possible to have closed-loop on-line control where computer requires no manual inlervenlion in
implementing the output dedsion. The computer i I' is transmitted to the power system network
through necessary interfacing network automalically.
In the in-line type comrol, Ihe operntor d". from the system and enlers them rapidly
and directly into the compute r through the keyboard.
The digital computer is not on ly the moS! I tool in power syS!em control but also th e most
sophistiemcd. To economise the t 11 .,.<om. in the lower levels of control. some
analog contro l equipment can still be used. This the purpose of instrumentation and metering
too. Analog conlTollers can be used to i system control aspects for training purposes
also.
Before applying direct computer control. it is possible to use cheapcr digital instruments to
gather data and provide track up for analog i Digital means may also be adopted for data
storage and control of power system elements in sector. Careful planning is needed for the
successful imp1c mcnlation of a computer as a Figure 1.3 shows the steps that are to be
considered before implementing the decision I
Fe~sibility
Pr<lbIcn1
study of
definition comp. oonl.
Step· I St"f'l·J
ScIC(:(ion
Simul.lron
~""" "'
obje-ctivc
Step·6
Training
.M
implemental;1>I\
Step· 7
Fil. IJ Sleps of planning "~ I '."P"'" conlrol.
system by means of simp le s)'ste ms for each component resulting in si ngle-line di~£.mm. ~s shown in
Fig. 1.4.
Bus-2 Gcn.bu .• ~
T,
,
G '---/CB •
Dir.::ct;on of
G,
Bus· )
Gcn bus pow.:r now
Fi&- 1.4 S;"8k· lin~ "'p~mal ;on of a simple tw..... bus sysl( ln.
Any particular component mayor may not be shown in the diagram depend ing on the
in format ion required in a system swdy. e.g. drcllit break ers need not be shoWl1 in a load now analysis
diagram but are 10 be shoWl1 for a protection study. Different generator ~nd transfonncr con nections
an: indicated by proper symbols. Equivalent circuits of power circuit components can be represented
in the d iagrams.
O~erlOJdingof any power system component results in higher temperature of operalion and the
component is likely 10 bi: d~Ul aged. System stab ili ty, given by Ihe mimI/Will power that can be
transmined. also ind icates the power system operatin g at normal stale. Th is .m ·ady $llIIe ••,abili,y fimil
(also known a~ .wllic I,,,,,-,mis.fi(m C"pocily) is given by
( 1.2)
In atl altempl to lransmit mote power than this limit. synchronism is lost and the transmission
system collapses. For short lines (less than 100 km). the thermal limit capability fi~es the loading of
line whereas for medium or long line. the stat ic transmission capacity becomes the limiting facto!".
Vo/wge .l labilily is another operati ng par.\mcter that needs to be considered.
/'- (1.3)
(assllming equal sending and receiving end vollag.e, the power an·g le being Jand transfer re~clance
, be in~ X. X - XL..f being the reactance per unil length and L, the length of the line). Also.
( I .4)
where Zo "" surge impedance '" If,(an~ c being the li ne reactance Jnd shunt c~pacitance per unit
length, respectively, p .. phase constan t of the wave of proPJgation ( = m./k, tlJ being the angu lar
frequ~ncy), oelect rica l line length ofthc line in radian and 0('" (lL ) being small, sin 0", O.
Subst ituting equa tion (1.4) into eq uation (1.3)
V1 1 . sin ';
p "" " - sm ';'" (SIL J",-~
s inO Z" sin O
P sin';
[in p.u .. SIL - (1'2120)] (1.5)
SIL sinO
Equation ( !.5) ind icates that the power transfer c~pabi I ity can be repre~cnled in tcnns of SIL.
Figure 1.5 represents the loadabil ity of a typical EHV sing le c ireu it tine assuming variou s I inc lengths.
r
"
~
10
0
,"
~
,.;
,•-
I '0
~
0;
"'" 200
Line length (kill)
300
• "'" 300
Hi gh sourCe rN Clance plays a vita l role in limiting the line loa dab ilit),. Loadabilit)' can be
improved by reduci ng the reactance of over head wires and placi ng series capadtor in line as we ll as
relaxing the vo ltage drop constraint.
Reduction of line power loss improves line loadability also. This can be achieved by utilising
low resistance conductors. parallel wires in the transmission system as well as by placing shunt capacity
at the load end. Loadability is severel), impaired b)' the application of shunt reactors in the Jines up to
500 kV, This impainnent is not much for UHV lines. Fi gure 1.6 represents two profiles
of line loadability for t\\'o systems. one having higher source reactance and line reactance (tenned
as I<'ellk system) and the other for lower so urc e reactance and line reac tance (lermed as robust
system ).
I
,,
•
2. 5
,, I /'
rur robust system
I
'.5
I
•
I , .0
05
i ,
i,
o
". 200 300
l.im: ICl1l;lh (km)
". •
, •
~' ig. 1.6 1'lOliks of iu.ldabi!ily of lobus! and wea~ s)'Sl~ms_
II X ,'"(~. _~I )
If• = 1v.'11'11
o
The ra te of change of the line rea l power flow can Illen be repre$Cntcd as
( 1.6)
I
I (1.7)
I
!
/:if. and 6/, being Ihe Til ' Ihe Sialic tran smission
! capacity.
In case the slatic tran smi ssion capacity oflhe line is low. higher frequency deviations are to be
I •
power ou tput lIos~ being negJe<:ted), there will be a tcndcncy of speed change in the generator rotor.
As the machine consists of hc~vy rotational mass. the speed change c~nnOI be insta ntan eous and is
governed by the following equJ ti on .
T - Jdw
,"
I Jto ais
INTRODUCTION
dw T P~ I
_=_=_x_
oc.
dfJruJ
As. p. '" .accelerating power = P, - P,; P r being the turbine po"'er output and PI' the
electric.al power output. Also,
M = Joo then,
dw
I.e. . - =
where M = (2H/w,,.), w,,., being the synchronous speed of alternator rotor. Thus.
oc. fLL(p,_,
dl 2 H •
) (1.9)
In a SO Hz system from equation (1 .9), the initial frequency decay rate for a s~tem toeOCQullter
II sudden load demand can then be represented by
(UO)
The initial frequency decay r.lte for diffCR:nt types of loads for a typical radial system for varying
attempted overloads has been graphically reprucnted in Fig. 1.1.
Z"'''
, Frequcn<::y
of
mi~ro
dependent __
I""d '~d
(;,L
(Hz/sec)
2 Frequency indcpatcknlload
Mat,
POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS: OP£RATION
V (kV )
---__
--- - --'
\vilh ,\(;T
WililOttl AGT
"
•';1:. 1.8 I mpro~cnk·nl in "ol1age profile 10 MiT in Iflmsicnt slability pro;>blcm .
P (I>IW)
,With "GT
80<) -- ------ -
"JO
ol--~--~-
.,
Ti me (""c) ,
Wi~",'" AGT
MatE Jtor"
POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS: OPEIUoTION AND CONTROL
contingenc ies so thaI the operator may take cOITC{:\ive aClion in the event of the ir occurrence. Thus,
the ana lysis of some of the most probable ronlingencies helps in enhancing system seeurity. The
security assessment and its enhancement fonn an importanT part of planning and operation of power
systems that arc continuously expanding.
The main operating Slates of a power system may be classified as
(a) Nonnal
I (b) Emergency
(c) Restorative
However. later on Iwo more slates. "Alert" and "Extremis", were added. For the sa ke of
understanding, on ly the three-Slate trans ition diayam of Fig. 1. 10 will be considered here as this
diagram provides a good conceptual picture oflhe overall computer control requ irements of a po""cr
system.
Normal
Slale
ReSIOmli,-c Emcr!:e"",},
~ IJI~ Slate
I
I Fig. 1.10 State transition diagram.
Most of the times. the system rema ins in the nonnal state as stated earlier. In this state, the load
now equations are sat isfied and voltage constancy is maintained. with all operating (or inequality)
constraints being satisfied.
When these constraints are not satisfied. the system is said to be in a lcn state. Contingency
evaluation is. therefore. required to find out if the prevailing nonna l operating cond ition is secured.
The imponam and probab le contingencies to be considcred are:
• Outage of a line
• Outage of a generating unit
• Single phase or three-phase fault.
The modem powcr system conlro l centres (or load dispatch centres) are the places for secur ity
I monitoring , In these centres. on-line identification of the actual operating condition is undcnaken
util ising a computer-based technique. known as stale estima/ion , The state estimat ion gives the load
dispatcher the best (stim31e of 1he comp lex bus voliage at any instal)! from the redundant SCI of
1,1 atE
/folTRODUCTIOIII
telemetered data and brcilker status. The sec urity anal)'1i5, with the help of the state estimator. then
finds out the impact of the contingencies using somc fast load flow method such as Fill! Decoupled
Load Flow (FOI..F). In this way, the real time data obtained at the energy control (entres are examined
by the security analyser to find out the security of the system. If the sys tem ;s found to be insc(ure,
then the system engineer dctemlines the preventive (ontrols \0 be applied to brillg the system back
into the se<:ure zone. This may require geneT"lltion Tesdeduling andfoT a change in the interchange
schedu le. This nonna lly would deviate the system from the most e<:Ollomic operation, but is quite
justified and is very much desirable.
In case the emc-rgency occurs due to cascading events or contingencies, the corrective emergellcy
comrols such as optimum load shedding, the network rearrangement, starting up of some quick-stilrl
units are 10 be applied to bring the system back into a secured state.
Contingency such as outage ofa line. generator or loss of a transformer would reduce the securil)'
leve!. The operating prob lems as indicated earlier may also lead the system to a state having lesser
, secur ity. This state is now the alert state where the system remains stab le alld the operating constraints
are satisfied, but an abnormal voltage and frequency condition may arise. This type of state can be
tolerated for some time. Preventive controls (for example. start up of standby units andfor
compensators) may bring the system from this state to th e nonnal sta te.
However, when Ihe system is in alert stale, some additional contingency may take p lace such as
fu rther loss of unit or line. The (ontingencies in the distribution or sub-transm ission levels may also
lead the system to another state with lesse r securil)'. This is an emergency state and emergency comrols
must be imp lemented to $ave the system from vulnerdble collapse. There may be undue voltage
depression andfor overloadillgs of lines during emergen(y state. If the emergency controls fail. lhen
the over loaded line must be tripped and the system faces the risk of total shutdovo"ll (the extreme state).
Load sheddi ng and intentiona l voltage degradation are the two most effective means of imp lementing
emergency control in order to $ave the power system. The restora tive stale invo lves reschedul ing of
active and reactive power, re-synchronisation and gradual load pick-up. The system now returns either
to a new normal state or to the previous normal state.
In order to avoid the damage to the costly (omponents of the power network. as a first line of
defence, protective devices are used allhe appropriate pbces in the system. FUlKtions such as re lay ing
and voltage contro l are carried out within milliseconds and executed I(l(:a lly throughout the system
and no cCIlualised de<:ision-milking process is involved. Typically. a re lay detects the fau lt and initiates
a circuit breaker tr ipping to remove the unhealthy part of the network or faulted components from the
rest of the system. Another importanl objL""Ctive of lhe emergency control is to perfonn automatic
reorganisation of components. The re-closing of a line must be fast enough. The fast application of
emergency controls saves the system from the loss of synchronisalion and subsequent island ing.
MatE Jtor"
I
POWER 5Y5TUI ANALYSIS; OPERATION AND CONTROL
maintain power ba lan ce by an appropriate adjusunent of the wrbine torque. By means orllle primary
loop, a relatively fast but course frequency control is achieved. The secolldary ALFC loop works in a
slow reset mode to eliminate the remaining small frequency errors. This loop also controls Ihe power
interchange between pool members. While the primary loop response is over seconds, the secondary
line adjustments may take about minutes and will stop only after achieving zero frequency error. [t
may be nOled that since the whole group of generators within II given area move coherently, the
frequency dynamics is slow. thus charact~ising them all wilh the same lI/(frequcncy crror).
In the case of interconnected power systems, tie-lines are erected \0 interconnect the
neighbouring areas. Muhi-area d)l1amic is imponant to ~ di$Cussed. All the power commands can ~
executed in unison among all the g~nerators under control. The secondary AI..FC loops in a multi-area
system contain control si gnals. now referred as area conlrol errors (ACE). wllich , in addition to
frequency error I!/. a lso contain tile errors in the lie-line powers. These corn:epls have ~en discussed
in Cllaptcr 8.
manager. a helpless speclalor of various grid problems such as overloading of transmission elements,
poor VAR management etc. Lack of controlmcasures to deal with emergent operating conditions often
leads to grid disturbances Bnd blackouts. However. with the availabilily oflhyristor valves for power
applications. it has become possible to repl ace the mechanical operations by electronic sw itches.
Though the ONIOFF operation can still be performed by mechanical closing/opening of circuit breaker.
it is now possible to change the basic characteristic of tlte network by electronic devices to achieve
the requisite flexibility.
The availabilily of faster control is a necessity but not sufficient for making the AC system
flexible . One should first address the objectives to be achieved by the FACTS (Flexible AC
Transmiss ion System). Some of the objectives can be as follows:
• Regulate power flow on AC l ine~ wilh a view to either avoid overloading or to minimise
powcr loss
• To operate the system at a safe power·angle for same power del ivered
• To enhance th e power transfer capabil ily of the system by introdu cing improved dynamic
characteristics
• System island ing under ext reme conditions
• Strategies to save thc system/islands from total collapse.
Aftcr the objectives have been iden tified, the following stra tegies need to be decided.
( i) Planning and openllional system strategies:
• Syste m analysis and planning
• Loss optimisation
• System security
(ii) FACTS controllers stratcgy
(ii i) Inter-uti lity communication strategy.
The details of the FACTS project for a region can be worked out based on the following:
• Installation of s.eries capacitors on ceruin sect iooslJines
• Installation of statk VAR compensator.f (SVCs) at strategic loca tions
• Insta 11ation of phase·shifters. i r required
• Low·frequency oscillation dampers, if mjuired
• Commu nication network
• FACTS controller with on·line data monitoring
• Com puter software for grid analysis.
The above items not only require huge investments but also coordination among the various
utilities. A systematic approach is to be adopted and the investments are to be phased out over a period
of time. The following phases arc important aspects in FACT planning.
In tllis phase a few pi lo! project(s} can be taken up for the installation of switched series
capacitors in ceNin selected locations, There shall no! be any nec essity of any elaborate FACTS
I controller at Ihe stage. The control actions can be derived from terminal sub-stations.
Jten
INrRODUCTION
control elements and so on. In addition to automatic genemtion control (AGe) and automalic voltage
control (AVC), the olller denigrated works of the computer' control are economic dispatch, security
monitorins;, security analysis, off-line short circuit calculations and state estimation.
EXERCISES
I. Draw a block diagram of a Hierarchical Control StnK:tun:.
2. What are the advantages of computer control in power system'! What are the types of computer
control'!
3, Draw the single-line diagram of a two-bus power system. What is the usual range of
transmission voltage in India?
4 . What are the 'staleS' in a power system? What do you mean by ~nonnal opeilting stale'?
5. What do you mean by 'loadability' of transmission line? Derive an expression for il.
6. Find the expression for the frequency decay rate of a turbo- ,&~temator following an attempted
OYffload.
7. Write short notes on
(I) Security analysis and contingency evaluation.
(U) fACT system.
•
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In order to implement computer COli/rot of a power system, il is imperative 10 gam I clear
understanding of the representalion of the power system components. Component modelling thus
becomes very important Studies of electrical energy systems are based on the simulation of actual
phenomena using models behaving exactly in lbe identical way as the elements in the physical system.
In research, it is necessary to have models pel ",illing precise and detailed simulation. The different
parameters must be accessib le and the models are required 10 follow the physical prIX'S' as closely
and as faithfully as possible. Then it is required to solve mathematical equations governing these
phenomena. Modelling of active elements, c.g. generator, transformer etc. is relatively difficult while
that of passive clements. e.g. transmission line, relay. inductive VAR compensator tIl: , is easier.
Passive circuit elements are mostly II'IOdelled by their parameters in the equivalent circuits wbile the
active power system components are modelled by their operation in steady, transient.1Id sub-transient
state,
Tbe models used in tbe power system give precise results in a certai n field of bypotlteses
correspolldi ng to their use . Here. the concept o f representation of tbe physica l reality of the
phenomena disappears and onl y the relationsbip between data and results e~ists. Their limited use
leads to s impler models tban the preceding ones and necessitates fewer data processing requirements.
Thi s means that they can be more easi ly integrated into large simulation packages. In these models
the process representation is based 011 the fundamental physical laws. lbougb the model is simplified,
its method of representation takes into aC(:ount tbe principle of non-linearity inherent in the physical
phenomena involved. The models can be structured in modules to simplify subsequent upgrading and
correction of tbe network. To a greater or lesser e~lent, tbe system variables requ ire time in order to
respond to any change in their operatio n. Modelling sbould take care of tbe cbange and system
equ;uions arc to be written to designate tbe state of the operation o f the element. However. writing of
these equations obviously requires assumptions and bence no clear definitive model e~ists for most
of the active elements. Proper model is to be selected by the programmer that suits the requirements
of the problem.
" Mal I
"
MODEl1JNG OF POWER SYSTEM COMPONENTS
The modelling of a synchronous generator needs utmost care as it is the heaTl of the power
system. It may be observed that its modelling is the most difficult task due to its "stiffness" to
the changes in the operating conditions external to the mach ine. On the other h3nd. there is
transmission network that respooos almost immediately to the configurational change and
loading alteration. Thc time constants associated with the network are insignificant in comparison
to those of the synchronous machine. The rotary swing funher complicatC$ th e modelling.
The present text will give adequate stress on an alternator modelling such that the basic building
blocks for computer·aided analysis of the operation of the power system can be developed at thi s
stage.
Mod.! '0'
From the basic eonce~ on electrical machines. it is well known that a group of synchronous m:IChines
or a pin of the power system may be represented by • Jingle eq"imlenf synchronous mDchint'.
Similarly. an infinite bllJ. representing a pan of the system having 1:ero impedance and infinite
rotational inertia. may be similarly modelled using the operating stlue equations while the: machine
voltage is assumed to be constant behind d-axiJ lran£i~nt reactance (X;). In this chapter. the salient
pole synchronous machine is only considered. 115 the cy lindrical rmor machine model may be regarded
lIS II special case of a salient machine model with Xd = X~; X~ and X~ are the direct axis and quadrature
axis synchronous reactana:s. tespectively.
To model II !iJIIlient pole generator in transient state, two transient voltagcs Ire to be assumed
(E:: and~) representing the flu" linkage in the rotor wiooing. The transient operation is assoc iated
with addition of transient reactance and voltage to the Sleady sl3te model (Fig. 2.1). The
phasor diagram of the transient condition in the machine has been sllo ..... n in Fig. 2.2. where the induced
voltage E h:ts been ronsidered the sum of the two vol tages EI3nd E. unlike to that in the sleady state
model when E = E, and Ed = O. The: transient voltage in this model can be sho ..... n to e"i5t behind tlte
transient reactances X~ and X; . The equations representing this model are thus
a-axis
X. =X,+X_j
[ X, = x,+ x..
•
Fit- 1.1 Phasor diagram of steady Slate operation salient pole a.l!ema101'. sumx d stands fOl'direct
axis quantities and suffix q fOl' quadrature axis Sumx I indic*, leakage quantity; V4 and II/
= I negative.
d-axis
f.
[Here. E and V represem induced and terminal .,1'," while I is the machine currenl and X' is the
uansient reactance of the salient pole alternator. d and q are used to designate the direct
axis and quadtature axis components of the ~. Vd and 1.1 are numerically negative .]
1,1 atE
MOD£LLlNG OF POWEI! SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Mode! 1
Here. the model of the machine has been assumed to have the magnitude of COII5tanl voltage behind
the d-axis transient reactance only; q-axis transient flullO linkage has been assumed to be so small that
it has been neglected. However. the mechanical system equations have been considered in thislllOdel.
Hence, the modelling has been done utilising the equalions (2. 1) and (2.2) in addition 10 rotor swing
equations given by equations (2.]) and (2.4).
. '" dw
-=m-2tr!o (2.4)
Modi! 3
In this model. tbe InInsient effects in both the d and q-ues have been oolUidered. The soverning
equations are represented by equations (2.1) to (2.6). Equation (2.5) considered the flux linkage
changing with time for the q-axis while equation (2.6) describes the same for the d-axis. From phasor
diagram of Fig. 2.2. equalion (2.6) can be formed as
Mod.14
Sub ·/ransien/ nate or operation has not yet been considered in any of the models discussed 110 rar.
Due to the presence of a damfN' winding . sub-transient state or operation needs attention. Similar to
the transient modelling. in this case also. two sub-transient new voltages (Ej and E:;) have been
assumed. Figure 2.3 represe nts the phasor diagram of the alternator during sub-transient stlte of
operation. The governing equations can be wrillen as
e; = Vd + fJR. + f qX; (2.7)
(2.9)
,,
,,
,
,,
.
,,
,,
,
,
,
, E"
,, " ,
,, "
" .. ' .~
,
"-. v
..... ,,'
'
I , "
f't" 2.3 I'hawr diagram of the sub-transient stale opel3lion of the witnt alternator. E" is the transient
voltagc (d·axis projeCtions arc numerically DCgativc)
(2.1l )
Here V, and V,," repastnt components of voltagc V in real and imaginary axis.
.., "'...................
"...
..' . .... V
.
,, ,, - ,,- .-
" .-
~
, . .. , .-
: ...,
,- , . ,·axis (Machine)
- v," ,
,,
-
"---~', . .... . Real axis (Netwtd.)
,,- ,,- .-
" V,
,, - .-
.-
~\
•.".1.4 Co-~lation between alternation and network frame of ~ferellCe.
It may be noted here thai the two reference frames and the relationship between components of
the reference frames (equation 2.11) are commonly discussed in the lilerature. II may also be oolCd
that a given phasor V has been distributed inlo two very different forms of components depending on
the angle lj of the mach ine reference frame. II may be observed that the vector V can also be
represented in the form of equation (2.12).
(2.12)
where V, and Vd are purely real quantiti .... Assuming the positive scqu~nce volt~ges and CUrTen" with
.
the ampJirude and phases, the general relation between tllest variables may be wrinen for the network
.... P.
, =~sin.5
x' , .
[....!...
X'
-....!....]
X',
sin 2.5 (2.15)
,,.
P,(.)---\
(COOlm&nded chanic ~_ (opmini nhtcilIIl t
in power)
R .. speed regulltion of the ,""=0
KfC " i,inofthe~govemor
TfC .. time conSlAntofthc: 5p«d
The speed governing system of hydroturbine is more complicated. An ~dditionaJ feedbac::k loop
provides temporary droop compensation to pr-.:vellt instability. Th is is ncc(SSitaled by the large inertia
of the Pf'flJtod gate, which regulates the rate of water inptJt to the turbine.
Here. tJ.x
<
=0 KSG
1+5T.iG
(liP.' -..!..tJ.w)
R
(2.16)
Equation (2.16) plays an important role in modelling the governor operation. Let us consider a
simple e.lample. Alisuming an increment llP, =0 1.0 at t =0 0, for a speed governing system under test
(i.e. operating on open loop resulting tJ.w:: 0), tke iocremcnt in sturn valve opening at, is obtained
from equation (2.16) using the Laplace transform of &P,:
K.iG TSG
= (2.17)
I
S s+-
T~
, (2.18)
The response curve has been ploned in Fig. 2.6. Thus. the governor action has been modelled
utilising the concept of transfer functions.
----------------------
""1
T~ 31-."
Fl • • 1.6
"
Speed governor response curve.
s,~ Turbine
chest
Tocondenscr
.". 2.7 Block
After passing the control valve, steam enters the turbine via the steam-chcst
T
that introduces the delay din ~ ,,,d,,, " s) in the steam flow resu lling in the tnlnsfcr
function
I
(2 .20)
l +sTr
The turbine governor block diagram has been in Fig. 2.8.
s....
• govnning - - -.;._ _ _ Turbine - - . . ; ,
'>"'=
IIR
K.
block diagram.
IIR
.....
( , '.'"
This model can a lso be modified to account for re heat cycle steam IUrbine (Fig. 2. 10). This is
more efficient and is used fOf modcro-day large scu;. The overall transfer function of the reheat type
unit is given by
~.(s) dP,(J)
.~
X HP .tage LP .(age
"'"
To ~ondenser
S
Re-heater
The hydro turbine design varies with the water head (Fig. 2.11).
.. ..........
n.m
Penstock:
Water·
h,.,
G• Cl-,-:"~TL' (2.22:1)
l +sT,
where . Tp is the time it takes for the water to pass through the penstock:.
,
,
, ,
,
•-
• • • .
,
,
,
-
, \
•
:i!2"
1;;
..l
~
• ,
~l! ,
• •
~.
.. .;: "
•~.
0
~;'
,
>'0
>
d: . ~
,
i•
.
~~
, .' t
--
~
.l1
,
•
•
.!
•
-'5
••
,,, !, iE
P
,~ ~ ,
"
~
••."• . -."
•
•
~
<
...:-5
~ t
h
,
·,
o 0
'0
U~! I ~WV
§~
i':
:x
, .-
J!;'
"• ~ ~
'i. '"\
.' •
, \
~l~
•....
~ }
• •
.'
, ~
"
J ~
-' ,
~
,
••• - .""'
"
0 + ,
"
.,
.~
•
0
·
,
-,
~
0
+ , .!
"" ~
- +"
0
R ••
"
- • "0
g
I~ .',"" .!•-
• + ~
-
•
1
,- ~
~
<
,•
•
.t •• "- "
::i
t
+ ~
,
i ~>< , +
In !he blod: diagram of Fig. 2. 13. T~. the tim~ cons/ont a/1M recrifier is very small and may be
neglected. The amplifi er gain K"""" is usually high (between 2S and 400). Amplifier time constant
I• (T,t.o,;» is in the range of 0.02-0.4 sec. A stabiliser has also been dIown to stabilise the gain of th e
exciter. K". the stabiliser gain. is 0.02 10 0.1 while srabiliser time COllSlanl T. is in the range 0(0.35
10 2.5 sec .
I Some simplifications lead 10 a simplified block diagram as shown in Fig. 2.14. Here,
v=
K~ .... K, q
= V",;
K•.• +K~J(,(1'
when; (J is a factor associated wilh the transfer function of the synchronous generator wilen loaded.
" K~ .. -I 'I'
-
'. I I
,
, prj Sec
II " IniLO
Fi,. 2.15 R.gu!atini tr:tn~(orm« in a two.bus network.
I MJlerl ,"
MODElliNG OF POWER SYSTEM COMPONENTS
- , - V, ,-V,
RT
I, I,
Y.
~/'~
[I, J = ~Yu J [Y"~~V' ~
[Y~ J [YIT [V, J
(2.30)
.ha.
(iX]=[/l/1 /Jr
(2.31)
[t r ]=[/./}/6 ]r
I, I, I, I,
v.)
Thus. the si~ coi ls can be represenled by t coib (X and Y) consisting of thm:
ind ividual adminanccs. This has been shown in Fig" IS.
[ ~d f
~. (2.33)
since [YnHr
Y , Y Y. Y,
(neutral solidly grounded)
Y Y, Y, Y,
( r ' 5iJk neuuul
soli dly glOOn.ied)
.Y y
, ""
Y.
Y,YJ
Y,
- YdJ
- Y,
0 0
where. Y
0 , 0
0 0 ,
2y - Y -Y
fA ' )'a "" -y 2, -y (2.36)
- Y• - y
-y , 2y
0
0 -, y
y 0 -y
(2.37)
wilerc l YpsJ '" l YlI' f and is the same as OJ,,,,'m, " . YI'I'. Yss indicate self admittances 31 primary
and secondary buses while Yps and Ysp represent mutual admi!laoce. In C:L<;e the off-nominal IlIp
ratio is to be included. Section 2.5 is to be fo"'",.., in conjunction wi th the abo~e modelling.
-\ xSRr '
:] (2.38)
{6xl)matrill (6xl)m:urill
~ "•
)
I,'
r~
H
r " Y~H
~
r~
n
IX, 1
IVJ
1 1[V,I
['l'-] ['l'-]
(c) Equivalent mood.
I Y" I
S, o - - - - - - - " ' R,
I YIII
1'"
1Y.,I [Y,J
'" IYnl '"
I Y.,I
,. s,
. !YJ<I
R,
[Y.J 1v"
•
Figures 2.21(0) and 2.2I(b) represent the compound admittance form of the matrix represe"tation
~Ilown in equation (2.39) corresponding to Fig. 2.20.
S
" ". " Y" Y'1 " hI!
R
f,r Y"
Y" Y" Y.
Y"
y' Y"
[y.1•." Y,( Y. [r..,1606)
•
"
.
MJler! 1:m1 dlreibs Jtc'·ilJ
MOD£ LUNC OF PO WER SYST£M COMPONENTS
[Y...[
s __- - - . - - - ' ' - - - - - - - , - - _ R
[::l =
[XNJ' +[r..,] -[X"J' [~::l
[::l [~:l
(2.40)
-[ X"J' [X.r' +[Y
,,]
[12 x I] (12 x 12] (12xl]
matrix matrix matrix
t.o.d bus
"
7',
"
c e =-: c
I I I
Fl&- 1.22 Model repuKnt:l1ion of shunt ~ap.d!<x..
As there is no coupling between the components of each phase. the Y matrix only contain s the
dwgofl(ll elements. In a similar way, the modelling of I shunt reactor can be done.
(2.41 )
IljX "
Hen:. [r,,] =
IljX M
Figure 2.23 represents Ihe mode lling.
cllhanced.
The SVC injected CUfTent inlo the bus i~ then ,,,,by
I = (2.42)
Here. Y=G~j8 (2.4J)
IG may be assumed 10 be zero here. ]
The MVA ()IJ IPU! of the SVC is given by
S "" VI-SII<.'
/I - II
1'"' 0 'x i OO (2.45)
,\,
Mate-ria Jtore
MODf.U ING OF POW!://. SYSTI:M COMPON!:NTS
where H is tile illCflia constant, T... the mechanical torque and T, the electrical torque. Howeyer. the
mechanicallOl"quc: is equiya lent to load torque and is commonly Cllprc:ssed as
(2.47)
I: i$ an e;o;poncnt and is J for fan type: of loads ~nd 2 for pump type: of loads. The electrical torque is
giyen by
r.. :. Real [EJ-V2nIo (2.48)
where E is the ai r gap yolt.age, f the st.ator current .input and fo the base frequency.
The transient reactance x:
has been defined as the apparrnt reactance seen through the
equivalent circuit when the rOlor is held locked and the s lip is unity.
Thus. from Fig. 2.24, the equiyalent ciKuit during transient operation. we obtain
x,
x' "" x.
1'1 .. 2.24 Equi~a1e!!l cil"l;uil of indoction /IIOIOf durin, transient Stale of operation.
The transient model of the induction motor has been assumed by a Thevein equivalent circuit of
a voltage E' behind the: transient reactance J( while the transient time constant T
o is given by
To = (2.50)
(2.52)
X']
X'
[V. -e:.]
Vi"-E'...
(2.54)
The rotor reactance does not vary much with the variation of rotor resistance with slip. provided
the salUration effect is neglected. Transicm reactancc X' varics with rotor reoJClance only and hence is
a lmost constant ~t any slip.
~ induction machine can also be modelled in terms of d-q axis as follows: the (p.u) vollage
equations for a s inglc rotor winding induction motor in d-q coordinate are given by
(2.55)
, (-Xo J
V... '" L, IV", (2.64.1)
[V"]_[R"
V" X,
-X;] [,,,].[V;:]
R, '.. Vq.,
(2.66)
(2.67)
The state equations C3 n be developed by substituting (he value of Voir and V., from equations
(2.64) in (2.57) and (2.58). Substitution for io/rand i., is done from equations (2.61) and (1.61). In its
new form. IV.... and " .. are replaced by V; and V~ using equation (2.64a). In its final ronn. (he
derivative of V~ and V; are taken to give:
V; _ R;sin6-X;cos8
(2.74)
V; - (I -R;C056- X;sin8)
[6is the motor p.f. angle]
V, "'1"'Ile
i6
, (voltage at node I)
The current I{ can be expressed as 3 function of the volta~s. Thus.
• It. line or cable connetIini two buses i :and j can be: modelled by • "pr' equivalent circuit tuvillj series impedance
.too and shlmt admiuance YiI' where !4f .. Tij + ~ and y~ =,~ + jh" Since the ~p, circuit of !he line is symcfricaJ .
.c
we '"tllne aij . lJi '"' 0; It~ . hJi = T
Mate-nail Jm dlre-itJ Jtoral.
POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS: OPERATION AND CONTROL
rq Xv
Yjj=G~ +jH~ andG"- " -- ' H
r.:' II
:o -
~
;oa(1)
Also. at node i.
However. V;. is compleJt conjugate of VI and hence
fl=RealJVt[ L YIj(Yr-V1 ) ]1
1 YIIVj+
....
(I)
(2.76)
... (l.TI)
Simplification yields
...
jI .. (i) JO"(I)
.... "'il
whue P" and Q4' dellOle the active and'reactive powen through the line connecting the ith andjth
"""". Obviously.
Pi! = v/ (Yif cosOij + ,~)- VjVjYi/ C05(OIj + 6; -6'J) (2.80)
'4 '" V;l ( Yi/ sinOiJ - ~)- V;VJYiJ sin{OiJ + 6; -6', ) (2.82)
(Nol~; Conventionally Bli = 0 and hi) = ~I{ . It may be noted that power flow equation Itave been
dealt in deLlil in Chapter 4 where we replaced the notItion ofsusceptance H by B.)
Jlen
•
MODEf.l1NG OF POWER SYSTEM COMPONEM"S
Constant
ClImnt
p
Q
(p.u.)
, .' "
..-
V(p.u.)
.
• C~,
impedance
•
1.0 p.u. '....
.r:.J
-----------------------;.~.~.- ---'_ Constant
where. V .. IVI Lo. tan - I Q. (} is fhe power factor angle. II is k.nown as constant
(J ..
p
current representation as the currenl remains constant. Fluorescent lamp belongs to this
type of load.
(il) Corman! f'OY"t!f type
This load is specifIed by its MW and MVAR ratings and is assumed 10 be constant. Thb
type of representation is used in load flow study. Induction motors belong to these types
of loads.
(iiI) COIlslant inl,ndanu type V
Here, the load is spe.;ified in MW and MVAR al nominal voltage. Here, J "'z and Z is
assumed to be constant.
Here I varies wilh variation of V. The load impedance is determined by
Z = ~Z = PW· =1L=..!.
- jQ P - jQ Y
(i np.u.).
Healers , domeSlic loads and incandescent lamps are conlWlt impedance loads.
EXERCISES
I. What is 'modelling of electrical components' and wily iI is required?
2. Explain the a~lylical concepl behind differenl models conceptS of an iwlated synchronous
generator.
J, Ho w would you analytically model a regulating transformer in power network?
4. Explain the concept of 'three-phase modelling' .
5. Analytically model the fo llowing:
(il a three-phase single circuit transmission line,
(ii) a pair of three-phase mutually coupled transmission lines,
(iii) a shunt capacitor,
(iv ) a series capacitor.
6. What is SVC? How would you model it?
7. How would you model an induction mocor in d--q reference frame?
8. Develop power flow equation in a power network.
(3. 1)
,.
• o reference node
In a complex network the nodes being numbered O. 1.2, ... , n. whell: node 0 indicates the
reference node, by Kirchoff's cunent law, the injected cunent I; being cqualto the sum of aU currents
leaving node i; thus, we can write
• •
I, - LI,. LY,(V, - Vi ) (3.2)
j o4) j .o
With no ground potential (i.e. with zero reference voltage), for a linear sy!lcm,
• •
I, ... LYj.,JIi - LYqYJ (3.3)
I _~ j_t
j-' j-I
This equation, for a n-bus network, in mauix form can be represented as:
I, Y" ~, •••
~. V,
r,.
I,
··• - Y" Y"
·•• •
·
•
v,
·••
(H)
oc• (3.5)
•
[Y.,.,] is called Bus Admittance matrix and it has a well-defined structure. The clements of I Y,..]
arc importanl and hence defined below:
YIi> the diagonal elemel1l, is called u /f admiftance or~ i, while Yr the off-diagonal e/emel1l,
is caUed mutual udmillance (or ,rullS/er admittance) between nodes i Mldj.
•
Obviously,
fi, '" L>'
i~
i·' (3.6)
,,'" y~ = - Yi;
The e lemenl5 of ry&"] matrix are complex numbers; rY~ ... J matrix itself is thus complex.
Each diagonal e lement IrmrH_ •.• J is the sum of the admillilllce of the branches wh ic h are
linked with corresponding i-th, j-th nodes including branches to ground, while each off-
diagonal element Yf is negative of the bl1lI1ch admittance between nodes i andj. In order
to illustrate this pro~rty, lei us assume a two-bus system (Fig. 3.2) where a transmission
linc: is represented by series admittance y.. and shunt admittance y*
(j) . - - - ---{~Y·:::'::]--I--·
••,
(3.7)
In actual systems lots of interconnections do not exist bel\\.·een a number of buses and hence the
[Y_ l matrix becomes highly IJparlJe (containing number of zero clements in the matrix). This saves
tremendous computer storage and memory requirements. The flowchan for obtain ing [rs""l by nodal
method is shown in Fig. 3.3.
~
,,. ,
...
1 Ii
No
,.
'-" YBUS1 .. _ YBUS1 ... )")'>r,KT.
YBUS"'. !>"T. - - t1'•.,.. .....
rBUS.,•.w, a YBUS"" ,7.
Is iSNL?
,..
No
....
A "".:.:
.. ' ,
SoIli... count. I _ I
I. t - NF,?
" 10 I - NT, ? "
'" '"
c:omp.... YD, - I"D, r . re, ..
' ,
..
"a lIiSNL1 i+-i+1
No
~+-A:+ 1 Is A: '!: NB? '"
I No
Sci bus rount, .t .. 1
k+-I+II
b.t'!:NB? '"
No
..,
AI.3.3 FloII/chart of [y....1foml:llion by nodal ~thod.
Q) ..., =----i='=:":J--.:J! Q)
•
-'---'- (j)
Fij:.O. 1 A thrtt-bus three-line power Sl'stem.
, Solution :
Given: :11 "' :l.J ~ Ill'" (0.05+jO.lS)p.u.
I .
'" (o.o5+jO.15) =(2 -J6) p.u.
Since the given problem is a three-bus system hence [ Y..... J matTix would be a 3 x 3 matTix.
where.
Ybu s ( 1. .}o'- )
- ( 4. 000000, -12 . 000000 I Y"
Ybus (
Ybus (
1.
1•
2 I
3 I
-- (
(
- 2.000000,
- 2.000000,
6. 000000
6.000000
I
I
Y"
Ybu s (
Ybus( 2.
'. 1 I
2 I
-- (
(
-2. 0 00000 , 6.000000
4 .000000 , -12 . 000000
I
I
Ybus ( 2. 3 I - ( - 2.000000 , 6.000000 I
Thus (
Ybu!I (
3.
3.
1 I
2 I
-- (
(
-2 .000000 ,
-2 .000000 ,
6.00000 0 I
6.00000 0 I
Ybus ( 3. 3 I - ( 4. 000000 , - 12. 000000 I Y"
EUlilple 3.2: In Example J. J. Jor the Jame three-blU ~Iem (Fig. Ell) lei a nrw bw (bw no. 4)
be added with btu no. J Ihrrwgh a trQnJmiJJian line aJ p.lI. :: (- 0.1 + jO.3). Ohtain IY//luI.
Solution:
Let lhe bus no . 4 be added 10 bus no. 3 through a transmiss ion line of (0. 1 + jO.3) p.u., i.c. =..
}'ll " 1/(0.1 + jO.3)" (I - j3) p.u. (F ig. £3.2]. Sincc the ne w clemen!~ is added with bus 3, entries
of Y )} will changc and new entries of Y:\oI and Yu will appear in the new bus admittance malri1t.
Obviously. du e 10 prcSC'nce of 4·bw; systCtn. this bus admittance matrix will be a " • 4 matrix.
- ~(!)~,_ =::J---=:J- 0
J ).... 11:.14
fig. [J.2 A M'" bus added to three-bus S)·stem.
YJJ .. YJJ ,oIdl + ( I - )3) '" (5 - jl 5) p.L1.
YJoI .. Yo " - .V)., .. ( - I +)3) p.L1.
Y",", m(I _ ) 3) p.u.
Since there is no conneclion of bus 4 with any other bus, exce pt bus no. 3, hence.
YI~ " Y~\ .. 0; Y!-I - Y~2 " O.
Final Iy....,] matrix thus becomes
4 - jl2 - 2 + j6 - 2+ j6 0
-2+)6 4 -)12 -2 + )6 0
[ ,-] . -2+ )6 - 2+ )6 5- )15 -1+ )3
p.u.
0 0 - I +)3 1-)3
Execution of (YIIt..>J software ~Iso yie lds the same result. It is Idl. for the reader as an exerc i$C.
Eumple 3.3: The following dOlO rtfers 10 a $ix·bu$ le"..Unl' pawt r ntlltwir.
,
4 2
2
)
4
,
0.05
0.05
0.2
0.15
0.025
0.015
6 2 0 . 15 0.2 0.02
7
8
2
) ,,
6 0.09
0.15
0.25
OJ
0 .025
0.03
9
10 ,
4
6
0.25
O. 15
0.4
0.28
0 .035
0.025
Jlen
POWER NETWORK MATRIX OPERATIONS
Yb us {
Ybus{
1,
1,
1 I
2 I
-- I 3.872679, -11. 526170 I Y"
I - 1. 7 24138 , 4. 3103 45 I Y ,
Ybu.s { 1, 3 I -- I .000000, .000000 I
Ybus (
Ybu.s(
1,
1.
4 I
S I -- I
I
- . 7692 3 1 ,
-1 .379310,
3 . 84615 4 I
3.448276 I
Yb us {
Ybus(
Ybus(
Ybus (
1,
2,
2.
6
1
2
I
I
I
-
--
I
I
I
. 000000 ,
-1 . 724138.
.000000 I
" . 3103 45 I
8.575396. - 21. 654300 I
-1.176 471, 4. 70588 2 I
2. 3 I I
Ybus {
Ybus (
2.
2.
4
S
I
I
-
-- I
I
- 2.000000 ,
-2. 400000,
6.000000 I
3 . 200000 I
,,
,
Ybus( 2, 6 I ( -1.27 4788. ) . 541076 I ,,
Ybus{
Ybus (
3,
3,
1
2 I
I -- (
(
. 000000 ,
-1 . 176471,
. 000000 I
4 . 705882 I ,
,
MJlerl I J{l1 dlreibs JIc>raJ
PO WER SYSTI;M A.NALYSIS: OPERATION A.ND COHTROL
Ybus (
Ybus~
3,
3,
3 I
4 I
-- (
(
2 . 509804, -;.317549 (
. 000000 , .000000 I
Ybull~ 3, 5 I -- ( -1 . 333333 , 2 . 666661 I
,
Ybus (
Ybull{
'tbus {
3,
"
"
6 I
1 I
2 I
-- (
(
(
. 000000 ,
- . 169231,
- 2 . 000000,
. 000000 I
3 . 8 46 154 I
6 . 000000 I
'tb us(
" , --
3 I ( . 000000 , . 000000 I
Ybus!
'{bus! "" I
5 I -- (
(
3.89282 6, -11 .563910 I
- 1.123595 , 1.191153 I
,,
'tbus {
'tbus{
'{bull (
"5,
5,
--
6 I
1 I
(
I
.000000,
-1.319310,
. 000000 I
3 .448 216 I
,
, --
2 I ( - 2.400000, 3.200000 I
, 'tbus { 5, 3 I I -1 . 333333, 2 .666667 I
'tb us( 5, I ( -1.123595, 1. 791153 I
'tbus (
'tbus(
5,
5,
--
5 I
6 I
(
(
1 . 722860 , -13.747120 I
- 1.486620, 2 . 775025 I
Ybull ( 6,
, --
1 I ( . 000000 , . 000000 I
, --
,, Ybus( 6, I ( -1.274788, 3.541 01 6 I
'tbus( 6, 3 I ( . 000000 , .000000 I
Ybus ( 6, I ( .000000 , .000000 I
'tbus(
Ybus (
6,
6,
--
5 I
6 I
(
(
- 1.4 S66 20 , 2.775025 I
2.761408, -6.266101 I y~
Ybus (
'tbus {
1,
1, , -
1 I
I
• I ) . 812619 , -11. 526770
( -1. 724138 , 4. 3103 45
I
I
Y"
,
Y"
'tbus (
Ybus!
1,
1, , --
3 I
I
( .000000 ,
( -.769231,
. 000000
3.8H154
I
I
Ybus (
Ybus (
1,
,,
'
5 I
6 I
-
•
( -1. 379310,
( . 000000,
3.448276
. 000000
I
I
Case A: When the regulating transformer is present between two buses and is placed,
s/ the receiving end:
Let us assume the regu lat ing lransfonner is having a complu transformation ralio of
a ( .. I a I L a). Fi gure 3.4 represents Ihe voltages and currents al the line and bus side for Ihe
transfonncr being included in the line.
,
PrimlU)' vol4lge
,
V,... _ a";(mv. ) j
,
,
, I,
,,'
I ) '. ),
(o; I)
1
,
~il- 3." Equi,-aknl ~i",uit for a line ,ontai ning regulmi ng transformer bctwecn \WO buses and placai al the
rcce;>' ing end. [S, and 5, ~ the inj ected comp lex powers al the srnding end and recei\';ng end ~s.
=pccti'-c1y. while I', and I~ are respective btlS ,'oluges. IaI > 1. Le., Ioi" I + 1&>11.
The IrMsfonner is assumed 10 be neMeT to the j-tll bus (re<:eiving end bus) and has ,omplc)(
ofJ-nominaltap ralio a : I, wh ich CorTeSpondS 10 Vprt: V.... ; also, lot > 1. Assuming the transformer
be loss-less.
.'"
10
....L ~ a .. IaILa
,,
~' (i.e_. Vprl) = aVj (3.9)
Also. iRput power being equal to outpUt power,
V;' Ij
Of - = 11 = - [ 1; is the secoRdary current of transfontterJ
I
• Vj / :_
,
[
' _ ...J....
[,-
Ii ".
Ne"t we consider the CUTTeR! ba laRCe a! two buses by the follow iRg two equations:
(3. 10)
, (3. 11)
,,'
, 1,1 atE
I
POWER NrTWOII.K MATRIX OP£JU.T10NS
•
•• I ) = (-aoYvl \.j+ooo(Yo+YvlV, (3.12)
Let us flOW rewrite equations (3.11) and (3.12) in pair (orm u (allows:
(3.13)
-" 1
al(yo+y~)
(3. 14)
•
- I,
,.
(1 : ,,)
Fit. 3.5 a.rlvaienl cirevit fCit I line coruinin& reJUlating transCo""tr bd~ two busts
and placed II the se~ end. rial> I. i.e.. lor[ .. 1 + jQa[J.
Y'
Hen!, :...L '"' Q " I II 1La, i.e. Vi " QV; (3 . IS)
V. •
Abo
(Power bting equal at the transformer input and output, while I; is the secondary eUlTent of
transformer]
I," .. ..!..
", ,
(3.16)
'"At bus i we can write ,
o[
1/ '" a Ii '" a al'/yo +(aJi - Vi )y~]
0
I, '" aa'yoV;+aa'y~~-aoYuYj
'" ..
..• I, = Qao(yo+Yv ) l'/-a'y{iVj (3.17)
AI$O at bus j we can write,
... (3.11)
In matri)( form equations (3. 17) and (3.11) can bt realTllnged as
.. .. , ,
,
[',]-["o(r,+r,) c,' y ]
[~l (3.19)
Ii -ayv Yo+ Y:
..
H=
-,'
IYI · ["'~:r:r.) Yljr,] . (3.20)
.
l
[Yj .. [a (~:~YU) -'Y, ] (321)
)'0 + )'1/
rransfonner system connected between bus i and j . Figure 3.6(a) rcpracnts the tr equivalent circuit
when the transformer is placed at the receiving end. while Fig. 3.6(b) represents the 11" equivalent circuil
when the transformer is placed al the sending end. II may ~ noted here that Y" and Y...., or Y<oI, in
Fig. 3.6(a) and (b) correspond to YI1 (or Y~I) a"rld Yll or Y~l rt$peclive ly.
"
, ,
• , ,
j
, ,
r";
'" ,
, , ,
, , , , , , ,
" ,\ ",
r.... a)'~; r....-, " a'(y. "')',1'" (--11)'). .. a' )'• .,. a(a - t )y~ ; ,
roO, .. (Yo'" )'~) ... (- a)'v) " )'o· (I - alY¥
fi" 3.6(a) It Equivaletild int it for the uansfonncr
,
pI~it;rtbi'=eivilli md ("'I > I).
, '. j
"
r..., r..,
-- . ~. -
' 'T' ..
..
.
.. , .. ,
,. ,.
. .. " .. ., r.. .. ")'f ; J'~, .. a' (y. -f- )', ) -+- f-<IY>V" ,,!.)'•.-+- <1(,,- 1W¥ ;· .'- .. -- ._. - -
,
Then !he (r... 1matrix. can be modified with inclusion oflhc InnsfOilllcr 't eith« end with revised
form of 11$ self (diagonal) and transfer (off-diaSOnal) demenl$ as shown below; .'. ~ I" .. : '
- , ".-
(II) Fer the taJe whtn tht Irllll$fonntr if at tht rtcti\'ing end fid;
r~_l = Y;o'+ .•• + Yo +( I-a lYli +-ayti + ... + 'ii
'" >';0+ ' ··+>'0 +)',+····)'.. (3 .22)
Mate-rial Itore
I
,,
,• POWEll. SYSITM ANALYSIS, OPEItIIT/ON AND CONTROL
En.pIe 3.4: A thne· lnu syllem is shown ill Fig. £J.3(a). Assume all idtal trans/orme, to In
XOIIMcud IHtwUl1 b/lSt!s 2 and 1 ill uriltS wilh a liM rractaflU jO.5 p . lI. if off-tlf)mini11 tap ratlD be
,
•
•
,,
I
flc. E3.J(a) A tIne-bus three ·line po.... er l)'item.
,
I
To "" R (ill p.... ) X (in p.... ) Off-nomiNIl tap ratio
ofrnuuform.,
,
•• 1 1 2 0.05 0.15
,• 2 1 3 0.05 O.IS
• 3 2 3 o 0' 1:1.02
I
Soll'dotI:
•
,• Given: Zi l - zll - (O.OS T jO.(5) p.L1.
•
..• Yll- ~- series admittance of line • I . ... (2- j6) p.LI.
O.OS+ }0.15
Since the given problem is. three-bus system. henee [Y"",,) matrix will be a 3 " 3 matrix.
:. [Y"",,] matrix before considering ~ line with transfOlll1er (as explained earlier) is given by
[see Fig. E3.3(b»).
CD -r- =---C·,,:::J------= - 0
."
-'---(j)
f1&. £3.J(b) The system befon: considering 1M: line with ttansfot"Kl.
This is the case of regLllating transfonner placed at the sending tIld, (VifYz ~ 1.02). i.e.
a - 1.02 [see Fig. EJ.3(e)].
·•. I
Yll .. jO.S .. - j2 p.u.
• Y.... QYll .. 1.02>« -j2) '" -j2.04 p.u.
(4 - J12) (- 2+ ) 6) (':2+ j 6)
•·• [r,.I= (-2 +j') (2 - j 8.0S08) j2.04 p.u.
(-2+j') )2.04 (2 -j8 )
¥bus I
¥bus I "
1.
2
J
I
I
•
•
{-2.00000.
(-2.00000,
6.00009 I 'Y'l
6.00000 I
,
Ybus I 2, 1 I • ( -2.00000, 6.00000 I
Ybus I 2, 2 I • I 2.00000, - 8.08080 I
Ybus I 2, 3 I • I .00000, 2.04000 I
Ybus I J. 1 I • ( -2.00000, 6.00000 I
Ybus I J, 2 I • I .00000, 2.04000 I ,
Ybus I J, J I • I 2.00000, -8.00000 I Y"
Ex·mpSe 3..5: Afive·bus SYJIDR iJ J!wt.·11 ill Fig. £3.4. Awun"'l111 idMllrurufo,.mu 10 be conMCtM
bnwun biluJ J" mvl2 inuri",J with 0 lin ... of mJClonc... jO.4 p..... If I~ off-nomilllll rap ittrio be
I: 1.05. find [Y,,;.,l using camp"u,. program.
, , .• " ,
(j)
Line no. 6 a>
,
Line
"" Line
00. I 00.2
00. )
Line no. ~
(l)
Line no. 4
Fll- E3A A five-bus power system.
Th~ lim!! do/a for Ih~ given Iylum is shown below (n~gltcl shllnt charging ~Jftcr)
LiM no. From bus To,," R (ill p.Il.) X (ill p.Il.) Ojf·_iIllIl lap ratiD
of rrwufonMr
I I 4 0.10 0.30
2
J
2
2 ,
J 0.10
0.075
0.28
0.18
,
4 J
4 ,
4 0.15
O.IS
0.35
0.40
6 I 2 0 0.4 1:1.05
Matf, , Jtorai
1
SYSTEM ANM.rSIS, OPEIVITION AND COHrROL
,
Solution:
S e fore
of b uses -
con"ldering
5
line tr .. n,,(ormec
Ybus matrix
Ybus I 1, --1 ) I 1 . 00000, - 3.00000 ) Y"
" , -
Ybus I 1, 2 ) I .00000, .00000 ) Y"
Ybus I ) ) I .00000, .00000 )
Ybus I 1, -- ) ( -1. 00000, 3.00000 )
Ybus
Ybus
I
I
1,
2,
5
1
)
)
-- I
I
.00000,
. 00000 ,
.00000
. 00000
)
)
\'bu,
Ybus
YbU3
I
I
I
2,
2,
2,
2
)
<
)
)
)
-- I .3 .. 103 61,
( - 1.13122 ,
I .00000,
-7 . 90115
3.16742
.00000
)
)
)
Ybus
Ybus
I 2,
),
5 ) -- ( - 1 . 97239 ,
. 00000,
4.73373
. 00000
)
I 1
-- I
) )
,
, YbU3
Ybus
I
I
),
),
2
)
)
)
\ -1 . 13122,
) 2.16570,
3.16742
-5.58121
)
)
Ybus
Ybus
I ), < ) -- ( - 1.03 44 8,
.00000 ,
2.41379
.00000
)
--
I ) , 5 ) I )
Ybus I 4,
<, ,
1 ) ( -1.00000, 3.00000 )
Ybus
Ybus
YbU3
I
I <,
<,
)
<
)
)
-- I . 00000 ,
{ -1.03448,
I 2 . 85640,
. 00000
2.41379
- 7. 60557
)
)
I
- ,,
) )
Ybus I <, 5 ) I -. 82192 , 2.19178 )
--
.00000 , 2.62500 I
{ 3.10361, -10.34115 I
3 . 16742 I
Ybus {
Ybus {
Yb us {
2,
2,
3 I
5 I
I {
--
( - 1.131 22,
,00000 ,
( - 1,97239,
.00000 I
4 . 73373 I
Ybus {
'tbus {
3,
3,
1 I
2 I
{
( -1.13122,
--
,00000 , . 00000 I
3.16 7~2 I
Ybus {
rbus I
3,
3,
3 I
4 I ( -1.03448,
--
{ 2.16570, - 5 . 52121 I
2.41379 I ,,
,
Ybus { 3, 5 I {
--
. 00000 , . 00000 I ,
,
Ybus {
YbU 5 {
4,
4,
1 I
2 I {
--
(-1 . 00000 ,
. 00000,
3.00000 I
.0 0000 I
Ybus {
Ybus {
4,
,
,
..
3 I
4 I
( - 1.03448,
{
--
2.41379 I
2.85640, - 7 . 5 1557 I
,
rbus {
r bus { 5,
5 I
1 I {
--
{ -.82192,
. 00000 ,
2.191 78 I
.00000 I
rbus {
Ybus {
Ybus {
5,
5,
5,
2 I
3 {
4 I
{
--
( - 1.97239,
.00000,
{ -.82192,
4.7337 3 I
.00 000 I
2: 19178 I ,
rbus { 5, 5 I -
{ 2.7943 0 , - 6.86 55 1 I ~,
,
Eumple ),7: Oinuin (Z/Iou"] mutrix lor Ihe J)'$I.,m Je.I'crib..d in uamplt! 3.6.
Solurlo n:
(Z"", ] matrix is obtained by inverr ing the [Ylho ' ] matrix obtained in Example 3.6.
,
T
1.-1 + I
l'J
-L
lsISNBRN? '"
,.
CQ!I1p11te
-, ,
(y] .. [z] ; [AI .. Transpose of[A];lvAj" [y][A)
and [Y.., ) "' [4 [y) [A]
Example 3.10: In a plinian of n po ....er syJfem n ef><'ort (Fig_ EJ.5(a), two brundles 1-2 und 2·) are
mutunlly coupled Ihrough ~ .. (= jQ.2 p.u.). Find the bus admittance matrix using singular
/fan sfo f1tIQ t iOll.
(j)-
• •
(j)
2
•
(Since there is a mutual coupling between branches I and 2, and for both branches the dots are
lowards bus 2, bus 2 is taken as from node for both of these twO branches.)
Reduced incidence matrix is given by
nodes --t
I' 2 3
[..ll - br.tnchcs
.1.
I[-I 1 0]
2 0 1 - I
However, primilive impedance matrix is given by
1 2
Iz] _ I [jO.3 jO.2]
2 jO.2 jO.3
i.e. the primilivc admittance matrix becomes,
1 2
[ y ] '" [;:]
_I I[
'"
-j6 j4]
2 j4 -j6
•·•
[- j6
[y][..l ]" j4 jT'
-j6
1
0 1 -~] "[!;4 - j6+ j4 - j4]
j4- j6 j6
[ j6 - j2 - j4]
" - j 4 -j2 j6
-I 0
Now (Arl '" 1 1
0 -I
-I 0
[ j6 -j2 -j4]
•·•
Irs... ] '" [Ar] [yJ[A] " 1 1
-j4 -j2 j6
0 -I
, I 1• 1 I • I .000000, .300000 I
, I 1. 2 I • I .000000, ' 200000 I '"
, I 2. 1 I • I . 000000, .200000 I '"
, I 2. 2 I • I .000000, .300000 I '"
'"
Primitive I,J matrix
"
(y * A) mat rix
yAI
yA<
1.
1• ,
1 I
I
•
•
I
I
.000000,
.000000,
6.000000
- 2.000000
I yAIi
,,
I )"A'l
yAI 1. 3 I • I .000000, -4. 000000 I .
,A I 2. 1 I • I .000000, - 4 .000000 I
,AI 2. 2 I • I .000000, - 2 . 000000 I ,
yA, 2. 3 I • I .000000, 6 . 000000 I ,A"
'(bus matrix -(t r a nspose of A) *y*A
I, ~ I" / 1,
,• ----{==;==l-------.'
"
J
•
o reference nCldc=
Let liS consider Fig. 3. 10 using Cltrnnt injtlcti{H, ,,·~clors. I; alld Ij: following the sign ~'()nvention
outlined above, we ca n write
(3.32)
I
I by arranging the respective ROda] CUrTent equation s in the vector form . Equation (3.32) indicates the
I di"CliQII of l ij from i tOj-th node with +1 and -I entries being designa1ed as rows i andj. Assumi ng
vo luge drop:!Cross"i1j to be V~ and being dirult:d low"mj I.,. the node vo luge governing eq uotioo
V'i'" VI- V) ca n be represented sim il arly in the vector form as
Pre-mult iplying bolt! sides of equation (3.34) by the co lumn of equation (3.32), we find
(3.35)
i.e. (3 .36)
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POWER SYSTlM ANALYS IS: OPERATION AND CONTROL
C D
j N. F
Solve tbe equation Is*d - I?
.,
[AI',] -[B2] [QDC), forl .. I. 2..... {M- I) Ya
DispllY.
Update bus volla~ magniTUde. (.J Final blls voltagc
vt' - V: + AI',' . for j .. 2. 3, ...• M magnitlKk. 1'/. fOT
-' j .. 1,2. .... N;
"0 load antic .t;',
E .h . .. t+ i1 forl·I,2, .... N ;
• N.
lsi - I" ?
...-,
(ii,) No .. of iterltiolls
Ya Ya
I.M- N ?
/ Dilplay. 'ltcnrion/ •
No
• incomplete for i " I""
Compute and display reactive power
• for PV buses. Q, .. QC.AL, - QD,
ro,.; .. (M + 1). 1M " 2). .... N
•
L
S"'"
f1&. 4..8 Flowchart to cllculatc bus YOlta&eS by FDLF method for the syllCm....;th Q-limit
• PV ""'"
• For III of the above data, refer Example 4.1 (O-S method).
I This dala fil e "i$ s.ame as GLDA.OI.OAT; only orientation of data is different to m l tch with
algorithm.
No . of Iterations rcqd. k · 5
Let U$ further simplify the load flow technique by dropping the Q-V iteration. It results in a
completely linear, non-iterative power flow method. Assuming all bus voltage magnilUdes to be unity,
the real power deeoupled equation becomes
r
Convert r .... J m.ttrix inlo polar
for; .. 1. 2•...• N: forj - I.2 .....
91~ - 9. _[MI. 91 1 is in d~=
,
,
R=l.
,.
,.'"''''~''. v··
\
•
No
Inilialisc slack bus voltage • .,Sle for
V: .. V,';tl,' - J.'. for; - I .....
TABLE P4.2
BIIS G~na(Jli(Jn Wad
.
". MW MYAR MW MVAR
I - - - -
2 0 0 50 20
3 0 0 40 10
4 0 0 20 0
2 (a) In Eumplc 4 ,1 in the text, the lillC and bus data remaining the same, compute bU$ voltage
using G-S mctllod for Qu.... of bus-2 as - 0.1 :s; Q !:S; 0.2.
(b) Repeat 2((J) but for nat start and assum e I Vl l = 1.0 p.u. Apply Q-S method and check the
results using N-R metllod.
1 Figure P4.2 represents a five-bus power system feeding constant power loads.The line data
and load schedule are shown in Tables P4.3 and P4.4 (lillC data has been furnished on 100 MVA
basis).
•
Q) Q)
....d
TABLE P4.3
Un~ F~, T, line im~dance Shunt susceplance (812)
b" bus (P.II., (p.II.)
"
I I 2 (0.01 -I- jO.OS) jO.02
2 I 5 (0.10 -I- jO.5) jO,(115
3 I 4 (O.IS -I- jO.SS) jO,(.Y15
4 2 3 (0,05 -I- j O.3) jO.02
5 3 4 (0,08 + )0.5) jO.02
6 4 5 (0.02 -I- jO.I S) jO.OI
B"
110. MW MW MVAR
I
2 50 15 5
3 o 20 10
4 o 25 10
5 o 3Q 15
Assume slack bus vo ltage G.S, N-R alld FDLF methods of load now study
~nd oompare the resuhs.
4. In Fig. P4.2, assume a transformer buses 2 and 4 having p.u. reactance of jO.3. If
V~: V~ =l.02 : l.(i.e. V;':V; '" 1.02:1]
(a) Find bus vo ltages and line nows using
(b) Repeat Ihe same e~en:ise for V~ : V. :: 1.02, [i.e. VI :V/ '" 1.02: 1 ]
S. Repel! problem no 5, but with FDLF
6. In E~ample 4.5 in the text, the lim: and t being the same, compute bus voltage using de
lood now metllod and compare the result.
By G-S Method
No. of iterations required k - 8
---_
B"" no.
.. .....
1
Voltage in RECTANGULAR form
.. .. _-----------_ ..... _-----_ ....
( 1 . 010000 , .000000)
2 I .970951 , - . 090640)
3 I . 976413 , -.086518 )
4 I .998218 • - .042165)
.. -_ .........
Bus no . Voltage magnitude Delta
.._---
1 1.010000 .000000
2 . 975173 - . 093082
3 .980239 - . 088377
4 .9991 08 -.042215
By N-R Method
Ite r ation reqd. , k - 3
Bus-code VOLTAGE LOAD ANGLE
------------ ------------ .000000
1 1.010000
2 .975016 -.092805
3 .980207 -.088241
4 .999 126 -.0421]9
1
------------
1.000000
-----.000000
-------
2 .997329 -.004191
•
,
3 .968431
.91)0)2
-.066869
-.073258
• 5 .957131 -.090680
Bus-code MW MVAR
------------
1 2
------------
-.018221
-- ---2.017580
----- ---
2 1 .018246 - 1.971873
1 5 - 3.874346 - 5.677482
5 •
,
1 3.970911 .401535
•
• ,
1 •
• 1
- 3.473356
3.56256 1
-5 . 195072
. 001012
2 3 - 1.661327 -3 . 213329
3
,
2 1 . 684468 -,79 0563
,
3 -.336513 - 1.702069
, 3 . 336990
- . 213457
-2.0702 12
•
,
5 -1.204706
5
, .214491 -·~f7087
,
2 •
• 2
22 . 770200
- 22.770200
15.789290
-13.5635 10
LINE LOSS
Bus-code MW MVAR
1 2 -. 022050 -2.005066
2 - 1 .022070 - 1.994568
1 - 5 -3.683256 -6 . 279184
5 - 1 3.790366 1.009407
1 • -3.128547 -6 . 016432
•
2
1
3
3.230792
-1.609983
.849839
- 3.430361
3 2 1.635066 - .5784)2
3
•
•
3
-.209361
.209946
-2 .219798
- 1.475970
• - 5 - .222462 -1.125187
5
• .2233 48 -. 691824
2
• 22.076280 8.516070
•
LINE LOSS
.............
. 235928 MW . -22.277530 HVAR
(-6.83385 4 E-02,-1.430068E -O l)
,
3 .968125
.913594
- . 066876
-.0732 46
5 .958492 -.090134
Bus-code MW MVAR
------------ ------------ ------------
1 2 - . 018055 - 2.01111 4
2 1 .018080 -1.911503
1 5 - 3.881931 - 5 .6410 13
5
,
1 3.984016 .363822
,-
1
1
- 3. 483 368
3.572141
-5 .164634
- .030578
2 3 -1 . 664394 -3. 20330 4
3
3 -
,, 3 , 2 1. 681 4 61
- . 337932
-. 801113
-1 . 690057
.338 42 8 -2 . 0 85668
5 - ,
5 - .215099 - 1 . 203204
.216125 - .671090
2 4 22 . 786250 15.58358 0
4 - 2 -22.786250 -1).374190
LINE LOSS
-.... - "'-- ~ -
•
5
.958663
.946940
- .012410
-.090585
• 5 -.224699 -1.122858
5
•• .225573 -.699430
2
• , 22.,130110
-22.130110
8.169057
-6.499916
LINE LOSS
'"'-------- •
.233150 MW -22.307)50 MVAR
I 6
1 . 000000
1 . 000000
-.n8810
-.238048
•
I
i
I
I
•
,•
,
•
•,
!
•
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Eronomir: operatiO/'l and pluMing of electric energy generating systems have always ~n given proper
attention in the eleetric power system industry. A saving in the eost of generation represents a
significant reduction in the operating cost (including the fuel cost) and hence this area has warranted
a great deal of attention from operating and planning engineers. The original problem of economic
dispatch ofthennal poWeT genera.ting systems used to be so lved by numerous methods. However. with
the development ofmatbematical tools and advance C(lmputational methods, the economic SCMduUng
of generators has become more a<:cUl1lte and tan be apptled even in complex networks. Thermal
scheduling being ofprimc importance, hydrothermal coordination schedJIling has emerged as another
aspect of economic scheduling.
This chapter aims 10 provide the basic analytical techniques in order to detenn ine the tconomic
operation schedule of the conventional energy generating plants along with illustrations and
discussions. Since the fuel prices are changing globally, the prices indicated here, for illustration
purposes, are indicative only and not the true market price. The following text can thus be considered
a basic progress report using conventional methods of si mulations in the area of economic OJlCnltion
(since the field of simulatiori and analysis is still undergoing rapid changes, only the basic building
blocks are furnished here).
Since the basic purpose of economic opcr.ation of power system is to reduce fuel cost for the
operation of power system. economic operation is achieved when the generatOr$ in the system share
load to minimifc overall generation cost. The main economic factor in the power system operation is
the cost of genenlting real power. In any power system, th is cost has got two components, viz.,
(i) the fcxed COSI being determined by the capital investment. interest charged on the money
borrowed. tax paid. labour charge, salary given to staff and any other expenses that
continue irTespective of the load on the power system, and
(ii) the ~ariablc COSI, a fune1ion of loading on generating units, losses. daily load requirement
and pur<:hase or sale of power.
225
Thus, by calculating the sha pe of the input-<>utput '!,lIves at various points o f operation. the
profile of IFR can be obtained. Figures 5.3(a) and (b) give the IFR profiles for typical thermal and
hydro power slations.
,------i •
•
••
If' •
(Kca~MWhr) •
•,
•
•
,•
,
•
,•
,,
•
Min
Output (MWj
- Min
Outpul(MW)
•
5.5 ·INCREMENT AL FUEL COST (IFe) CURVE
This curve can be obtained from IFe curve by multiplying the 'lFe' by the ctlst of fuel per Kcal. As
in a poWer station, fuel cost govems the actual lotal cost. Hence, IFe is very significant in tcOfIOmic
loading of tile generation unit. The lFe CUl'Ve$ will be similar to the IFe ch.aracteristic in configuralion.
11 is obvious thai the slopes of the input-output curve and inercmental fuel me curve do not
change fot differe nt fuels or for changes in the cost of me same fueL This lime a multiplying factor
may be used so that the actual cost is a realistic one. The unit of IFe (or simply the IC) is unit afcost!
MWht.
I
P,-.--~
p-
I
FIc. 5.4 Rcal power position at load bus.
0/-0_, -~ = N/ = 0 (S.2)
where M, and N, represent the power ~siduals al bU$-i and ~ and Q, Ihe power flow 10 the
neighbouring syslem given by
"
eli " L~''JYvsin(oiJ-Ou) (S.4)
,.,
5.6.2 Secondary Constraints
These constraints arise due to physical and operational limitations ofrcspeclive units and components
and are known as ineqliaUry cons/rain/so Power incqliality cons/raill/s are applicable for proper
operation; for each generator we should have a minimum and maximum permissible output and the
unit production should be constrained to ensure that
1'1, and NQ being the total number of real and reactive sources in the system.
In addition to the ir inequality constraints. another tonstraint + if ct
S (Sr.-l must be
~tisfied, where s~ denotes the tomplex power tapadty of the generating unit without any
overloading.
P,, 2: ~ P, +
""
j- I .
PSI'S + P_ .
For groups of generators. when all planlS are not equally operatiooally suitable fot takiog up
additional load, this constraint is then given by
where (t,)~ represents the number ofbranchcs and SIr the branch power transfer in MVA.
Eumple 5.4: The fuel cost characteristics of fWO generators are oblined as under
"
~ '" 50 + 0.02P.
'
dF (P. )
<, ., '" 4S+0.01P.
dF. I,
"
Normally. for any specific loading. it may be obst ..... td thatlFe , > fFC1. HenC1:. it implies that
generator-2 carriC"5 more load than generator-I . However. for C(;onomic dispatch. IFC , must be equal
10 fFC1 . Implementing this along with the power balance equation,
AP+B (5.13)
I
••
!
,
whm
I
I
• Further generalisation for N number or units gives
:
, (5.14(a»
I,
I• (S.l4(b))
i
i (S.15)
I
,
I• (S.16)
I
Individua l generation Ph PI' . .. can be calculated from the tOl11Jl'lC)n value of J. obtained in
I equation (5. 16). Here a lso, if the limiting raling of any unit is violated, it is con~'entional to keep fixed
the unit generating at lhal limit and e-conomic ope ration is obtained for the remaining unit
,
•
re-ca1culating A and B for the other units and sening the net economic dispatch value of generation to
be equal to the tobi plant load minus the limiting VlI luc of generating poW1:1 whose genmlling limit is
• made fi~ed. The resulting value of A. then governs the ecotl(lmic of the Icst of the units.
I•
[lImpJe 5.8: There (Iff! 1""0 turbo-gt",:ratort feedillS a load bus wjlh the following incrf!mt!ntai
I
charaCfl'rislics:
I
dF,(P, ) ..- 3+0.0 15P. dF,(~) '" 2+0.0 18Pl
(0) Fint!th~
"'•
economic sc.hedul..
. "d
if tomlloot! is
/[1)
•
(b) If genera tor limit is considered. PI
- = 100 MW
PI " 100 MW IP! is fixed al its upper limit p,
-. 1
....
••
.>A[t A ).,.6
i. 1 a,
Let us now take the system load as 200 MW.
·,
!
0.0075 1 .. 0.003
= 5.6
1
»0. TOio/load ( MW )
100 0 6.'
"
0
2 100 100 0 5.75
3 200 100 6.' 5.75
,
4 200
200
200
160
0
6.2
6.5
6.2
6 300 200 6.' 6'
7 '00 280 7.1 7.1
(5 .20)
If the numerical value of [he partial derivative of the line 1055 wilh respect to each generator
output is Known, the generator output (op,/op,) power may be adjusted to satisfy the following
equalion
dfi(P,) I
=: A, i == L2 •...,N
dfl \ _ 01}
all
The optimum economy is thus achieved when the product of the incremental fuel cost times the
penalty factor is the same for all planes,
i.e. (5.22)
A stands here for the incremental cost or tile received power in unit of currencylMWhr and hence
during economic operation of plants with losscs being considered,
,= , --cc:,,:,:,,:m::'"'",=':"'e':'c': "c''occ:
1 - Incremental transmission loss
Example 5.10: A two-bus system, wilhoUl generator limits. hQ5 been considered (shown in
Fig. £5.1) where
~
~
I', , I'
- Lil\l' "
,
I ~. /'~.
I
(Penalty factor or PF) - of}
1--
aP.
For generator- I, assuming it to be a slack bus.
I I
(PFI =
dP' = 1-0 = I
l-
op.
I I I
~d (PF)z = = 1-0.OOI6P•• +0.16 = J.J6 -0.00 16P••
1- af}
ap,.
For optimal dispatch,
= (PF) dF:
l
,.
dP
I.C . (I )
I ( ) (2)
1.16-0.0016P,. O.OO7P, . +4 '" A
...
p•., + p•• = O.OOO8(P,. -Ioof +500 (l)
.,
P "' 227.7MW, P,, - 1l7.6S, .... ... S.694and f} " 4.SS MW
Eumple 5.11: Find the incremental transmission lones for a twa-area power system, where the
bus voltages ore teptflXed and the line power flaw if afonc/ion offine ongle. Power Ion if afunction
of generation of area B only.
Solution: It is evident thJI
P'=f(l~. )
This also suggests that the incremental transmission loss for grid A will be zero and the
inco".mlllentallTansmission loss of the line will be governed by the grid B only. Thus,
(In),j '" 0
(ITL) • = of}
ap
••
Economic operation being dictated by the criterion
= (lFC),
I - (m).
Enmplc 5.12: T1re losses in the IirHJJ slwwn in Fig. &5.1 ore proportional to the sqllare of the
power flow. Barh units are loaded at 250 MW. Dlle to fronsmlljion f~ 12.5 MW ofpower is [oslo
Where should the extra 12.5 MW be generated far eCOflomic op«a/ion? Attempt a reschedllling /0
minimiu the tronsminiOll [OSS .
Line
P,
SOOMW
(to m;ei, e j
~ (Min .. 70 MW ( Min .. 70 MW
Line loss .. 0 .000211 W . fl Max .. 400 MW' Pz Max .. 400 MW
(md
Solution: Due to transmission loss, the load received is 487.5 MW instead of 500 MW.
Utilisation of Lagrangian multiplier results
L '" fi(fl) +F2 (l))+,l. (500 + P, - fl-l)) (I)
(2)
(3)
;
. Iw fl +Pl ,. (500+12.5) MW (4)
Howc"cr, from !he given dala,
,
dF; un
,
dP.
,. 7 + O.OO4P.
I'
ap, ap,
- '" O.OOO411, - "" 0
(If] a~
Thus from (2) and (3) we can write,
7+0.004fl-).(I - O.000411) = 0 (S)
i.e. the loss is only 2 MW utilising unit·2 \0 gencnte maxiJmm possible generation of 400 MW and
allowing the remote unit-I to genClate 100 MW. Power production cost (r., ) is then given by
F<, .. 400 + 1 " 102'" 0.002 ~ 1021 + 400 + 1 " 400 + 0.002 ~ 400:
'" 4655 unit or costlhr
Eumple 5.13: The fuel cosl cun'e ofrwo generators are given as under
,
F;.(P,) =: 800 + 45P" + O.OIP;..
If the tOlalload supplied be 700 MW,jind the aplimal dispUlch with and wilhaul romidering
the generator limits where the limits h([Ve been upre.sst d as
50 MW :S p, .. s 200 MW and 50 MW S p, . S 600 MW
Compare Ihe syslem incremtnlo{ cost with and withoul genuator limits being camidered.
Solution: The incremental ,osts are
(/Fe) 4 '" 4 5 + O.02P,. and (IFC)II '" 43 + O.006P,.
To have eronomie openllion, {lFC),4 .. (lFC), .. A; considering this along with the ,onstraint
equation, I'll.' can write
.l. = 45 + O.02P,. (I)
LP, - P"-, , , 0 .
cR cR
Calculate the incremental losses ~,~, .. . as \'it'll as the total loss
Sup 2:
, ,
Mate-n II Jm dlre-itJ Jtoral.
roWER SYSTtM ANALYSIS: OPERATION AND
I. Tolal "':;:.~
2. Tolal Ie
3. P,o.a~/I,.r,.ror;
, , . contribl1tion 10 the
1055 for <:very 1 .. 1.2.3.....
Compule 1.
iJP/rm
.... _..• Nand 2. P/ws
,
'0
No Yn
No
1
, ,
,
I.
3. om," geno:ra,ion
, .fori .. 1.2.3 ..... N
Il~. line loss etc.
I. :*
J:1: ~t.l (I~ )and 2. L."
1 ..
.h.... i + 1
Fie. 5.' FlolO.'chan 10 r"v,j economic generation ''''''''""o"d~~ ImIsmission line ~" •
,
•••
lambda
•••••• "
•••• .....
" ......
" ......
Ploss
Iteration completed ., k • ,
l ambda • 8.497865
Net gen (MW) • 758 . 226800 Net load ( MW ) • 750 . 000000
(MW ) • 8 .22 6754.
Powe r tolerance • .000052
......
Bus no
1
................................ .
Economic generation (HW )
391.270900
2 256.188800
3 110.767100
generator no.
.....................
, • ••
8 . 365084
2 8 .2 37132
3 8.307671
LAMBDA.
...................
generato r
,
no .
. .........
8.498086
2 9.498395
3 8.495883
rv G, rv G~ T.
, , , ~,
•
- -l - ~. ,
,~
I, I, I, I,
Z ...
1
I,
Fie- 5.10 Schematic rtprescntalion of bus structure for der;~alion of loss formulae.
Let us now choose the neutral bus as the reference bus. Since in a generalised network
(VJ = (ZJ[/] . hence for the gi~en network,
(5.27)
V
where 1° '" _..'.h.
• Z II
m, = - Z"
whm
K ) = I) + K~:14
(5.2 8)
- Zll
m, •
K ):I) + K411 4
Substitution of (5 .27(3) in (5.2 4) yields
Let us now relate current II. 12 and I! with th e bus curnnt through the connecfion matrix
utilising equat ions (S.29{a)) and (S .29{b» when I] and h Il:main invariant.
I, I
I, I,
I, I
I, = I, =c I, (5.30)
- K J lIl] -"]m) - "Jml
I'• I'
I, - K 4ml - K~"'l - K 4 "'1 •
However, we know ITom the concepts of power invariant tronsjorm(l{ion that load bus power
St.• in terms oftransfonned (new) current, can be expressed as
St '"
,
1""",Z BOll ~i
.""'" (5.31)
where, Z8 .. = (R_ + jX"",). Thus, equation (5.31) can be wrinen for real load power as
PL _ 1;""CrR8",C·/~ (S.33)
which. the following equation (5.30) becomes
•
I,
PL '" [II '2 1~l! CrR"., Cl I) (5. 34)
I'
•
Let us now assume that at each generator bus. the react ive power is a fmction '.,' ofrea l power,
,,'
(5.35(a»
POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS, OPEIVITION AND COI'ITROL
(S.35(b))
a,
(S.lS(c»
• •
a, ~
a,
"•
erR
-C. a,
"•
P,
1
(.D 5(d»
P, (5.36)
1
(5.37(a»
: : z
= L L 1}BijP + ~)jol} + Booj (S.37(b»
I~ I jo' '.1
In general fonn, equation (S .37(b» may be ..... riucn as
where B \cnns arc called I()ll cCMjficienlJ or ~coejJici(!nrs (N" N matrix) and is always symmetrical]
Figure 5.11 sho ..... s the flowchart 10 find out loss coefficients (i.e. [B] matrix) and transmission
line [055.
8.465701>< 10-1
[ - j1.294148><10-IO
1 2.9 10364 >< 10-
2
1
(2.832 459 >< 10-
[ +j2.811132x10 ..... . +j7.088398><10-6
2
1
2.832449>< 10-
1
[ - j .093726 >< 10-6
1 1.991409><10-
2
( + j l.644594 >< 10.....
1 1.34881 1><10-
2
[ - j4.S9S40S >< 10-9
1
o _VI -1+jO
Now. f. .. '"
~I I 0.04149603 - j6.S50091
•
'" (- 9.671 51 51< 10.... - jO. 1526635) p. u.
I _ jJI 1 - j (0.06467313/0.140189)
a l '" .. .. 1- jO.4S93621
" , I
.. 0.9916434 - jI.260])3
(1- jO.4S93621) o o
..• raj - o (0.99 16434 - jl.260133) o
o o (- 0.9611 5 I 5 >< 10-' - jO.1 526635)
2
(0.1025208 ) ( 4.548110>< 10- ) (1.951863>< 10-) )
- jl.941 570 >< 10-'1 _ j2.385856 >< 10- 1 - j4.331206 >< lO-l
- ( 4.548 111><10-
2
- j2.385857 >< 10- 2
) C·061192><10-1
-jl.875613>< 10-t
) (3.836992>< 10-) )
j3.007SJ2 >< 10-1
0.0391322
.. [0. 140789 0.' I) 0.0635998 .. 0.03981780 p.u.
2.SOSS 12 x 10-1
The computer method (flowclwt sho~n in Fig. 5.11), when applied to the Example 5.1 S. yields
the following results:
Execution of computer algorithm of N-R Method of load flow given in 5.11 for
Example 5.15
Input data to tOmputc IY..... I matrix (LINE DATA): lIMTl.DAT
,,
i i
1,4, (0 .15,0.40 ), (0 . 0,0 . 030) i
,, ,
,,
2,3,
2,4,
(0.10,0.28), (0.0,0.030)
(0.075,0.18), (0 . 0,0 . 03 )
,, ,
,
,
,
3,4, (0'.15,0.35), (0.0,0.030) , ,
If..... ] matrix: YBUS1.DAT
(here busn 2 and 4 arc illterchanged for power flow calculatioll)
•
(1.821918,-5.161781 ) Y\I ( -8.2191788-01,2.191781) r ,!
(0.0000008+00,0 , 0000008+00) (-9,9999998-01,3 , 000000)
(-8.219178E-O l,2.191 781) (3 . 828787, -9.294302 I
( - 1. 034483,2 .413 793) (-1 . 972386,4.7337271
(O . OOOOOOE+OO,O . OOOOOOE+OO) 1-1 . 034483,2 . 413793 )
(2.165705,-5.551214) (-1.131222,3.167421)
(- 9.9999998 - 01,3 . 000000) (-1 . 972386,4.733727)
{ - 1.131222,3.1674211 ( 4 .103608, - 10.856150) y.
(1 .4 07890£-01,6. 4 67)13E-02)
YBUS1.DAT. PROB4.DAT
[Zbusj
[Rbus1
MatOor , .n, u
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POWER SYSTL\f ANALYSIS, AND CONTROL
0.0096 , 6 [A].i1l [
4 .567152£ -03, - 0.0392 1 6£-03,0.2309641>-03
- 0 . 03 9216£- 03. 4. . .; 59630&- 03,0. 1543251>- 03 [S] matri~
0.2309641>-03,0.1543251>-03,0 . 09 46231>-03
,
I 2.647640£-02
3.326676E-02
PENALTY FACTOR
generator no.
,
I 1.027196
l .03 4414
generator no. He
,
I 1 1.727960
11.646140
,
I 12 . 0469:10
12.046920
lambda .. 12.046920
Net gen (MW) _ 660.048900 Net load (MW) a 650.000000 Loss (MW)
_ 10.134830
1 287.994100
:2 372.054800
Output or c:omputfr" pror;ram BMTHD2.FOR .ntr tltcution (Seltcting inlti.1 v.lut or A by ntw
propoxd JQtthod): SOL52.DAT
ITL
generator no.
, ITL
, 2.648463E -02
3.327396E-02
PENALTY FACTOR
p,
generator no.
,
, 1.027205
1.034.419
IFC
,
generator no . !FC
, 11.728510
11.646710
,
, 12.047580
12.047580
k
---, ...... _....
lambda
"_. _. -. .....
(p.u . )
............. - ........... -.....-
P2(p.u.) P1ose(p.u.)
, 14.145000
12.085390
5.683769
2.932"103
5.5!>6965
3."154781
.287220
.103902
• 12 .047580 2.880847 3.721137 .101392
lambda .. 12.047580
Net gen (Mit ) _ 660 . 198400 Net load (Mit) .. 650 . 000000 Loss (MIt)
.. 10.139190
-_ .....
Sus
,,
no Economic generation (MIt)
........................ _.-
288.084700
372 .113600
t:.P", .. ~
Le.
l>P.
=I- ~
M1
This may be written lIS D = I _ aPr
ap,
where D represents (-t:.P-.t /61'i) the ratio of the negative change in the reference bus power to the
change in M I' However, total cost function being given by r.F,(P,), the change in the cost function for
a change in generation tlP, is
,•
,• Mate-rial :mI dlre-itl Jtorai
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ECONO.\!1C OPERATION OF ENERC Y GENERATINC SYSTEMS
y" No
Isp..... , ... P,,- P.:. - :>t, "!
-r
L 0;",1"
pl"
,.vw'~7
pt, ,J.'" Y
Compute. A,J. - I.{; - ,J.:~ 112 No
--l
C.ompulc W,(Ph', ) Is 10tal gen=tion y"
grealer lhan
(load "'105.$)?
y" )'., ., - tJ. _..
_, .. -'1,
I' t - t_ ? No
No , .. .t',-
.to., A).
!
B r ..... r .o. I 1:
; ..... .1: .. r A
•
GUMS)" .. 0,./'..... ,- (J,.
No
1511 - 20')
I y"
11'..... "
,,-,
COmpUle IOIaI walerreqd.
rW,
.'7X1I
"N
No y"
Io W_ - W • .., s .·) ?
7 0;.,1.,
r
."~w "o" ,~
E final hydro-thermal
S<:ItroUl in ! hour b ..... i
5."" ,
! .1
,, Is] > ! ?
No
I, Yes
,
Ar- P/- .t'11 2
y~ No
"W_ > H'_?
,
,
I ~ init ial value of t..\
,
I
I ~ J~j'" I
, No y~
I
[s] - 20'/
tll·5.16 RG,"char1 (0 OOIain shon ·ltnn hydro-lllcrmaJ schedule " 'ilh transmission 10051 cOIlsi.rred
,
Also. ~>.
,., '" T..., (5.76)
I
I
", I •• 1
where )'T is the inc remental fuel COSI of thermal plant and r~ is the constan t already ddined in the
ana lytical derivation of short term scheduling (Sec. 5.22).
I
I
For any specific interva l T'" f. the coordina tion eq uations arc then given by
I MatE Jtorai
ECONOMIC OPERllTlON OF ENERCY C£NERllTlN(; SYSTEMS
Example 5.18: (a) A load of800 MW is /0 be suppliedfrom a generating system comprising a hydro
plant and on equn'alem Sleam plan/. The plunt characleriJlics are <IS under
Hydro plum: IV ( '" fl_ + a_P.) '" (10" 10' + 6" IIY P_) mllh r
Volumt afwaler available - 32 " 10· ml.
Thermal plant (tqui,·alent): F~ (= a,.P.i + fl,"P,~ + rll,)
~ (0 .OO2p,~ +8P,. + 12(0) unit of costI'MW
Make a hydro-thermal 5chedule per hour ba.liJfor 12.hour ptriod. !1f!Jsum e inilial valut of rIO
be 0.16 ~ 10-1 unit of costlrn! and trol1$mission loss I} as O.0000045~ ,
(b) Makt a hydro-thermal 5chtdule per hour iJmis for Ihe 50me plant for one day. M'here Ihe
load has the folfowing schedule:
12 mldnighl - 12 nOOf/: 740 MW
12 'loan - 12 midnight: 900 MW
Tile hy dro plam rtsen'oir limil is 60 _ 10~ ml orer Ihe entire 24 IIr p eriod.
(c) Repeat fh t same problem (Example 5. 18(0» for 0 load sched"le as f olfnws:
6 a.m. - 12 nOOf/: 740 MW
12 nOOf/'- 6 pm: 900 MW
6 pm - 12 midnight: 830 MW
12 midnighl - 6 am : 640 MW
Reservoir copocify limil i5 56 " 10" ml.
SoluUon : The generalised COSI funcl ion characlerislic for th ermal plant being given by
dF(' )
--7.;~'~
dl',.
= 2aIII I',- + {J,,. (I)
For short term hyd ro-thermal schedu le, the coordination equat ion for Ihe Ihennal p lanl with
transmiss ion loss nOt considered is given by equation 5.7 1
A = ", (2)
,,' (633c)
H", H",
• Ha
"" I,
In this method, Ihe active power loss in U'lInsmission lines is calculated using equation (6 ,3Ia).
From equation (6.3Ia ). wc can wrile
,
:: 2a;.P; + L [(all +0,, ) ~ +(b11- b",) Qd
,., ...,
;
(6.358)
olj
oQ,• = 2n;iQ; + L
,,.., [ (aji + all) Q" + (blj -bji) I't]
(6.3Sb)
WhCTe 1', Qnd Q. arc aClive and reaclive power inj ections (or calculated ;!Clive and reactive power) al
bus·1t respectively and i is varying from 1 to NG.
Th~ fi rst ord~r d~ri ...rti.·~s "'q .. i~ for cqllations (6.JJa-6.JJc) arc gi>'cn ~Iow:
:: 2a,.p
I I,
+R.+A.[dP,
1', iJp. - I)
"
,
2ail lj+~](<I;I+aIl)~+(bll - biO)~ ] -l·
= 2a;P,, +Pi+A.
.
,.,, (6,36a)
Sel inili:>l .
I. ~ '" 0 forall genrraton.
Compule the
l.
""".••, . roc
2. ~ ' '' I
•
for 1111
3. _.. N).
3. , .
M''''' for all buse$ (i.e. ; .. 1 3. .... N).
, .!A.'•.. ' •
for a1110itd buse$ (NG. 1~ (NG -+- 2). " .. N).
5. ~l','''\ for al l load buses (Le. i (NG . 1). (NG -+- 2) •.". N).
2·(j{lp.,)
,-1 -15'''' +t.5'~"
I ' for all buses excludi ng slack bus (i.e. j " 2. 3, ...• Nj,
J. A' Y'!> =A'''' tM' ''' for al l buses (I.e. i_ I. 2. 3•...• N),
" " " .
•• ).(1,0."
, 1'1,11,0")1
~ ~ . '
_ A("" t M , ... , for all load buso:s (I.e. i .. (NO .. 1). (NO .. 2). .... N}.
= tv.'Y'I" 610. ...'" for alllOlld buses (I.e. j " (NO .. 11. (NG .. 2). .... N)
UJI .. [~
. .,
. .
r (t.P.:)lt r {~)l tI: {~)lt
. ., , ..
.
I: (t..l.!)l .. r
' ' ' ' ' ' '. ,
. ']
j • .., . ,
(6IVofl'
kp ..... kpt (
No
D
< luoJ!i t: ?
Yo.
,.....,
•
• • • •
(-I)
6.616864
•
(- 3.275675)
•
0545946
•
623.033385
(- 3.275675) 6.583783 (- L(I9m,) (- 1252.235527)
• • • (-0.551352) (6A)
• • • (-0.545946)
• • • 1.064864
-0.545946 1.06486 6.349189
•
• • • 6.349189
• The JacobiOll malrix [J 1of the same problem for !he first ilerafion is given below:
•• •
•
623.033386 -623.033386
- 1252.235527 1252.235527
[Jj "" - --0.163460 - 0.163460 (6.8)
".en •.en
0.233783 -{):233783
- 208.706080 208.706080
-{I.Ol7m o.oln97
Therefore. updated values or control variables for the nell' iteration are:
,I ,0 AlO
'" = A.p , + ......p , ",0+ 189,7511 ""'189.7571
1° +M,Q, =0-5.8422= - 5.8422
..I.'t, = -'"v.
Bus data aad aeouator ruel cosl data (laplll data of eGllllpllkr prop-am, "ellllld
NEWOPT.FOR b', 71 d OQ !be 110.. J ,neh.. ba J1'Ic. "7): NPROBl.DAT
i Po Plolld
------
Qload
------ •
---
o
1 .374900 .068270 .200000 .000000 .174960 .068270
2 .176972 .131912 .100000 .150000 .076912 -.018088
3 .000000 .000000 .250000 .100000 -.250000 -.099999
,,
i v Deltll Qhm
1 1.020000
------
.000000
------
189.996000
------
2 1.010000 -.008040 190.618300
3 .996019 - .039119 192.725300 .876832
All the powers and voltages are in p.u.
Angles are in radian.
All lambdas are in unit of cost/p.u.power.hr
I
Total cost of generation
Exam. . 6.8: CoruUkr a 1u·b,u, Iel'tn ·/ille JX>lWr SY11nn as lOOwn in Fig. E6.8. The sysum Iuu
Ihru gtneratars. Find 0111 the oplitnQl power Jlow solulion Illing N-R method. Tht fuel COSI
cMracteristics of the thru genera/ors art 41 under;
l
Fr, (P,.) :: I60P,. + !!OP•• +80 unit or costlhr
WMrt powtr gtfleralioru aTe p.w. with 100 MVA bast. The lint dota and bus dolO of 1M SY1tem art
given below:
2 2 3 pOI
3 2 , (0.03 + /J.2)
(0.0 +/)2)
}l<J1
1.01
7 I 6 (0.0+/)1) 102
..... lIere P", P" and p" arc in p.u. willt 100 MVA base. The line data and bus dMn of the
system 3.fe given be low.
~ ~
ICD I
Lood ""d
';;J
L(j) I
load Load
Line /w. From blls To blls Une impfflmra (P.ll.) 812 (p.u. )
1 1 2 (0.04 -+ jO.3) jO.OI
2 2 3 (O.OJ -+ jO.2) jO.OI
3 3 4 (0.02 -+ jO.2) jO.OI
4 1 4 (O.tu -+ jO.2) jllO!
Find oot economic generation schedu le for rea! and rcacth'e po""er b~lance.
4. Consider the 5i~ -bus. sevcn-line power system as shown in Fig. E6.8. Find out the optimal
power now SO l\llion using conventional method.
S. Consider a three-bus. four-li ne power system as shown in Fig. P6.1. Find oot the optimal power
now so lution using conventional method, N- R method. fast decoup led method and gradient
method.
Result of exerel.. 1
Geaeralor fuel cost dati and IB) of the IJAUD (Iaput uti or computer provam, .em Ed
ELDNR.FOR baud on the Clowd.art cI- i.Q ..... U): NELDPl.DAT
Iteration completed at k .. :2
Tolerance ~ . 000026
La.mbdto. (uni t of c08 t/ p.u.power.hr.) • 245.455300
Epsilon = .000100
Iteration cOJ'!i)leted at k .. 4
1 196,844
2 275.552
3 159.694
R..uM of ....-elM 2
Oalput 01 COTp"'" pl'IJITIIIII KI ».FOR .tler uecuUoll: ELDSl.DAT
Iteration completed at kp ., 5
Iteration cQfI'IPleted at k • 3
...
IND[X
, FACTS, IJ OpIimai
optilD&l QPeralion, controller (OlR) design, 5 10
system security. IJ
" "
$IrOn, interconnections, power !low (OPF), 313
Optimum
Fa.\( de(OI.Ipled
Ia.d flow, 195,
method, 426
,
,
,,
, .. .,
.'
1oad~ ~U
, .-
scheduJi11i.281
., .~ .."" '.
.
Fcrranti effect, 4'9
Rs.450.00