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R E D B I OT E C H N O L O G Y

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RED BIOTECHNOLOGY

Biotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products, or
"any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms or derivatives thereof,
to make or modify products or processes for speciFc use" (UN Convention on Biological Diversity,
Art. 2).[1] Depending on the tools and applications, it often overlaps with the (related) Felds of
bioengineering (/articles/Bioengineering) and biomedical engineering
(/articles/Biomedical_engineering).
For thousands of years, humankind has used biotechnology in agriculture, food production, and
medicine.[2] The term itself is largely believed to have been coined in 1919 by Hungarian engineer
Károly Ereky (/articles/K%C3%A1roly_Ereky). In the late 20th and early 21st century, biotechnology
has expanded to include new and diverse sciences such as genomics (/articles/Genomics),
recombinant gene (/articles/Recombinant_gene) technologies, applied immunology
(/articles/Immunology), and development of pharmaceutical therapies and diagnostic tests.[3]

DEFINITIONS
OF CONTENTS
1 DeFnitions of biotechnology
2 History
3 Applications
3.1 Medicine
3.1.1 Pharmacogenomics
3.1.2 Pharmaceutical products
3.1.3 Genetic testing
3.1.3.1 Controversial questions
3.1.4 Gene therapy
3.1.5 Human Genome Project
3.1.6 Cloning
3.2 Agriculture
3.2.1 Crop yield
3.2.2 Reduced vulnerability of crops to environmental stresses
3.2.3 Increased nutritional qualities
3.2.4 Improved taste, texture or appearance of food
3.2.5 Reduced dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals
3.2.6 Production of novel substances in crop plants
3.2.7 Animal biotechnology
3.2.8 Controversy
3.3 Biological engineering
3.4 Bioremediation and biodegradation
3.5 Biotechnology regulations
4 Education
5 See also
6 References and notes
7 Further reading
8 External links

B I O T E C H N O LO G Y
The concept of 'biotech' or 'biotechnology' encompasses a wide range of procedures (and history)
for modifying living organisms according to human purposes — going back to domestication of
animals, cultivation of plants, and "improvements" to these through breeding programs that employ
artiFcial selection (/articles/ArtiFcial_selection) and hybridization (/articles/Hybrid_(biology)).
Modern usage also includes genetic engineering (/articles/Genetic_engineering) as well as cell
(/articles/Cell_culture) and tissue culture (/articles/Tissue_culture) technologies. Biotechnology is
deFned by the American Chemical Society as the application of biological organisms, systems, or
processes by various industries to learning about the science of life and the improvement of the
value of materials and organisms such as pharmaceuticals, crops, and livestock.[4] In other words,
biotechnology can be deFned as the mere application of technical advances in life science to
develop commercial products. Biotechnology also writes on the pure biological sciences (genetics
(/articles/Genetics), microbiology (/articles/Microbiology), animal cell culture
(/articles/Animal_cell_culture), molecular biology (/articles/Molecular_biology), biochemistry
(/articles/Biochemistry), embryology (/articles/Embryology), cell biology (/articles/Cell_biology)).
And in many instances it is also dependent on knowledge and methods from outside the sphere of
biology including:

chemical engineering (/articles/Chemical_engineering),

bioprocess engineering (/articles/Bioprocess_engineering),
bioinformatics (/articles/Bioinformatics), a new brand of Computer science (/articles/Computer_science)
biorobotics (/articles/Biorobotics).
Conversely, modern biological sciences (including even concepts such as molecular ecology
(/articles/Molecular_ecology)) are intimately entwined and heavily dependent on the methods
developed through biotechnology and what is commonly thought of as the life sciences
(/articles/Life_sciences) industry. Biotechnology is the research and development
(/articles/Research_and_development) in the laboratory (/articles/Laboratory) using bioinformatics
(/articles/Bioinformatics) for exploration, extraction, exploitation and production from any living
organisms (/articles/Living_organisms) and any source of biomass (/articles/Biomass) by means of
biochemical engineering (/articles/Biochemical_engineering) where high value-added products
could be planned (reproduced by biosynthesis (/articles/Biosynthesis), for example), forecasted,
formulated, developed, manufactured and marketed for the purpose of sustainable operations (for
the return from bottomless initial investment on R & D) and gaining durable patents rights (for
exclusives rights for sales, and prior to this to receive national and international approval from the
results on animal experiment and human experiment, especially on the pharmaceutical
(/articles/Pharmaceutical) branch of biotechnology to prevent any undetected side-effects or safety
concerns by using the products).[5][6][7]

By contrast, bioengineering (/articles/Bioengineering) is generally thought of as a related Feld with

its emphasis more on higher systems approaches (not necessarily altering or using biological
materials directly) for interfacing with and utilizing living things. Bioengineering is the application of
the principles of engineering and natural sciences to tissues, cells and molecules. This can be
considered as the use knowledge from working with and manipulating biology to achieve a result
that can improve functions in plants and animals.[8] Relatedly, biomedical engineering
(/articles/Biomedical_engineering) is an overlapping Feld that often draws upon and applies
biotechnology (by various deFnitions), especially in certain sub-Felds of biomedical and/or chemical
engineering such as tissue engineering (/articles/Tissue_engineering), biopharmaceutical
engineering (/articles/Pharmaceutical_engineering), and genetic engineering
(/articles/Genetic_engineering).

HISTORY

Although not normally what Frst comes to mind, many forms of human-derived agriculture
(/articles/Agriculture) clearly Ft the broad deFnition of "'using a biotechnological system to make
products". Indeed, the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological
enterprise.

Agriculture (/articles/Agriculture) has been theorized to have become the dominant way of
producing food since the Neolithic Revolution (/articles/Neolithic_Revolution). Through early
biotechnology, the earliest farmers selected and bred the best suited crops, having the highest
yields, to produce enough food to support a growing population. As crops and Felds became
increasingly large and difFcult to maintain, it was discovered that speciFc organisms and their by-
products could effectively fertilize (/articles/Fertilize), restore nitrogen (/articles/Nitrogen_Fxation),
and control pests (/articles/Pesticide). Throughout the history of agriculture, farmers have
inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments and
breeding them with other plants — one of the Frst forms of biotechnology.

These processes also were included in early fermentation of beer (/articles/Beer).[9] These
processes were introduced in early Mesopotamia (/articles/Mesopotamia), Egypt (/articles/Egypt),
China (/articles/China) and India (/articles/India), and still use the same basic biological methods.
In brewing (/articles/Brewing), malted grains (containing enzymes (/articles/Enzymes)) convert
starch from grains into sugar and then adding speciFc yeasts (/articles/Yeasts) to produce beer. In
this process, carbohydrates (/articles/Carbohydrates) in the grains were broken down into alcohols
such as ethanol. Later other cultures produced the process of lactic acid fermentation
(/articles/Lactic_acid_fermentation) which allowed the fermentation and preservation of other
forms of food, such as soy sauce (/articles/Soy_sauce). Fermentation was also used in this time
period to produce leavened bread (/articles/Leavened_bread). Although the process of fermentation
was not fully understood until Louis Pasteur (/articles/Louis_Pasteur)'s work in 1857, it is still the
Frst use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form.

For thousands of years, humans have used selective breeding to improve production of crops and
livestock to use them for food. In selective breeding, organisms with desirable characteristics are
mated to produce offspring with the same characteristics. For example, this technique was used
with corn to produce the largest and sweetest crops.[10]

In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of microbiology

(/articles/Microbiology) and explored ways of manufacturing speciFc products. In 1917, Chaim
Weizmann (/articles/Chaim_Weizmann) Frst used a pure microbiological culture in an industrial
process, that of manufacturing corn starch (/articles/Corn_starch) using Clostridium acetobutylicum
(/articles/Clostridium_acetobutylicum), to produce acetone (/articles/Acetone), which the United
Kingdom (/articles/United_Kingdom) desperately needed to manufacture explosives
(/articles/Explosive) during World War I (/articles/World_War_I).[11]

Biotechnology has also led to the development of antibiotics. In 1928, Alexander Fleming
(/articles/Alexander_Fleming) discovered the mold Penicillium (/articles/Penicillium). His work led to
the puriFcation of the antibiotic compound formed by the mold by Howard Florey, Ernst Boris Chain
and Norman Heatley - to form what we today know as penicillin (/articles/Penicillin). In 1940,
penicillin became available for medicinal use to treat bacterial infections in humans.[10]

The Feld of modern biotechnology is generally thought of as having been born in 1971 when Paul
Berg's (Stanford) experiments in gene splicing had early success. Herbert W. Boyer (Univ. Calif. at
San Francisco) and Stanley N. Cohen (Stanford) signiFcantly advanced the new technology in 1972
by transferring genetic material into a bacterium, such that the imported material would be
reproduced. The commercial viability of a biotechnology industry was signiFcantly expanded on
June 16, 1980, when the United States Supreme Court (/articles/United_States_Supreme_Court)
ruled that a genetically modiFed (/articles/Genetic_engineering) microorganism
(/articles/Microorganism) could be patented (/articles/Patent) in the case of Diamond v.
Chakrabarty (/articles/Diamond_v._Chakrabarty).[12] Indian-born Ananda Chakrabarty, working for
General Electric (/articles/General_Electric), had modiFed a bacterium (of the Pseudomonas
(/articles/Pseudomonas) genus) capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in
treating oil spills. (Chakrabarty's work did not involve gene manipulation but rather the transfer of
entire organelles between strains of the Pseudomonas bacterium.

Revenue in the industry is expected to grow by 12.9% in 2008. Another factor inluencing the
biotechnology sector's success is improved intellectual property rights legislation—and enforcement
—worldwide, as well as strengthened demand for medical and pharmaceutical products to cope with
an ageing, and ailing, U.S. population.[13]

Rising demand for biofuels is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the
Department of Energy (/articles/United_States_Department_of_Energy) estimating ethanol
(/articles/Ethanol) usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by
2030. The biotechnology sector has allowed the U.S. farming industry to rapidly increase its supply
of corn and soybeans—the main inputs into biofuels—by developing genetically modiFed seeds
which are resistant to pests and drought. By boosting farm productivity, biotechnology plays a
crucial role in ensuring that biofuel production targets are met.[14]

APPLICATIONS

Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop
production and agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g.
biodegradable plastics (/articles/Biodegradable_plastic), vegetable oil (/articles/Vegetable_oil),
biofuels (/articles/Biofuel)), and environmental uses.
For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms (/articles/Organism)
for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer (/articles/Beer) and milk
(/articles/Milk) products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria (/articles/Bacteria) by
the mining industry in bioleaching (/articles/Bioleaching). Biotechnology is also used to recycle,
treat waste, cleanup sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation
(/articles/Bioremediation)), and also to produce biological weapons (/articles/Biological_warfare).

A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology; for
example:

Bioinformatics (/articles/Bioinformatics) is an interdisciplinary Feld which addresses biological problems using

computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization as well as analysis of biological data possible. The Feld
may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be deFned as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of
molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with
these molecules, on a large scale."[15] Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics
(/articles/Functional_genomics), structural genomics (/articles/Structural_genomics), and proteomics
(/articles/Proteomics), and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.
Blue biotechnology (/articles/Blue_biotechnology) is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic
applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.
Green biotechnology (/articles/Green_biotechnology) is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example
would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation (/articles/Micropropagation). Another
example is the designing of transgenic plants (/articles/Transgenic_plant) to grow under speciFc environments in the
presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally
friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture (/articles/Industrial_agriculture). An example of this is the
engineering of a plant to express a pesticide (/articles/Pesticide), thereby ending the need of external application of
pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are
ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.
Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce
antibiotics (/articles/Antibiotic), and the engineering of genetic cures through genetic manipulation
(/articles/Genetic_manipulation).
http://www.bio-entrepreneur.net/Advance-deInition-biotech.pdf}
The investment and economic output of all of these types of applied biotechnologies is termed as
"bioeconomy".

MEDICINE
In medicine, modern biotechnology Fnds promising applications in such areas as

drug (/articles/Drug) production

pharmacogenomics (/articles/Pharmacogenomics)
gene therapy (/articles/Gene_therapy)
genetic testing (or genetic screening): techniques in molecular biology detect genetic diseases. To test the
developing fetus for Down syndrome (/articles/Down_syndrome), Amniocentesis (/articles/Amniocentesis) and
chorionic villus sampling (/articles/Chorionic_villus_sampling) can be used.[10]

PHARMACOGENOMICS
Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her
body's response to drugs. It is a compound (/articles/Compound_(linguistics)) derived from the root
of the word "pharmacology" plus the word "genomics". It is hence the study of the relationship
between pharmaceuticals and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design
and produce drugs that are adapted to each person's genetic makeup.[16]

Pharmacogenomics results in the following beneFts:[16]

Development of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical companies can create drugs
based on the proteins (/articles/Protein), enzymes and RNA (/articles/RNA) molecules that are associated with
speciIc genes and diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize therapeutic effects but also
to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells.
More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patient's genetics will enable
doctors to determine how well his/ her body can process and metabolize a medicine. This will maximize the
value of the medicine and decrease the likelihood of overdose.
Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. The discovery of potential therapies will be made
 easier using genome targets. Genes have been associated with numerous diseases and disorders. With modern
biotechnology, these genes can be used as targets for the development of effective new therapies, which could
signiIcantly shorten the drug discovery process.
Better vaccines. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed by means of genetic
engineering. These vaccines will elicit the immune response without the attendant risks of infection. They will
be inexpensive, stable, easy to store, and capable of being engineered to carry several strains of pathogen at
once.

PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS

Most traditional pharmaceutical drugs are relatively small molecules that bind to particular
molecular targets and either activate or deactivate biological processes. Small molecules are
typically manufactured through traditional organic synthesis, and many can be taken orally. In
contrast, Biopharmaceuticals are large biological molecules such as proteins (/articles/Proteins)
that are developed to address targets that cannot easily be addressed by small molecules. Some
examples of biopharmaceutical drugs include Inliximab, a monoclonal antibody used in the
treatment of autoimmune diseases, Etanercept, a fusion protein used in the treatment of
autoimmune diseases, and Rituximab, a chimeric monoclonal antibody used in the treatment of
cancer. Due to their larger size, and corresponding difFculty with surviving the stomach, colon, and
liver, biopharmaceuticals are typically injected.

Modern biotechnology is often associated with the use of genetically altered microorganisms
(/articles/Microorganism) such as E. coli (/articles/Escherichia_coli) or yeast (/articles/Yeast) for
the production of substances like synthetic insulin (/articles/Insulin) or antibiotics
(/articles/Antibiotics). It can also refer to transgenic animals
(/articles/Genetically_modiFed_organism) or transgenic plants (/articles/Transgenic_plant), such as
Bt corn (/articles/Bt_corn). Genetically altered mammalian cells, such as Chinese Hamster Ovary
cells (/articles/Chinese_Hamster_Ovary_cell) (CHO), are also used to manufacture certain
pharmaceuticals. Another promising new biotechnology application is the development of plant-
made pharmaceuticals (/articles/Plant-made_pharmaceuticals).

Biotechnology is also commonly associated with landmark breakthroughs in new medical therapies
to treat hepatitis B (/articles/Hepatitis_B), hepatitis C (/articles/Hepatitis_C), cancers
(/articles/Cancers), arthritis (/articles/Arthritis), haemophilia (/articles/Haemophilia), bone fractures
(/articles/Bone_fractures), multiple sclerosis (/articles/Multiple_sclerosis), and cardiovascular
(/articles/Cardiovascular) disorders. The biotechnology industry has also been instrumental in
developing molecular diagnostic devices that can be used to deFne the target patient population for
a given biopharmaceutical. Herceptin (/articles/Herceptin), for example, was the Frst drug approved
for use with a matching diagnostic test and is used to treat breast cancer in women whose cancer
cells express the protein HER2 (/articles/HER2).

Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply.
The Frst genetically engineered products were medicines designed to treat human diseases. To cite
one example, in 1978 Genentech (/articles/Genentech) developed synthetic humanized insulin
(/articles/Insulin) by joining its gene with a plasmid (/articles/Plasmid) vector inserted into the
bacterium Escherichia coli (/articles/Escherichia_coli). Insulin, widely used for the treatment of
diabetes, was previously extracted from the pancreas of abattoir (/articles/Abattoir) animals (cattle
and/or pigs). The resulting genetically engineered bacterium enabled the production of vast
quantities of synthetic human insulin at relatively low cost.[17] According to a 2003 study undertaken
by the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) on the access to and availability of insulin in its
member countries, synthetic 'human' insulin is considerably more expensive in most countries where
both synthetic 'human' and animal insulin are commercially available: e.g. within European countries
the average price of synthetic 'human' insulin was twice as high as the price of pork insulin.[18] Yet in
its position statement, the IDF writes that "there is no overwhelming evidence to prefer one species
of insulin over another" and "[modern, highly puriFed] animal insulins remain a perfectly acceptable
alternative.[19]
Modern biotechnology has evolved, making it possible to produce more easily and relatively cheaply
human growth hormone (/articles/Human_growth_hormone), clotting factors
(/articles/Clotting_factor) for hemophiliacs (/articles/Hemophiliac), fertility drugs
(/articles/Fertility_drug), erythropoietin (/articles/Erythropoietin) and other drugs.[20] Most drugs
today are based on about 500 molecular targets. Genomic knowledge of the genes involved in
diseases, disease pathways, and drug-response sites are expected to lead to the discovery of
thousands more new targets.[20]

GENETIC TESTING
Genetic testing (/articles/Genetic_testing) involves the direct examination of the DNA
(/articles/DNA) molecule itself. A scientist scans a patient's DNA sample for mutated sequences.

There are two major types of gene tests. In the Frst type, a researcher may design short pieces of
DNA ("probes") whose sequences are complementary to the mutated sequences. These probes will
seek their complement among the base pairs of an individual's genome. If the mutated sequence is
present in the patient's genome, the probe will bind to it and lag the mutation. In the second type, a
researcher may conduct the gene test by comparing the sequence of DNA bases in a patient's gene
to disease in healthy individuals or their progeny.

Genetic testing is now used for:

Carrier screening, or the identiIcation of unaffected individuals who carry one copy of a gene for a disease that
requires two copies for the disease to manifest;
ConIrmational diagnosis of symptomatic individuals;
Determining sex;
Forensic/identity testing;
Newborn screening;
Prenatal diagnostic screening;
Presymptomatic testing for estimating the risk of developing adult-onset cancers;
Presymptomatic testing for predicting adult-onset disorders.
Some genetic tests are already available, although most of them are used in developed countries.
The tests currently available can detect mutations associated with rare genetic disorders like cystic
Fbrosis (/articles/Cystic_Fbrosis), sickle cell anemia (/articles/Sickle_cell_anemia), and Huntington's
disease (/articles/Huntington%27s_disease). Recently, tests have been developed to detect
mutation for a handful of more complex conditions such as breast, ovarian, and colon cancers.
However, gene tests may not detect every mutation associated with a particular condition because
many are as yet undiscovered.

CONTROVERSIAL QUESTIONS

The absence of privacy and anti-discrimination legal protections in most countries can lead to
discrimination in employment or insurance or other use of personal genetic information. This raises
questions such as whether genetic privacy is different from medical privacy.[21]

Reproductive issues. These include the use of genetic information in reproductive decision-making and the
possibility of genetically altering reproductive cells that may be passed on to future generations. For example,
germline therapy changes the genetic make-up of an individual's descendants. Thus, any error in technology or
judgment may have far-reaching consequences (though the same can also happen through natural
reproduction). Ethical issues like designed babies (/articles/Designer_baby) and human cloning have also given
rise to controversies between and among scientists and bioethicists, especially in the light of past abuses with
eugenics (/articles/Eugenics) (see reductio ad hitlerum (/ar ticles/Reductio_ad_Hitlerum)
ticles/Reductio_ad_Hitlerum)).
Clinical issues. These centers on the capabilities and limitations of doctors and other health-service providers,
people identiIed with genetic conditions, and the general public in dealing with genetic information.
Effects on social institutions. Genetic tests reveal information about individuals and their families. Thus, test
results can affect the dynamics within social institutions, particularly the family.
Conceptual and philosophical implications regarding human responsibility, free will vis-à-vis genetic
determinism, and the concepts of health and disease.

GENE THERAPY
Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired diseases like cancer and
AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes or to bolster a normal
function such as immunity. It can be used to target somatic cells (/articles/Somatic_cells) (i.e.,
those of the body) or gamete (/articles/Gamete) (i.e., egg and sperm) cells. In somatic gene therapy,
the genome of the recipient is changed, but this change is not passed along to the next generation.
In contrast, in germline gene therapy, the egg and sperm cells of the parents are changed for the
purpose of passing on the changes to their offspring.

There are basically two ways of implementing a gene therapy treatment:

Ex vivo
vivo, which means "outside the body" – Cells from the patient's blood or bone marrow
(/articles/Bone_marrow) are removed and grown in the laboratory. They are then exposed to a virus carrying the
desired gene. The virus enters the cells, and the desired gene becomes part of the DNA of the cells. The cells
are allowed to grow in the laboratory before being returned to the patient by injection into a vein.
In vivo
vivo, which means "inside the body" – No cells are removed from the patient's body. Instead, vectors are used
to deliver the desired gene to cells in the patient's body.
As of June 2001, more than 500 clinical gene-therapy trials involving about 3,500 patients have been
identiFed worldwide. Around 78% of these are in the United States, with Europe having 18%. These
trials focus on various types of cancer, although other multigenic diseases are being studied as well.
Recently, two children born with severe combined immunodeFciency disorder
(/articles/Severe_combined_immunodeFciency_disorder) ("SCID") were reported to have been cured
after being given genetically engineered cells.

Gene therapy faces many obstacles before it can become a practical approach for treating disease.
[21] At least four of these obstacles are as follows:

Gene delivery tools

tools. Genes are inserted into the body using gene carriers called vectors. The most common
vectors now are viruses, which have evolved a way of encapsulating and delivering their genes to human cells in
a pathogenic manner. Scientists manipulate the genome of the virus by removing the disease-causing genes
and inserting the therapeutic genes. However, while viruses are effective, they can introduce problems like
toxicity, immune and inbammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues. In addition, in order for
gene therapy to provide permanent therapeutic effects, the introduced gene needs to be integrated within the
host cell's genome. Some viral vectors effect this in a random fashion, which can introduce other problems such
as disruption of an endogenous host gene.
High costs
costs. Since gene therapy is relatively new and at an experimental stage, it is an expensive treatment to
undertake. This explains why current studies are focused on illnesses commonly found in developed countries,
where more people can afford to pay for treatment. It may take decades before developing countries can take
advantage of this technology.
Limited knowledge of the functions of genes
genes. Scientists currently know the functions of only a few genes.
Hence, gene therapy can address only some genes that cause a particular disease. Worse, it is not known
exactly whether genes have more than one function, which creates uncertainty as to whether replacing such
genes is indeed desirable.
Multigene disorders and effect of environment
environment. Most genetic disorders involve more than one gene.
Moreover, most diseases involve the interaction of several genes and the environment. For example, many
people with cancer not only inherit the disease gene for the disorder, but may have also failed to inherit speciIc
tumor suppressor genes. Diet, exercise, smoking and other environmental factors may have also contributed to
their disease.

HUMAN GENOME PROJECT

The Human Genome Project (/articles/Human_Genome_Project) is an initiative of the U.S.

Department of Energy (DOE) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) that aims to generate a high-
quality reference sequence (/articles/Reference_genome) for the entire human genome and identify
all the human genes.

The DOE and its predecessor agencies were assigned by the U.S. Congress to develop new energy
resources and technologies and to pursue a deeper understanding of potential health and
environmental risks posed by their production and use. In 1986, the DOE announced its Human
Genome Initiative. Shortly thereafter, the DOE and National Institutes of Health developed a plan for
a joint Human Genome Project (HGP), which ofFcially began in 1990.
The HGP was originally planned to last 15 years. However, rapid technological advances and
worldwide participation accelerated the completion date to 2003 (making it a 13 year project).
Already it has enabled gene hunters to pinpoint genes associated with more than 30 disorders.[22]

CLONING
Cloning involves the removal of the nucleus from one cell and its placement in an unfertilized egg
cell whose nucleus has either been deactivated or removed.

There are two types of cloning:

Reproductive cloning. After a few divisions, the egg cell is placed into a uterus where it is allowed to develop
into a fetus that is genetically identical to the donor of the original nucleus.
Therapeutic cloning.[23] The egg is placed into a Petri dish (/articles/Petri_dish) where it develops into
embryonic stem cells, which have shown potentials for treating several ailments.[24]
In February 1997, cloning became the focus of media attention when Ian Wilmut and his colleagues
at the Roslin Institute announced the successful cloning of a sheep, named Dolly, from the
mammary glands of an adult female. The cloning of Dolly made it apparent to many that the
techniques used to produce her could someday be used to clone human beings.[25] This stirred a lot
of controversy because of its ethical implications.

AG R I C U LT U R E

CROP YIELD
Using the techniques of modern biotechnology, one or two genes (/articles/Gene) (Smartstax
(/articles/Smartstax) from Monsanto in collaboration with Dow AgroSciences
(/articles/Dow_AgroSciences) will use eight, starting in 2010) may be transferred to a highly
developed crop variety to impart a new character that would increase its yield.[26] However, while
increases in crop yield are the most obvious applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture,
they are also the most difFcult ones. Current genetic engineering techniques work best for effects
that are controlled by a single gene. Many of the genetic characteristics associated with yield (e.g.,
enhanced growth) are controlled by a large number of genes, each of which has a minimal effect on
the overall yield.[27] There is, therefore, much scientiFc work to be done in this area.

REDUCED VULNERABILITY OF CROPS TO ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSES

Crops containing genes that will enable them to withstand biotic and abiotic stresses may be
developed. For example, drought (/articles/Drought) and excessively salty soil are two important
limiting factors (/articles/Limiting_factor) in crop productivity. Biotechnologists work to Fnd genes
that enable some plants to cope with these extreme conditions and eventually to transfer these
genes to the more productive crops. One of the latest developments is the identiFcation of a plant
gene, At-DBF2, from Arabidopsis thaliana (/articles/Arabidopsis_thaliana). Arabidopsis thaliana is a
tiny weed often used for plant research because it is very easy to grow. Its genetic code,
approximately 115 Mb of the 125 Mb genome,[28] which has been sequenced and interpreted and
which can be manipulated in many ways. The At-DBF2 gene shows tolerance to salt, drought and the
heat and cold in plants. When this gene was inserted into tomato (/articles/Tomato) and tobacco
(/articles/Tobacco) cells (see RNA interference (/articles/RNA_interference)), the cells withstood
these conditions far better than ordinary cells. If these preliminary results prove successful in larger
trials, then At-DBF2 genes can help in engineering crops that can better withstand harsh
environments.[29] Researchers have also created transgenic rice plants that resist rice yellow mottle
virus (/articles/Rice_yellow_mottle_virus) (RYMV). In Africa, this virus destroys a majority of the rice
crops and makes the surviving plants more susceptible to fungal infections.[30] While all of these
technological advances have the probability for commercial use, they need to be researched more
publicly so they can be proven as a stable source of production.

INCREASED NUTRITIONAL QUALITIES

Proteins in foods may be modiFed to increase their nutritional qualities. Proteins in legumes and
cereals may be transformed to provide the amino acids needed by human beings for a balanced
diet.[27] An example is the work of Professors Ingo Potrykus (/articles/Ingo_Potrykus) and Peter
Beyer (/articles/Peter_Beyer) in creating Golden rice (/articles/Golden_rice). The rice was a result of
utilizing genetic modiFcation with genetic material from corn and a soil microorganism. The
genetically modiFed rice produced beta carotene (/articles/Beta_carotene) which is converted to
vitamin A (/articles/Vitamin_A). The extra beta carotene content turned the rice a golden color.[31]

IMPROVED TASTE, TEXTURE OR APPEARANCE OF FOOD

Modern biotechnology can be used to slow down the process of spoilage. ModiFed fruit can ripen
longer on the plant and then be transported to the consumer with less risk of spoilage, and a still-
reasonable shelf life. This alters the taste, texture and appearance of the fruit. Reduction in spoilage
could expand the market for farmers in developing countries. However, there is sometimes a lack of
understanding by researchers in developed countries about the actual needs of prospective
beneFciaries in developing countries. For example, engineering soybeans to resist spoilage makes
them less suitable for producing tempeh (/articles/Tempeh), a signiFcant source of protein that
depends on fermentation. ModiFed soybeans produce tempeh which chefs Fnd lumpy, less
palatable, and less convenient. This is much the same as certain varietals of apples which have
been bred for appearance and often lack the taste qualities of less visually attractive varietals.

The Frst genetically modiFed food product was a tomato which was transformed to delay its
ripening.[32] Researchers in Indonesia (/articles/Indonesia), Malaysia (/articles/Malaysia), Thailand
(/articles/Thailand), Philippines (/articles/Philippines) and Vietnam (/articles/Vietnam) are currently
working on delayed-ripening papaya in collaboration with the University of Nottingham
(/articles/University_of_Nottingham) and Zeneca (/articles/Zeneca).[33]

Biotechnology in cheese production:[34] enzymes produced by micro-organisms provide an

alternative to animal rennet – a cheese coagulant – and an alternative supply for cheese makers.

About 85 million tons of wheat lour is used every year to bake bread.[35] By adding an enzyme called
maltogenic amylase to the lour, bread stays fresher longer. Assuming that 10–15% of bread is
thrown away as stale, if it could be kept fresh another 5–7 days then perhaps 2 million tons of lour
per year would be saved. Other enzymes can cause bread to expand to make a lighter loaf, or can
alter the loaf in a range of ways.

REDUCED DEPENDENCE ON FERTILIZERS, PESTICIDES AND OTHER

AGROCHEMICALS
Most of the current commercial applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture are on reducing
the dependence of farmers on agrochemicals (/articles/Agrochemical). For example, Bacillus
thuringiensis (/articles/Bacillus_thuringiensis) (Bt) is a soil bacterium that produces a protein with
insecticidal qualities. Traditionally, a fermentation process has been used to produce an insecticidal
spray from these bacteria. In this form, the Bt toxin (/articles/Bt_toxin) occurs as an inactive
protoxin, which requires digestion by an insect to be effective. There are several Bt toxins and each
one is speciFc to certain target insects. Crop plants have now been engineered to contain and
express the genes for Bt toxin, which they produce in its active form. When a susceptible insect
ingests the transgenic crop cultivar expressing the Bt protein, it stops feeding and soon thereafter
dies as a result of the Bt toxin binding to its gut wall. Bt corn is now commercially available in a
number of countries to control corn borer (/articles/Corn_borer) (a lepidopteran insect), which is
otherwise controlled by spraying (a more difFcult process).

Crops have also been genetically engineered to acquire tolerance to broad-spectrum herbicide
(/articles/Herbicide). The lack of herbicides with broad-spectrum activity and no crop injury was a
consistent limitation in crop weed management (/articles/Weed_control). Multiple applications of
numerous herbicides were routinely used to control a wide range of weed species detrimental to
agronomic crops. Weed management tended to rely on preemergence—that is, herbicide
applications were sprayed in response to expected weed infestations rather than in response to
actual weeds present. Mechanical cultivation and hand weeding were often necessary to control
weeds not controlled by herbicide applications. The introduction of herbicide-tolerant crops has the
potential of reducing the number of herbicide active ingredients used for weed management,
reducing the number of herbicide applications made during a season, and increasing yield due to
improved weed management and less crop injury. Transgenic crops that express tolerance to
glyphosate (/articles/Glyphosate), glufosinate (/articles/Glufosinate) and bromoxynil
(/articles/Bromoxynil) have been developed. These herbicides can now be sprayed on transgenic
crops without inlicting damage on the crops while killing nearby weeds.[36]

From 1996 to 2001, herbicide tolerance was the most dominant trait introduced to commercially
available transgenic crops, followed by insect resistance. In 2001, herbicide tolerance deployed in
soybean (/articles/Soybean), corn (/articles/Maize) and cotton (/articles/Cotton) accounted for 77%
of the 626,000 square kilometres planted to transgenic crops; Bt crops accounted for 15%; and
"stacked genes" for herbicide tolerance and insect resistance used in both cotton and corn
accounted for 8%.[37]

PRODUCTION OF NOVEL SUBSTANCES IN CROP PLANTS

Biotechnology is Fnding novel uses beyond food. For example, oilseed (/articles/Oilseed) can be
modiFed to produce fatty acids for detergents (/articles/Detergent), substitute fuels (/articles/Fuel)
and petrochemicals (/articles/Petrochemical). Potatoes (/articles/Potato), tomatoes
(/articles/Tomato), rice (/articles/Rice), tobacco (/articles/Tobacco), lettuce (/articles/Lettuce),
saflowers (/articles/Saflower), and other plants have been genetically engineered to produce
insulin (/articles/Insulin) and certain vaccines (/articles/Vaccine). If future clinical trials prove
successful, the advantages of edible vaccines (/articles/Vaccine) would be enormous, especially for
developing countries. The transgenic plants may be grown locally and cheaply. Homegrown
vaccines would also avoid logistical and economic problems posed by having to transport traditional
preparations over long distances and by having to keep them cold in transit. And since they would be
edible, they would not need syringes, which are not only an additional expense in the traditional
vaccine preparations but also a source of infections if contaminated.[38] In the case of insulin grown
in transgenic plants, it is well-established that the gastrointestinal system breaks the protein down
therefore this could not currently be administered as an edible protein. However, it might be
produced at signiFcantly lower cost than insulin produced in costly bioreactors. For example,
Calgary, Canada-based SemBioSys Genetics (/articles/SemBioSys_Genetics), Inc. reports that its
saflower-produced insulin will reduce unit costs by over 25% or more and approximates a reduction
in the capital costs associated with building a commercial-scale insulin manufacturing facility of
over $100 million, compared to traditional biomanufacturing facilities.[39]

ANIMAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
In animals, biotechnology techniques are being used to improve genetics and for pharmaceutical or
industrial applications. Molecular biology (/articles/Molecular_biology) techniques can help drive
breeding programs by directing selection of superior animals. Animal cloning, through somatic cell
nuclear transfer (SCNT), allows for genetic replication of selected animals. Genetic engineering,
using recombinant DNA, alters the genetic makeup of the animal for selected purposes, including for
producing therapeutic proteins in cows and goats.[40] The U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(/articles/Food_and_Drug_Administration) (FDA) is considering approving a genetically altered
salmon with an increased growth rate.[41][42]

CONTROVERSY
There is another side to the agricultural biotechnology issue. It includes increased herbicide
(/articles/Herbicide) usage and resultant herbicide resistance, "super weeds", residues on and in
food crops, genetic contamination of non-GM crops which hurt organic and conventional farmers,
etc.[43][44]

B I O LO G I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
Biotechnological engineering or biological engineering is a branch of engineering
(/articles/Engineering) that focuses on biotechnologies and biological science. It includes different
disciplines such as biochemical engineering (/articles/Biochemical_engineering), biomedical
engineering (/articles/Biomedical_engineering), bio-process engineering, biosystem engineering and
so on. Because of the novelty of the Feld, bioengineer (/articles/Bioengineer) is still not clearly
deFned. However, in general it is an integrated approach of fundamental biological sciences
(/articles/Biological_sciences) and traditional engineering principles.

Biotechnologists are often employed to scale up bio processes from the laboratory scale to the
manufacturing scale. Moreover, as with most engineers, they often deal with management,
economic and legal issues. Since patents (/articles/Patents) and regulation (e.g., U.S. Food and
Drug Administration (/articles/U.S._Food_and_Drug_Administration) regulation in the U.S.) are very
important issues for biotech enterprises, bioengineers are often required to have knowledge related
to these issues.

The increasing number of biotech enterprises is likely to create a need for bioengineers in the years
to come. Many universities throughout the world are now providing programs in bioengineering and
biotechnology (as independent programs or specialty programs within more established engineering
Felds).

B I O R E M E D I AT I O N A N D B I O D E G R A DAT I O N
Biotechnology is being used to engineer and adapt organisms (/articles/Organisms), especially
microorganisms (/articles/Microorganisms), in an effort to Fnd sustainable ways to clean up
contaminated environments. The elimination of a wide range of pollutants and wastes from the
environment (/articles/Environment_(biophysical)) is an absolute requirement to promote a
sustainable development of our society with low environmental impact. Biological processes play a
major role in the removal of contaminants (/articles/Contaminant). Biotechnology takes advantage
of the catabolic (/articles/Catabolic) versatility of microorganisms and their ability to
degrade/convert such compounds. New methodological breakthroughs in sequencing
(/articles/Sequencing), genomics (/articles/Genomics), proteomics (/articles/Proteomics),
bioinformatics (/articles/Bioinformatics) and imaging are producing vast amounts of information. In
the Feld of Environmental Microbiology, genome (/articles/Genome)-based global studies open a
new era providing unprecedented in silico views of metabolic and regulatory networks.
Environmental Microbiology also offers clues to the evolution of degradation
(/articles/Microbial_biodegradation) pathways and to the molecular adaptation strategies to
changing environmental conditions. Functional genomic and metagenomic approaches are
increasing understanding of the relative importance of different pathways and regulatory networks
to carbon lux (/articles/Carbon_lux) in particular environments and for particular compounds. They
will certainly accelerate the development of bioremediation (/articles/Bioremediation) technologies
and biotransformation (/articles/Biotransformation) processes.[45]

Marine environments are especially vulnerable since oil spills of coastal regions and the open sea
are poorly containable and mitigation is difFcult. In addition to pollution through human activities,
millions of tons of petroleum (/articles/Petroleum) enter the marine environment every year from
natural seepages. Despite its toxicity, a considerable fraction of petroleum oil entering marine
systems is eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of microbial communities.
Particularly successful is a recently discovered group of specialists, the so-called
hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (/articles/Hydrocarbonoclastic_bacteria) (HCCB).[46]

B I OT E C H N O LO G Y R E G U L AT I O N S
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) was the Frst federal agency to assume regulatory
responsibility in the United States. The Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee of the NIH published
guidelines for working with recombinant DNA and recombinant organisms in the laboratory.
Nowadays, the agencies that are responsible for the biotechnology regulation are: US Department of
Agriculture (/articles/US_Department_of_Agriculture) (USDA) that regulates plant pests and medical
preparation from living organisms, Environmental Protection Agency
(/articles/Environmental_Protection_Agency) (EPA) that regulates pesticides and herbicides, and the
Food and Drug Administration (/articles/Food_and_Drug_Administration) (FDA) whose responsibility
it is to ensure that the food and drug products are safe and effective. [10]

EDUCATION
In 1988, after prompting from the United States Congress (/articles/United_States_Congress), the
National Institute of General Medical Sciences
(/articles/National_Institute_of_General_Medical_Sciences) (National Institutes of Health
(/articles/National_Institutes_of_Health)) (NIGMS) instituted a funding mechanism for
biotechnology training. Universities nationwide compete for these funds to establish Biotechnology
Training Programs (BTPs). Each successful application is generally funded for Fve years then must
be competitively renewed. Graduate students (/articles/Graduate_students) in turn compete for
acceptance into a BTP; if accepted, then stipend, tuition and health insurance support is provided for
two or three years during the course of their Ph.D. (/articles/Ph.D.) thesis work. Nineteen institutions
offer NIGMS supported BTPs.[47] Biotechnology training is also offered at the undergraduate level
and in community colleges.

SEE ALSO
Bioculture (/articles/Bioculture)
Bioeconomics (biophysical)
Bioengineering (/articles/Bioengineering)
Biomimetics (/articles/Biomimetics)
Bionic architecture (/articles/Bionic_architecture)
Biotechnology industrial park (/articles/Biotechnology_industrial_park)
Competitions and prizes in biotechnology (/articles/Competitions_and_prizes_in_biotechnology)
Genetic Engineering (/articles/Genetic_Engineering)
Green Revolution (/articles/Green_Revolution)
History of Biotechnology (/articles/History_of_Biotechnology)
List of biotechnology articles (/articles/List_of_biotechnology_articles)
List of biotechnology companies (/articles/List_of_biotechnology_companies)
List of emerging biotechnologies (/articles/List_of_emerging_technologies#Biotechnology)
Metabolic engineering (/articles/Metabolic_engineering)
NASDAQ Biotechnology Index (/articles/NASDAQ_Biotechnology_Index)
Outline of biotechnology (/articles/Outline_of_biotechnology)
Pharmaceutical chemistry (/articles/Pharmaceutical_chemistry)
Pharmaceutical companies (/articles/Pharmaceutical_companies)
SWORD-Fnancing (/articles/SWORD-Fnancing)
Timeline of biotechnology (/articles/Timeline_of_biotechnology)
Virotherapy (/articles/Virotherapy)

REFERENCES AND NOTES

FURTHER READING
Viviana Zelizer Best Paper in Economic Sociology Award (2005–2006), American Sociological Association.
USDA Economic Research Service. A 1994 publication from the Agricultural Economic Report.

EXTERNAL LINKS
University Students Society Of Biotechnology
The International Forum on Biotechnology
Foundation for Biotechnology Awareness and Education,
A report on Agricultural Biotechnology focusing on the impacts of "Green" Biotechnology with a special emphasis
on economic aspects. fao.org.
US Economic BeneIts of Biotechnology to Business and Society NOAA Economics, economics.noaa.gov
Database of the Safety and BeneIts of Biotechnology – a database of peer-reviewed scientiIc papers and the
safety and beneIts of biotechnology.
 Biotechnology
History of biotechnology (/articles/History_of_biotechnology) |

Timeline of biotechnology (/articles/Timeline_of_biotechnology) |

History
Competitions and prizes in biotechnology
(/articles/Competitions_and_prizes_in_biotechnology)

Blue Biotechnology (/articles/Blue_Biotechnology) |

Green Biotechnology (/articles/Green_Biotechnology) |

Branches
Red Biotechnology (/articles/Red_Biotechnology) |

White Biotechnology (/articles/Industrial_biotechnology)

Allele (/articles/Allele) |

ArtiFcial selection (/articles/ArtiFcial_selection) |

Bioreactor (/articles/Bioreactor) |

Cell (/articles/Cell_(biology)) |

Biological Concepts DNA (/articles/DNA)/RNA (/articles/RNA) |

Fermentation (/articles/Fermentation) |

Gene (/articles/Gene) |

Plasmid (/articles/Plasmid) |

Protein (/articles/Protein)

Biotechnology companies (/articles/List_of_biotechnology_companies) |

Biotechnology industrial park (/articles/Biotechnology_industrial_park) |

Biotechnology products |

General concepts Biotechnology law |

Green Revolution (/articles/Green_Revolution) |

Human Genome Project (/articles/Human_Genome_Project) |

Pharmaceutical company (/articles/Pharmaceutical_company)

Cell culture (/articles/Cell_culture) |

Flow cytometry (/articles/Flow_cytometry) |

Hybridoma (/articles/Hybridoma) |
Biology Feld
HPLC (/articles/HPLC) |

NMR (/articles/NMR) |

Spectroscopy (/articles/Spectroscopy)

Centrifugation (/articles/Centrifugation) |

CSTR (/articles/Continuous_stirred-tank_reactor) |

DSTR |
Basic techniques and
tools Crystallization (/articles/Crystallization) |

Chromatography (/articles/Chromatography) |

Dialysis (/articles/Dialysis) |
Chemical Feld
Electrophoresis (/articles/Electrophoresis) |

Extraction |

Fed Batch |
 Filtration (/articles/Filtration) |

PFR (/articles/PFR) |

Sedimentation (/articles/Sedimentation)

Animal cell culture (/articles/Animal_cell_culture) |

Bioinformatics (/articles/Bioinformatics) |

Biosynthesis (/articles/Biosynthesis) |

Bionic architecture (/articles/Bionic_architecture) |

Cell immunity (/articles/Cell_immunity) |

Cloning (/articles/Cloning)

Reproductive cloning (/articles/Reproductive_cloning) |

Therapeutic cloning (/articles/Therapeutic_cloning) )

Embryology (/articles/Embryology) |

Environmental biotechnology (/articles/Environmental_biotechnology) |

Applications
Genetic engineering (/articles/Genetic_engineering)

Genetically modiFed organisms (/articles/Genetically_modiFed_organisms) |

Molecular genetics (/articles/Molecular_genetics) )

Gene therapy (/articles/Gene_therapy) |

Microbial biodegradation (/articles/Microbial_biodegradation) |

Omics (/articles/Omics) |

Pharmacogenomics (/articles/Pharmacogenomics) |

Stem cells (/articles/Stem_cells) |

Telomere (/articles/Telomere) |

Tissue culture (/articles/Tissue_culture)

Bioeconomy |

Bioengineering (/articles/Bioengineering) |

Biology (/articles/Biology) |

Biopharmacology (/articles/Biopharmacology) |

Biomedical engineering (/articles/Biomedical_engineering) |

Biomedicine (/articles/Biomedicine) |

Biomimetics (/articles/Biomimetics) |

Interdisciplinary Ields Biochemicals (/articles/Biochemicals) |

Biorobotics (/articles/Biorobotics) |

Chemical engineering (/articles/Chemical_engineering) |

Microbiology (/articles/Microbiology) |

Mining (/articles/Mining) |

Molecular biology (/articles/Molecular_biology) |

Nanobiotechnology (/articles/Nanobiotechnology) |

Virology (/articles/Virology)

Index of biotechnology articles (/articles/Index_of_biotechnology_articles) |

Lists List of biotechnology articles (/articles/List_of_biotechnology_articles) |

List of biotechnology companies (/articles/List_of_biotechnology_companies)

Topics related to biology (/articles/List_of_biology_topics)

Biologist (/articles/Biologist) |

Notable biologists (/articles/List_of_biologists) |

History of biology (/articles/History_of_biology) |

People and history
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (/articles/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine) |

Timeline of biology and organic chemistry (/articles/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry) |

List of geneticists and biochemists (/articles/List_of_geneticists_and_biochemists)

Bachelor of Science (/articles/Bachelor_of_Science) |

Institutions, publications
Publications

Omne vivum ex ovo (/articles/Omne_vivum_ex_ovo) |

In vivo (/articles/In_vivo) |

Terms and phrases In vitro (/articles/In_vitro) |

In utero (/articles/Uterus) |

In silico (/articles/In_silico)

Medicine (/articles/Medicine) (Physician (/articles/Physician)) |

Physical anthropology (/articles/Physical_anthropology) |

Related disciplines Environmental science (/articles/Environmental_science) |

Life Sciences (/articles/Biology) |

Biotechnology

List of conservation topics (/articles/List_of_conservation_topics) |

Other
Altricial (/articles/Altricial) and Precocial (/articles/Precocial) development strategies

Technology (/articles/Technology)
Agricultural engineering (/articles/Agricultural_engineering) |

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Fisheries science (/articles/Fisheries_science) |

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Agriculture (/articles/Agriculture)
Food microbiology (/articles/Food_microbiology) |

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GURT (/articles/Genetic_use_restriction_technology) |

ICT in agriculture (/articles/ICT_in_agriculture) |

Nutrition (/articles/Nutrition)

Bioinformatics (/articles/Bioinformatics) |

Biological engineering (/articles/Biological_engineering) |

Biomechatronics (/articles/Biomechatronics) |
 Biomedical engineering (/articles/Biomedical_engineering) |

Biotechnology |

Cheminformatics (/articles/Cheminformatics) |

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Tissue engineering (/articles/Tissue_engineering)

Acoustical engineering (/articles/Acoustical_engineering) |

Architectural engineering (/articles/Architectural_engineering) |

Building services engineering (/articles/Building_services_engineering)

|

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Facade engineering (/articles/Facade_engineering) |

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Sanitary engineering (/articles/Sanitary_engineering) |

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(/articles/Digital_technologies_in_education) |

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(/articles/Information_and_communication_technologies_in_education)
Educational (/articles/Educational_technology) |

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 Ecological engineering (/articles/Ecological_engineering) |

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(/articles/Environmental_engineering_science) |

Green building (/articles/Green_building) |

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(/articles/Productivity_improving_technologies_(historical)) |

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(/articles/Army_engineering_maintenance) |

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 Stealth technology (/articles/Stealth_technology)

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(/articles/List_of_engineering_branches)
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|
 Knowledge (/articles/Knowledge) |
Components
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Theories Technological convergence (/articles/Technological_convergence) |

(/articles/Theories_of_technology)
Technological determinism |
and
concepts Technological escalation (/articles/Technological_escalation) |

Technological evolution (/articles/Technological_evolution) |

Technological Fx (/articles/Technological_Fx) |

Technological innovation system (/articles/Technological_innovation_system) |

Technological momentum (/articles/Technological_momentum) |

Technological nationalism (/articles/Technological_nationalism) |

Technological paradigm |

Technological rationality (/articles/Technological_rationality) |

Technological revival (/articles/Technological_revival) |

Technological revolution (/articles/Technological_revolution) |

Technological self-efFcacy |

Technological singularity (/articles/Technological_singularity)

Singularitarianism (/articles/Singularitarianism) )

Technological somnambulism (/articles/Technological_somnambulism) |

Technological transitions |

Technological unemployment |

Technological utopianism (/articles/Technological_utopianism) |

Technology lifecycle (/articles/Technology_lifecycle)

Technology acceptance model (/articles/Technology_acceptance_model) |

Technology adoption lifecycle (/articles/Technology_adoption_lifecycle) )

Technomancy (/articles/Technomancy) |

Technorealism (/articles/Technorealism) |

Technoromanticism (/articles/Technoromanticism) |

Technoscience (/articles/Technoscience) |

Transhumanism (/articles/Transhumanism)

Emerging technologies (/articles/Emerging_technologies)

List (/articles/List_of_emerging_technologies) )

Fictional technology (/articles/Fictional_technology) |

Technopaganism (/articles/Technopaganism) |
 High-technology business districts (/articles/Category:High-technology_business_districts) |

Kardashev scale (/articles/Kardashev_scale) |

List of technologies (/articles/List_of_technologies) |

Science, technology and society (/articles/Science,_technology_and_society)

Technology dynamics (/articles/Technology_dynamics) )

Science and technology (/articles/Science_and_technology)

Science and technology by country (/articles/Category:Science_and_technology_by_country) )

STEM Felds (/articles/STEM_Felds)

women )

Technology alignment (/articles/Technology_alignment) |

Technology assessment (/articles/Technology_assessment) |

Technology brokering |

Technology butler (/articles/Technology_butler) |

Technology companies (/articles/Category:Technology_companies) |

Other Technology demonstration (/articles/Technology_demonstration) |

Technology education (/articles/Technology_education)

Technical universities and colleges (/articles/Category:Technical_universities_and_colleges) )

Technology evangelist (/articles/Technology_evangelist) |

Technology fusion (/articles/Technology_fusion) |

Technology governance (/articles/Technology_governance) |

Technology integration (/articles/Technology_integration) |

Technology journalism (/articles/Technology_journalism) |

Technology management (/articles/Technology_management) |

Technology policy (/articles/Technology_policy) |

Technology shock (/articles/Technology_shock) |

Technology strategy (/articles/Technology_strategy) |

Technology and society |

Technology transfer (/articles/Technology_transfer) |

Technophilia (/articles/Technophilia) |

Technophobia (/articles/Technophobia) |

Technoself |

Technosignature |

Technostress (/articles/Technostress) |

Weapon (/articles/Weapon)

List (/articles/List_of_weapons) )
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