My Account (/Login) | Register (/Register) | Help (/Help)

Select Language ​ ▼ Select Language ​ ▼

My Dashboard (/Profile) Get Published (/Ebook-Submit)

(/Home)

Home (/Default.aspx) Books Search (/AdvancedSearch.aspx)

Support About Us Get Published

Most Popular (/CollectionLocal) New Releases (/RecentPublications) Top

Picks (/TopPicks) eBook Finder... SEARCH

B L U E B I OT E C H N O L O G Y

Article Id: WHEBN0017235234

Reproduction Date:

Title: Blue biotechnology

World Heritage Encyclopedia (/Results.aspx?

Author:
PageIndex=1&SearchAuthor=World+Heritage+Encyclopedia&AuthorType=1)

Language: English (/Results.aspx?PageIndex=1&LanguageDropDownValue=English)

Biotechnology (/Results.aspx?
Subject:
PageIndex=1&SearchEverything=Biotechnology&SubjectType=1)

Collection:
World Heritage Encyclopedia (/Results.aspx?
Publisher:
PageIndex=1&SearchPublisher=World+Heritage+Encyclopedia&PublisherType=1)

Publication
Date:

1
2
3
4
5

Flag as Inappropriate

Email this Article

BLUE BIOTECHNOLOGY

Biotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products, or
"any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms or derivatives thereof,
to make or modify products or processes for speciEc use" (UN Convention on Biological Diversity,
Art. 2).[1] Depending on the tools and applications, it often overlaps with the (related) Eelds of
bioengineering (/articles/Bioengineering) and biomedical engineering
(/articles/Biomedical_engineering).
For thousands of years, humankind has used biotechnology in agriculture (/articles/Agriculture),
food production (/articles/Food_production), and medicine (/articles/Medicine).[2] The term itself is
largely believed to have been coined in 1919 by Hungarian engineer (/articles/Engineer) Károly Ereky
(/articles/K%C3%A1roly_Ereky). In the late 20th and early 21st century, biotechnology has expanded
to include new and diverse sciences (/articles/Science) such as genomics (/articles/Genomics),
recombinant gene (/articles/Recombinant_gene) technologies, applied immunology
(/articles/Immunology), and development of pharmaceutical (/articles/Pharmaceutical) therapies
and diagnostic tests (/articles/Diagnostic_tests).[2]

DEFINITIONS
CONTENTS
The wide concept of "biotech" or "biotechnology"
encompasses a wide range of procedures for modifying 1 DeEnitions
2 History
living organisms according to human purposes, going
3 Applications
back to domestication (/articles/Domestication) of
3.1 Medicine
animals, cultivation of plants, and "improvements" to
3.2 Agriculture
these through breeding programs that employ artiEcial
3.3 Industrial biotechnology
selection (/articles/ArtiEcial_selection) and hybridization 3.4 Regulation
(/articles/Hybrid_(biology)). Modern usage also includes 4 Learning
genetic engineering (/articles/Genetic_engineering) as 5 See also
well as cell (/articles/Cell_culture) and tissue culture 6 References and notes
(/articles/Tissue_culture) technologies. The American 7 Further reading

Chemical Society (/articles/American_Chemical_Society) 8 External links

deEnes biotechnology as the application of biological

organisms, systems, or processes by various industries to
learning about the science of life and the improvement of the value of materials and organisms such
as pharmaceuticals, crops, and livestock.[3] Biotechnology also writes on the pure biological
sciences (animal cell culture (/articles/Animal_cell_culture), biochemistry (/articles/Biochemistry),
cell biology (/articles/Cell_biology), embryology (/articles/Embryology), genetics
(/articles/Genetics), microbiology (/articles/Microbiology), and molecular biology
(/articles/Molecular_biology)). In many instances, it is also dependent on knowledge and methods
from outside the sphere of biology including:

bioinformatics (/articles/Bioinformatics), a new brand of computer science (/articles/Computer_science)

bioprocess engineering (/articles/Bioprocess_engineering)
biorobotics (/articles/Biorobotics)
chemical engineering (/articles/Chemical_engineering)
Conversely, modern biological sciences (including even concepts such as molecular ecology
(/articles/Molecular_ecology)) are intimately entwined and heavily dependent on the methods
developed through biotechnology and what is commonly thought of as the life sciences
(/articles/Life_sciences) industry. Biotechnology is the research and development
(/articles/Research_and_development) in the laboratory (/articles/Laboratory) using bioinformatics
(/articles/Bioinformatics) for exploration, extraction, exploitation and production from any living
organisms (/articles/Living_organisms) and any source of biomass (/articles/Biomass) by means of
biochemical engineering (/articles/Biochemical_engineering) where high value-added products
could be planned (reproduced by biosynthesis (/articles/Biosynthesis), for example), forecasted,
formulated, developed, manufactured and marketed for the purpose of sustainable operations (for
the return from bottomless initial investment on R & D) and gaining durable patents rights (for
exclusives rights for sales, and prior to this to receive national and international approval from the
results on animal experiment and human experiment, especially on the pharmaceutical
(/articles/Pharmaceutical) branch of biotechnology to prevent any undetected side-effects or safety
concerns by using the products).[4][5][6]

By contrast, bioengineering (/articles/Bioengineering) is generally thought of as a related Eeld that

more heavily emphasizes higher systems approaches (not necessarily the altering or using of
biological materials directly) for interfacing with and utilizing living things. Bioengineering is the
application of the principles of engineering and natural sciences to tissues, cells and molecules.
This can be considered as the use of knowledge from working with and manipulating biology to
achieve a result that can improve functions in plants and animals.[7] Relatedly, biomedical
engineering (/articles/Biomedical_engineering) is an overlapping Eeld that often draws upon and
applies biotechnology (by various deEnitions), especially in certain sub-Eelds of biomedical and/or
chemical engineering such as tissue engineering (/articles/Tissue_engineering), biopharmaceutical
engineering (/articles/Pharmaceutical_engineering), and genetic engineering
(/articles/Genetic_engineering).

HISTORY
Although not normally what Erst comes to mind, many forms of human-derived agriculture
(/articles/Agriculture) clearly Et the broad deEnition of "'using a biotechnological system to make
products". Indeed, the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological
enterprise.

Agriculture (/articles/Agriculture) has been theorized to have become the dominant way of
producing food since the Neolithic Revolution (/articles/Neolithic_Revolution). Through early
biotechnology, the earliest farmers selected and bred the best suited crops, having the highest
yields, to produce enough food to support a growing population. As crops and Eelds became
increasingly large and difEcult to maintain, it was discovered that speciEc organisms and their by-
products could effectively fertilize (/articles/Fertilize), restore nitrogen (/articles/Nitrogen_Exation),
and control pests (/articles/Pesticide). Throughout the history of agriculture, farmers have
inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments and
breeding (/articles/Plant_breeding) them with other plants — one of the Erst forms of biotechnology.

These processes also were included in early fermentation (/articles/Fermentation_(biochemistry))

of beer (/articles/Beer).[8] These processes were introduced in early Mesopotamia
(/articles/Mesopotamia), Egypt (/articles/Egypt), China (/articles/China) and India (/articles/India),
and still use the same basic biological methods. In brewing (/articles/Brewing), malted grains
(containing enzymes (/articles/Enzymes)) convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding
speciEc yeasts (/articles/Yeasts) to produce beer. In this process, carbohydrates
(/articles/Carbohydrates) in the grains were broken down into alcohols such as ethanol. Later other
cultures produced the process of lactic acid fermentation (/articles/Lactic_acid_fermentation)
which allowed the fermentation and preservation of other forms of food, such as soy sauce
(/articles/Soy_sauce). Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce leavened bread
(/articles/Leavened_bread). Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until
Louis Pasteur (/articles/Louis_Pasteur)'s work in 1857, it is still the Erst use of biotechnology to
convert a food source into another form.

Before the time of Charles Darwin (/articles/Charles_Darwin)'s work and life, animal and plant
scientists had already used selective breeding. Darwin added to that body of work with his scientiEc
observations about the ability of science to change species. These accounts contributed to Darwin's
theory of natural selection.[9]

For thousands of years, humans have used selective breeding to improve production of crops and
livestock to use them for food. In selective breeding, organisms with desirable characteristics are
mated to produce offspring with the same characteristics. For example, this technique was used
with corn to produce the largest and sweetest crops.[10]

In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of microbiology

(/articles/Microbiology) and explored ways of manufacturing speciEc products. In 1917, Chaim
Weizmann (/articles/Chaim_Weizmann) Erst used a pure microbiological culture in an industrial
process, that of manufacturing corn starch (/articles/Corn_starch) using Clostridium acetobutylicum
(/articles/Clostridium_acetobutylicum), to produce acetone (/articles/Acetone), which the United
Kingdom (/articles/United_Kingdom) desperately needed to manufacture explosives
(/articles/Explosive) during World War I (/articles/World_War_I).[11]

Biotechnology has also led to the development of antibiotics. In 1928, Alexander Fleming
(/articles/Alexander_Fleming) discovered the mold Penicillium (/articles/Penicillium). His work led to
the puriEcation of the antibiotic compound formed by the mold by Howard Florey, Ernst Boris Chain
and Norman Heatley - to form what we today know as penicillin (/articles/Penicillin). In 1940,
penicillin became available for medicinal use to treat bacterial infections in humans.[10]

The Eeld of modern biotechnology is generally thought of as having been born in 1971 when Paul
Berg's (Stanford) experiments in gene splicing had early success. Herbert W. Boyer (Univ. Calif. at
San Francisco) and Stanley N. Cohen (Stanford) signiEcantly advanced the new technology in 1972
by transferring genetic material into a bacterium, such that the imported material would be
reproduced. The commercial viability of a biotechnology industry was signiEcantly expanded on
June 16, 1980, when the United States Supreme Court (/articles/United_States_Supreme_Court)
ruled that a genetically modiEed (/articles/Genetic_engineering) microorganism
(/articles/Microorganism) could be patented (/articles/Patent) in the case of Diamond v.
Chakrabarty (/articles/Diamond_v._Chakrabarty).[12] Indian-born Ananda Chakrabarty, working for
General Electric (/articles/General_Electric), had modiEed a bacterium (of the Pseudomonas
(/articles/Pseudomonas) genus) capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in
treating oil spills. (Chakrabarty's work did not involve gene manipulation but rather the transfer of
entire organelles between strains of the Pseudomonas bacterium.

Revenue in the industry is expected to grow by 12.9% in 2008. Another factor inkuencing the
biotechnology sector's success is improved intellectual property rights legislation—and enforcement
—worldwide, as well as strengthened demand for medical and pharmaceutical products to cope with
an ageing, and ailing, U.S. population.[13]

Rising demand for biofuels is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the
Department of Energy (/articles/United_States_Department_of_Energy) estimating ethanol
(/articles/Ethanol) usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by
2030. The biotechnology sector has allowed the U.S. farming industry to rapidly increase its supply
of corn and soybeans—the main inputs into biofuels—by developing genetically modiEed seeds
which are resistant to pests and drought. By boosting farm productivity, biotechnology plays a
crucial role in ensuring that biofuel production targets are met.[14]

APPLICATIONS
Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop
production and agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g.
biodegradable plastics (/articles/Biodegradable_plastic), vegetable oil (/articles/Vegetable_oil),
biofuels (/articles/Biofuel)), and environmental uses.

For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms (/articles/Organism)
for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer (/articles/Beer) and milk
(/articles/Milk) products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria (/articles/Bacteria) by
the mining industry in bioleaching (/articles/Bioleaching). Biotechnology is also used to recycle,
treat waste, cleanup sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation
(/articles/Bioremediation)), and also to produce biological weapons (/articles/Biological_warfare).

A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology; for
example:

Bioinformatics (/articles/Bioinformatics) is an interdisciplinary Eeld which addresses biological problems using

computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization as well as analysis of biological data possible. The Eeld
may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be deEned as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of
molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with
these molecules, on a large scale."[15] Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics
(/articles/Functional_genomics), structural genomics (/articles/Structural_genomics), and proteomics
(/articles/Proteomics), and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.
Blue biotechnology (/articles/Blue_biotechnology) is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic
applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.
Green biotechnology (/articles/Green_biotechnology) is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example
would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation (/articles/Micropropagation). Another
example is the designing of transgenic plants (/articles/Transgenic_plant) to grow under speciEc environments in the
presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally
friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture (/articles/Industrial_agriculture). An example of this is the
engineering of a plant to express a pesticide (/articles/Pesticide), thereby ending the need of external application of
pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn (/articles/Transgenic_maize). Whether or not green biotechnology
products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.
Red biotechnology (/articles/Biopharmaceutical) is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing
of organisms to produce antibiotics (/articles/Antibiotic), and the engineering of genetic cures through genetic
manipulation (/articles/Genetic_manipulation).
White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial
(/articles/Industry) processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another
example is the using of enzymes (/articles/Enzymes) as industrial catalysts (/articles/Catalyst) to either produce
valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in
resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods. http://www.bio-entrepreneur.net/Advance-
deEnition-biotech.pdf}
The investment and economic output of all of these types of applied biotechnologies is termed as
"bioeconomy (/articles/Bioeconomy)".

MEDICINE
(/articles/eng/File:Insulincrystals.jpg)
In medicine, modern biotechnology Ends
applications in areas such as
pharmaceutical drug
(/articles/Pharmaceutical_drug)
discovery and production,
pharmacogenomics
(/articles/Pharmacogenomics), and
genetic testing (or genetic screening).

Pharmacogenomics
(/articles/Pharmacogenomics) (a
combination of pharmacology
(/articles/Pharmacology) and genomics
(/articles/Genomics)) is the technology
that analyses how genetic makeup
affects an individual's response to
drugs.[16] It deals with the inkuence of
genetic (/articles/Genetics) variation on drug response in patients by correlating gene expression
(/articles/Gene_expression) or single-nucleotide polymorphisms (/articles/Single-
nucleotide_polymorphism) with a drug's efEcacy (/articles/EfEcacy) or toxicity (/articles/Toxicity).
[17] By doing so, pharmacogenomics aims to develop rational means to optimize drug therapy, with
respect to the patients' genotype (/articles/Genotype), to ensure maximum efEcacy with minimal
adverse effects (/articles/Adverse_effect_(medicine)).[18] Such approaches promise the advent of
"personalized medicine (/articles/Personalized_medicine)"; in which drugs and drug combinations
are optimized for each individual's unique genetic makeup.[19][20]

Biotechnology has contributed to the discovery and manufacturing of traditional small molecule
(/articles/Small_molecule) pharmaceutical drugs (/articles/Pharmaceutical_drugs) as well as drugs
that are the product of biotechnology - biopharmaceutics (/articles/Biopharmaceutics). Modern
biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. The Erst
genetically engineered products were medicines designed to treat human diseases. To cite one
example, in 1978 Genentech (/articles/Genentech) developed synthetic humanized insulin
(/articles/Insulin) by joining its gene with a plasmid (/articles/Plasmid) vector inserted into the
bacterium Escherichia coli (/articles/Escherichia_coli). Insulin, widely used for the treatment of
diabetes, was previously extracted from the pancreas of abattoir (/articles/Abattoir) animals (cattle
and/or pigs). The resulting genetically engineered bacterium enabled the production of vast
quantities of synthetic human insulin at relatively low cost.[21][22] Biotechnology has also enabled
emerging therapeutics like gene therapy (/articles/Gene_therapy). The application of biotechnology
to basic science (for example through the Human Genome Project
(/articles/Human_Genome_Project)) has also dramatically improved our understanding of biology
(/articles/Biology) and as our scientiEc knowledge of normal and disease biology has increased, our
ability to develop new medicines to treat previously untreatable diseases has increased as well.[22]

Genetic testing (/articles/Genetic_testing) allows the genetic (/articles/Genetics) diagnosis

(/articles/Medical_diagnosis) of vulnerabilities to inherited diseases (/articles/Diseases), and can
also be used to determine a child's parentage (genetic mother and father) or in general a person's
ancestry (/articles/Ancestry). In addition to studying chromosomes (/articles/Chromosomes) to the
level of individual genes, genetic testing in a broader sense includes biochemical
(/articles/Biochemical) tests for the possible presence of genetic diseases, or mutant forms of
genes associated with increased risk of developing genetic disorders. Genetic testing identiEes
changes in chromosomes (/articles/Chromosomes), genes, or proteins.[23] Most of the time, testing
is used to End changes that are associated with inherited disorders. The results of a genetic test can
conErm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person's chance of developing
or passing on a genetic disorder (/articles/Genetic_disorder). As of 2011 several hundred genetic
tests were in use.[24][25] Since genetic testing may open up ethical or psychological problems,
genetic testing is often accompanied by genetic counseling (/articles/Genetic_counseling).

AG R I C U LT U R E

(/articles/eng/File:The_Brewer_designed_and_engraved_in_the_Sixteenth._Century_by_J_Amman.png)
Genetically modiEed crops (/articles/Genetically_modiEed_crops) ("GM crops", or "biotech crops")
are plants used in agriculture (/articles/Agriculture), the DNA (/articles/DNA) of which has been
modiEed using genetic engineering (/articles/Genetic_engineering) techniques. In most cases the
aim is to introduce a new trait (/articles/Trait_(biology)) to the plant which does not occur naturally
in the species.

Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests,[26] diseases,[27] stressful environmental
conditions,[28] resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to a herbicide (/articles/Herbicide)
[29]), reduction of spoilage,[30] or improving the nutrient proEle of the crop.[31] Examples in non-food
crops include production of pharmaceutical agents
(/articles/Plant_manufactured_pharmaceuticals),[32] biofuels (/articles/Biofuels),[33] and other
industrially useful goods,[34] as well as for bioremediation (/articles/Bioremediation).[35][36]

Farmers have widely adopted GM technology. Between 1996 and 2011, the total surface area of land
cultivated with GM crops had increased by a factor of 94, from 17,000 square kilometers (4,200,000
acres) to 1,600,000 km2 (395 million acres).[37] 10% of the world's crop lands were planted with GM
crops in 2010.[37] As of 2011, 11 different transgenic crops were grown commercially on 395 million
acres (160 million hectares) in 29 countries such as the USA, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China,
Paraguay, Pakistan, South Africa, Uruguay, Bolivia, Australia, Philippines, Myanmar, Burkina Faso,
Mexico and Spain.[37]
Genetically modiEed foods (/articles/Genetically_modiEed_foods) are foods produced from
organisms (/articles/Organism) that have had speciEc changes introduced into their DNA
(/articles/DNA) using the methods of genetic engineering (/articles/Genetic_engineering). These
techniques have allowed for the introduction of new crop traits as well as a far greater control over a
food's genetic structure than previously afforded by methods such as selective breeding
(/articles/Selective_breeding) and mutation breeding (/articles/Mutation_breeding).[38] Commercial
sale of genetically modiEed foods began in 1994, when Calgene (/articles/Calgene) Erst marketed
its Flavr Savr (/articles/Flavr_Savr) delayed ripening tomato.[39] To date most genetic modiEcation of
foods have primarily focused on cash crops (/articles/Cash_crop) in high demand by farmers such
as soybean (/articles/Transgenic_soybean), corn (/articles/Transgenic_maize), canola
(/articles/Canola), and cotton seed oil (/articles/Cotton_seed_oil). These have been engineered for
resistance to pathogens and herbicides and better nutrient proEles. GM livestock have also been
experimentally developed, although as of November 2013 none are currently on the market.[40]

There is broad scientiEc consensus (/articles/ScientiEc_consensus) that food on the market derived
from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food.[41][42][43][44][45] GM
crops also provide a number of ecological beneEts, if not used in excess.[46] However, opponents
have objected to GM crops per se on several grounds, including environmental concerns, whether
food produced from GM crops is safe, whether GM crops are needed to address the world's food
needs, and economic concerns raised by the fact these organisms are subject to intellectual
property law.

I N D U S T R I A L B I OT E C H N O LO G Y
(/articles/eng/File:99341.jpg)
Industrial biotechnology (known mainly
in Europe as white biotechnology) is the
application of biotechnology for
industrial purposes, including industrial
fermentation
(/articles/Industrial_fermentation). It
includes the practice of using cells
(/articles/Cell_(biology)) such as micro-
organisms (/articles/Micro-organisms),
or components of cells like enzymes
(/articles/Enzymes), to generate
industrially (/articles/Industry) useful
products in sectors such as chemicals,
food and feed, detergents, paper and
pulp, textiles and biofuels
(/articles/Biofuels).[47] In doing so,
biotechnology uses renewable raw
materials and may contribute to lowering greenhouse gas emissions and moving away from a
petrochemical-based economy.[48]

R E G U L AT I O N
(/articles/eng/File:Microarray2.gif)
The regulation of genetic engineering
concerns approaches taken by
governments to assess and manage the
risks associated with the use of genetic
engineering
(/articles/Genetic_engineering)
technology, and the development and
release of genetically modiEed
organisms (GMO), including genetically
modiEed crops
(/articles/Genetically_modiEed_crops)
and genetically modiEed Esh
(/articles/Genetically_modiEed_Esh).
There are differences in the regulation of
GMOs between countries, with some of
the most marked differences occurring
between the USA and Europe.[49]
Regulation varies in a given country depending on the intended use of the products of the genetic
engineering. For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities
responsible for food safety.[50] The European Union differentiates between approval for cultivation
within the EU and approval for import and processing. While only a few GMOs have been approved
for cultivation in the EU a number of GMOs have been approved for import and processing. [51] The
cultivation of GMOs has triggered a debate about coexistence of GM and nonGM crops. Depending
on the coexistence regulations incentives for cultivation of GM crops differ.[52]

LEARNING
In 1988, after prompting from the United States Congress (/articles/United_States_Congress), the
National Institute of General Medical Sciences
(/articles/National_Institute_of_General_Medical_Sciences) (National Institutes of Health
(/articles/National_Institutes_of_Health)) (NIGMS) instituted a funding mechanism for
biotechnology training. Universities nationwide compete for these funds to establish Biotechnology
Training Programs (/articles/Biotechnology_Training_Program) (BTPs). Each successful application
is generally funded for Eve years then must be competitively renewed. Graduate students
(/articles/Graduate_students) in turn compete for acceptance into a BTP; if accepted, then stipend,
tuition and health insurance support is provided for two or three years during the course of their
Ph.D. (/articles/Ph.D.) thesis work. Nineteen institutions offer NIGMS supported BTPs.[53]
Biotechnology training is also offered at the undergraduate level and in community colleges.

SEE ALSO
Bioculture (/articles/Bioculture)
Bioeconomics (biophysical) (/articles/Bioeconomics_(biophysical))
Biological engineering (/articles/Biological_engineering)
Biomimetics (/articles/Biomimetics)
Bionic architecture (/articles/Bionic_architecture)
Biotechnology industrial park (/articles/Biotechnology_industrial_park)
Competitions and prizes in biotechnology (/articles/Competitions_and_prizes_in_biotechnology)
Genetic Engineering (/articles/Genetic_Engineering)
Green Revolution (/articles/Green_Revolution)
History of Biotechnology (/articles/History_of_Biotechnology)
List of biotechnology articles (/articles/List_of_biotechnology_articles)
List of biotechnology companies (/articles/List_of_biotechnology_companies)
List of emerging biotechnologies (/articles/List_of_emerging_technologies#Biotechnology)
Metabolic engineering (/articles/Metabolic_engineering)
NASDAQ Biotechnology Index (/articles/NASDAQ_Biotechnology_Index)
Outline of biotechnology (/articles/Outline_of_biotechnology)
Pharmaceutical chemistry (/articles/Pharmaceutical_chemistry)
Pharmaceutical companies (/articles/Pharmaceutical_companies)
SWORD-Enancing (/articles/SWORD-Enancing)
Timeline of biotechnology (/articles/Timeline_of_biotechnology)
Virotherapy (/articles/Virotherapy)

REFERENCES AND NOTES

FURTHER READING
Friedman, Yali (2008). Building Biotechnology: Starting, Managing, and Understanding Biotechnology Companies.
Washington, DC: Logos Press. ISBN (/articles/International_Standard_Book_Number) .
Oliver, Richard W. The Coming Biotech Age. ISBN (/articles/International_Standard_Book_Number) .
Powell, Walter W.; White, Douglas R.; Koput, Kenneth W.; Owen-Smith, Jason (2005). "Network Dynamics and Field
Evolution: The Growth of Interorganizational Collaboration in the Life Sciences". American Journal of Sociology 110
(4): 1132–1205. doi (/articles/Digital_object_identiEer):10.1086/421508. Viviana Zelizer Best Paper in Economic
Sociology Award (2005–2006), American Sociological Association.
Rasmussen, Nicolas (/articles/Nicolas_Rasmussen), , Johns Hopkins University Press, (Baltimore), 2014Gene
Jockeys: Life Science and the rise of Biotech Enterprise. ISBN 978-1-42141-340-2.
Zaid, A; H.G. Hughes, E. Porceddu, F. Nicholas (2001). Glossary of Biotechnology for Food and Agriculture — A Revised
and Augmented Edition of the Glossary of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering. Available in English, French, Spanish,
Chinese, Arabic, Russian, Polish, Serbian, Vietnamese and Kazakh. Rome (/articles/Rome): FAO (/articles/FAO). ISBN
(/articles/International_Standard_Book_Number) .
Agricultural Biotechnology: An Economic Perspective by the USDA (/articles/USDA) Economic Research Service. A
1994 publication from the Agricultural Economic Report.

EXTERNAL LINKS
University Students Society Of Biotechnology
The International Forum on Biotechnology
Foundation for Biotechnology Awareness and Education,
A report on Agricultural Biotechnology focusing on the impacts of "Green" Biotechnology with a special emphasis on
economic aspects. fao.org.
US Economic BeneEts of Biotechnology to Business and Society NOAA Economics, economics.noaa.gov
Database of the Safety and BeneEts of Biotechnology – a database of peer-reviewed scientiEc papers and the safety
and beneEts of biotechnology.
What is Biotechnology? - A curated collection of resources about the people, places and technologies that have
enabled biotechnology to transform the world we live in today

Biotechnology
History of biotechnology (/articles/History_of_biotechnology) |

Timeline of biotechnology (/articles/Timeline_of_biotechnology) |

History
Competitions and prizes in biotechnology
(/articles/Competitions_and_prizes_in_biotechnology)

Blue Biotechnology (/articles/Blue_Biotechnology) |

Green Biotechnology (/articles/Green_Biotechnology) |

Branches
Red Biotechnology (/articles/Red_Biotechnology) |

White Biotechnology (/articles/Industrial_biotechnology)

Allele (/articles/Allele) |

ArtiEcial selection (/articles/ArtiEcial_selection) |

Bioreactor (/articles/Bioreactor) |

Cell (/articles/Cell_(biology)) |

Biological Concepts DNA (/articles/DNA)/RNA (/articles/RNA) |

Fermentation (/articles/Fermentation) |
 Gene (/articles/Gene) |

Plasmid (/articles/Plasmid) |

Protein (/articles/Protein)

Biotechnology companies (/articles/List_of_biotechnology_companies) |

Biotechnology industrial park (/articles/Biotechnology_industrial_park) |

Biotechnology products (/articles/Biotechnology_products) |

General concepts Biotechnology law (/articles/Biotechnology_law) |

Green Revolution (/articles/Green_Revolution) |

Human Genome Project (/articles/Human_Genome_Project) |

Pharmaceutical company (/articles/Pharmaceutical_company)

Cell culture (/articles/Cell_culture) |

Flow cytometry (/articles/Flow_cytometry) |

Hybridoma (/articles/Hybridoma) |
Biology Jeld
HPLC (/articles/HPLC) |

NMR (/articles/NMR) |

Spectroscopy (/articles/Spectroscopy)

Centrifugation (/articles/Centrifugation) |

CSTR (/articles/Continuous_stirred-tank_reactor) |

Basic techniques and DSTR (/articles/DSTR) |

tools
Crystallization (/articles/Crystallization) |

Chromatography (/articles/Chromatography) |

Dialysis (/articles/Dialysis) |
Chemical Jeld
Electrophoresis (/articles/Electrophoresis) |

Extraction (/articles/Extraction_(chemistry)) |

Fed Batch (/articles/Fed_Batch) |

Filtration (/articles/Filtration) |

PFR (/articles/PFR) |

Sedimentation (/articles/Sedimentation)

Animal cell culture (/articles/Animal_cell_culture) |

Bioinformatics (/articles/Bioinformatics) |

Biosynthesis (/articles/Biosynthesis) |

Bionic architecture (/articles/Bionic_architecture) |

Cell immunity (/articles/Cell_immunity) |

Cloning (/articles/Cloning)

Reproductive cloning (/articles/Reproductive_cloning) |

Therapeutic cloning (/articles/Therapeutic_cloning) )

Embryology (/articles/Embryology) |

Environmental biotechnology (/articles/Environmental_biotechnology) |

Applications Genetic engineering (/articles/Genetic_engineering)

Genetically modiEed organisms (/articles/Genetically_modiEed_organisms) |

 Molecular genetics (/articles/Molecular_genetics) )

Gene therapy (/articles/Gene_therapy) |

Microbial biodegradation (/articles/Microbial_biodegradation) |

Omics (/articles/Omics) |

Pharmacogenomics (/articles/Pharmacogenomics) |

Stem cells (/articles/Stem_cells) |

Telomere (/articles/Telomere) |

Tissue culture (/articles/Tissue_culture)

Bioeconomy (/articles/Bioeconomy) |

Bioengineering (/articles/Biological_engineering) |

Biology (/articles/Biology) |

Biopharmacology (/articles/Biopharmacology) |

Biomedical engineering (/articles/Biomedical_engineering) |

Biomedicine (/articles/Biomedicine) |

Biomimetics (/articles/Biomimetics) |

Interdisciplinary Jelds Biochemicals (/articles/Biochemicals) |

Biorobotics (/articles/Biorobotics) |

Chemical engineering (/articles/Chemical_engineering) |

Microbiology (/articles/Microbiology) |

Mining (/articles/Mining) |

Molecular biology (/articles/Molecular_biology) |

Nanobiotechnology (/articles/Nanobiotechnology) |

Virology (/articles/Virology)

Index of biotechnology articles (/articles/Index_of_biotechnology_articles) |

Lists List of biotechnology articles (/articles/List_of_biotechnology_articles) |

List of biotechnology companies (/articles/List_of_biotechnology_companies)

Topics related to biology (/articles/List_of_biology_topics)

Biologist (/articles/Biologist) |

Notable biologists (/articles/List_of_biologists) |

History of biology (/articles/History_of_biology) |

People and history
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (/articles/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine) |

Timeline of biology and organic chemistry (/articles/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry) |

List of geneticists and biochemists (/articles/List_of_geneticists_and_biochemists)

Bachelor of Science (/articles/Bachelor_of_Science) |

Institutions, publications
Publications (/articles/List_of_publications_in_biology)

Omne vivum ex ovo (/articles/Omne_vivum_ex_ovo) |

In vivo (/articles/In_vivo) |

In vitro (/articles/In_vitro) |
Terms and phrases
 In utero (/articles/Uterus) |

In silico (/articles/In_silico)

Medicine (/articles/Medicine) (Physician (/articles/Physician)) |

Physical anthropology (/articles/Physical_anthropology) |

Related disciplines Environmental science (/articles/Environmental_science) |

Life Sciences (/articles/Biology) |

Biotechnology

List of conservation topics (/articles/List_of_conservation_topics) |

Other
Altricial (/articles/Altricial) and Precocial (/articles/Precocial) development strategies

Technology (/articles/Technology)
Agricultural engineering (/articles/Agricultural_engineering) |

Aquaculture (/articles/Aquaculture) |

Fisheries science (/articles/Fisheries_science) |

Food chemistry (/articles/Food_chemistry) |

Food engineering (/articles/Food_engineering) |

Agriculture (/articles/Agriculture)
Food microbiology (/articles/Food_microbiology) |

Food technology (/articles/Food_technology) |

GURT (/articles/Genetic_use_restriction_technology) |

ICT (/articles/ICT_in_agriculture) |

Nutrition (/articles/Nutrition)

Bioinformatics (/articles/Bioinformatics) |

Biological engineering (/articles/Biological_engineering) |

Biomechatronics (/articles/Biomechatronics) |

Biomedical engineering (/articles/Biomedical_engineering) |

Biotechnology |

Cheminformatics (/articles/Cheminformatics) |

Genetic engineering (/articles/Genetic_engineering) |

Healthcare science (/articles/Healthcare_science) |

Biomedical (/articles/Biomedical_technology)
Medical research (/articles/Medical_research) |

Medical technology (/articles/Medical_technology) |

Nanomedicine (/articles/Nanomedicine) |

Neuroscience (/articles/Neuroscience) |

Neurotechnology (/articles/Neurotechnology) |

Pharmacology (/articles/Pharmacology) |

Reproductive technology (/articles/Reproductive_technology) |

Tissue engineering (/articles/Tissue_engineering)

Acoustical engineering (/articles/Acoustical_engineering) |

Architectural engineering (/articles/Architectural_engineering) |

Building services engineering (/articles/Building_services_engineering)

|
 Civil engineering (/articles/Civil_engineering) |

Construction engineering (/articles/Construction_engineering) |

Buildings (/articles/Architecture) and
Construction (/articles/Construction) Domestic technology (/articles/Domestic_technology) |

Facade engineering (/articles/Facade_engineering) |

Fire protection engineering (/articles/Fire_protection_engineering) |

Safety engineering (/articles/Safety_engineering) |

Sanitary engineering (/articles/Sanitary_engineering) |

Structural engineering (/articles/Structural_engineering)

Educational software (/articles/Educational_software) |

Digital technologies in education

(/articles/Digital_technologies_in_education) |

ICT in education
(/articles/Information_and_communication_technologies_in_education)
Educational (/articles/Educational_technology) |

Impact (/articles/Impact_of_technology_on_the_educational_system) |

Multimedia learning (/articles/Multimedia_learning) |

Virtual campus (/articles/Virtual_campus) |

Virtual education (/articles/Virtual_education)

Nuclear engineering (/articles/Nuclear_engineering) |

Nuclear technology (/articles/Nuclear_technology) |

Energy (/articles/Energy_technology)
Petroleum engineering (/articles/Petroleum_engineering) |

Soft energy technology (/articles/Soft_energy_technology)

Clean technology (/articles/Clean_technology) |

Clean coal technology (/articles/Clean_coal_technology) |

Ecological design (/articles/Ecological_design) |

Ecological engineering (/articles/Ecological_engineering) |

Ecotechnology (/articles/Ecotechnology) |

Environmental engineering (/articles/Environmental_engineering) |

Environmental engineering science

Environmental (/articles/Environmental_technology)
(/articles/Environmental_engineering_science) |

Green building (/articles/Green_building) |

Green nanotechnology (/articles/Green_nanotechnology) |

Landscape engineering (/articles/Landscape_engineering) |

Renewable energy (/articles/Renewable_energy) |

Sustainable design (/articles/Sustainable_design) |

Sustainable engineering (/articles/Sustainable_engineering)

Automation (/articles/Automation) |

Fields Business informatics (/articles/Business_informatics) |

Engineering management (/articles/Engineering_management) |

Enterprise engineering (/articles/Enterprise_engineering) |

Financial engineering (/articles/Computational_Enance) |

Industrial biotechnology (/articles/Industrial_biotechnology) |

Industrial (/articles/Industrial_technology) Industrial engineering (/articles/Industrial_engineering) |

Metallurgy (/articles/Metallurgy) |

Mining engineering (/articles/Mining_engineering) |

Productivity improving technologies

(/articles/Productivity_improving_technologies_(historical)) |

Research and development (/articles/Research_and_development) |

Tribology (/articles/Tribology)

ArtiEcial intelligence (/articles/ArtiEcial_intelligence) |

Broadcast engineering (/articles/Broadcast_engineering) |

Computer engineering (/articles/Computer_engineering) |

Computer science (/articles/Computer_science) |

Information technology (/articles/Information_technology) |

Music technology (/articles/Music_technology) |

IT and communications
Ontology engineering (/articles/Ontology_engineering) |
(/articles/Information_and_communications_technology)

RF engineering (/articles/RF_engineering) |

Software engineering (/articles/Software_engineering) |

Telecommunications engineering
(/articles/Telecommunications_engineering) |

Visual technology (/articles/Visual_technology) |

Web engineering (/articles/Web_engineering)

Army engineering maintenance

(/articles/Army_engineering_maintenance) |

Electronic warfare (/articles/Electronic_warfare) |

Military (/articles/Military_technology)
Military communications (/articles/Military_communications) |

Military engineering (/articles/Military_engineering) |

Stealth technology (/articles/Stealth_technology)

Aerospace engineering (/articles/Aerospace_engineering) |

Automotive engineering (/articles/Automotive_engineering) |

Naval architecture (/articles/Naval_architecture) |

Transport (/articles/Transport)
Space technology (/articles/Space_technology) |

TrafEc engineering (/articles/TrafEc_engineering_(transportation)) |

Transport engineering (/articles/Transport_engineering)

Cryogenics (/articles/Cryogenics) |

Electro-optics (/articles/Electro-optics) |

Electronics (/articles/Electronics) |

Engineering geology (/articles/Engineering_geology) |

Other applied sciences (/articles/Applied_science) Engineering physics (/articles/Engineering_physics) |

Hydraulics (/articles/Hydraulics) |

Materials science (/articles/Materials_science) |

Microfabrication (/articles/Microfabrication) |

Nanoengineering (/articles/Nanoengineering)
 Audio (/articles/Audio_engineering) |

Biochemical (/articles/Biochemical_engineering) |

Ceramic (/articles/Ceramic_engineering) |

Chemical (/articles/Chemical_engineering) |

Polymer (/articles/Polymer_engineering) |

Control (/articles/Control_engineering) |

Electrical (/articles/Electrical_engineering) |

Electronic (/articles/Electronic_engineering) |

Entertainment (/articles/Entertainment_technology) |
Other engineering (/articles/Engineering) Jelds
Geotechnical (/articles/Geotechnical_engineering) |
(/articles/List_of_engineering_branches)
Hydraulic (/articles/Hydraulic_engineering) |

Mechanical (/articles/Mechanical_engineering) |

Mechatronics (/articles/Mechatronics) |

Optical (/articles/Optical_engineering) |

Protein (/articles/Protein_engineering) |

Quantum (/articles/Quantum_technology) |

Robotics (/articles/Robotics)

Animatronics (/articles/Animatronics) )

Systems (/articles/Systems_engineering)

Infrastructure (/articles/Infrastructure) |

Invention (/articles/Invention)

Timeline (/articles/Timeline_of_historic_inventions) )

Knowledge (/articles/Knowledge) |

Components Machine (/articles/Machine) |

Skill (/articles/Skill)

Craft (/articles/Craft) )

Tool (/articles/Tool)

Gadget (/articles/Gadget) )

Femtotechnology (/articles/Femtotechnology) |

Picotechnology (/articles/Picotechnology) |

Nanotechnology (/articles/Nanotechnology) |
Scales
Microtechnology (/articles/Microtechnology) |

Macro-engineering (/articles/Macro-engineering) |

Megascale engineering (/articles/Megascale_engineering)

Prehistoric technology (/articles/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology) |

Neolithic Revolution (/articles/Neolithic_Revolution) |

Ancient technology (/articles/Ancient_technology) |

Medieval technology (/articles/Medieval_technology) |

Renaissance technology (/articles/Renaissance_technology) |

History Industrial Revolution (/articles/Industrial_Revolution)
(/articles/History_of_technology) Second (/articles/Second_Industrial_Revolution) )

Jet Age (/articles/Jet_Age) |

Digital Revolution (/articles/Digital_Revolution) |

Information Age (/articles/Information_Age)

Appropriate technology (/articles/Appropriate_technology) |

Critique of technology (/articles/Critique_of_technology) |

Diffusion of innovations (/articles/Diffusion_of_innovations) |

Disruptive innovation (/articles/Disruptive_innovation) |

Dual-use technology (/articles/Dual-use_technology) |

Ephemeralization (/articles/Ephemeralization) |

Ethics of technology (/articles/Ethics_of_technology) |

High tech (/articles/High_tech) |

Hype cycle (/articles/Hype_cycle) |

Low-technology (/articles/Low-technology) |

Mature technology (/articles/Mature_technology) |

Philosophy of technology (/articles/Philosophy_of_technology) |

Strategy of Technology (/articles/Strategy_of_Technology) |

Technicism (/articles/Technicism) |

Techno-progressivism (/articles/Techno-progressivism) |

Technocapitalism (/articles/Technocapitalism) |

Technocentrism (/articles/Technocentrism) |

Technocracy (/articles/Technocracy) |

Technocriticism (/articles/Technocriticism) |

Technoetic (/articles/Technoetic) |

Technoethics (/articles/Technoethics) |

Technogaianism (/articles/Technogaianism) |

Technological alliance (/articles/Technological_alliance) |

Technological apartheid (/articles/Technological_apartheid) |

Technological change (/articles/Technological_change) |

Technological convergence (/articles/Technological_convergence) |

Theories
(/articles/Theories_of_technology) Technological determinism (/articles/Technological_determinism) |
and
Technological escalation (/articles/Technological_escalation) |
concepts
Technological evolution (/articles/Technological_evolution) |

Technological Ex (/articles/Technological_Ex) |

Technological innovation system (/articles/Technological_innovation_system) |

Technological momentum (/articles/Technological_momentum) |

Technological nationalism (/articles/Technological_nationalism) |

Technological paradigm (/articles/Technological_paradigm) |

Technological rationality (/articles/Technological_rationality) |

Technological revival (/articles/Technological_revival) |

 Technological revolution (/articles/Technological_revolution) |

Technological self-efEcacy (/articles/Technological_self-efEcacy) |

Technological singularity (/articles/Technological_singularity)

Singularitarianism (/articles/Singularitarianism) )

Technological somnambulism (/articles/Technological_somnambulism) |

Technological transitions (/articles/Technological_transitions) |

Technological unemployment (/articles/Technological_unemployment) |

Technological utopianism (/articles/Technological_utopianism) |

Technology lifecycle (/articles/Technology_lifecycle)

Technology acceptance model (/articles/Technology_acceptance_model) |

Technology adoption lifecycle (/articles/Technology_adoption_lifecycle) )

Technomancy (/articles/Technomancy) |

Technorealism (/articles/Technorealism) |

Technoromanticism (/articles/Technoromanticism) |

Technoscience (/articles/Technoscience) |

Transhumanism (/articles/Transhumanism)

Emerging technologies (/articles/Emerging_technologies)

List (/articles/List_of_emerging_technologies) )

Fictional technology (/articles/Fictional_technology) |

Technopaganism (/articles/Technopaganism) |

High-technology business districts (/articles/Category:High-technology_business_districts) |

Kardashev scale (/articles/Kardashev_scale) |

List of technologies (/articles/List_of_technologies) |

Platform technology (/articles/Platform_technology) |

Science, technology and society (/articles/Science,_technology_and_society)

Technology dynamics (/articles/Technology_dynamics) |

Science and technology by country (/articles/Category:Science_and_technology_by_country) )

STEM Eelds (/articles/STEM_Eelds)

Pre-STEM (/articles/Pre-STEM) |

women (/articles/Women_in_STEM_Eelds) )

STEAM Eelds (/articles/STEAM_Eelds) |

Technology alignment (/articles/Technology_alignment) |

Technology assessment (/articles/Technology_assessment) |

Technology brokering (/articles/Technology_brokering) |

Technology companies (/articles/Category:Technology_companies) |

Other
Technology demonstration (/articles/Technology_demonstration) |

Technology education (/articles/Technology_education)

Technical universities and colleges (/articles/Category:Technical_universities_and_colleges) )

 |

Technology evangelist (/articles/Technology_evangelist) |

Technology fusion (/articles/Technology_fusion) |

Technology governance (/articles/Technology_governance) |

Technology integration (/articles/Technology_integration) |

Technology journalism (/articles/Technology_journalism) |

Technology management (/articles/Technology_management) |

Technology policy (/articles/Technology_policy) |

Technology shock (/articles/Technology_shock) |

Technology strategy (/articles/Technology_strategy) |

Technology and society (/articles/Technology_and_society) |

Technology transfer (/articles/Technology_transfer) |

Technophilia (/articles/Technophilia) |

Technophobia (/articles/Technophobia) |

Technoself (/articles/Technoself) |

Technosignature (/articles/Technosignature) |

Technostress (/articles/Technostress) |

Terotechnology (/articles/Terotechnology)

Copyright © 20192019 World Library Foundation. All rights reserved. eBooks from World eBook Library are sponsored by the World Library Foundation (http://worldlibrary.org/),

a 501c(4) Member's Support Non-ProEt Organization, and is NOT afEliated with any governmental agency or department.