Scand J Med Sci Sports 2005: 15: 48–57
Printed in Denmark . All rights reserved
DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2004.00304.x
Training response of adolescent Kenyan town and village boys to
endurance running
Henrik B. Larsen, Thomas Nolan, Christian Borch, Hans Søndergaard
The Copenhagen Muscle Research Centre, Rigshospitalet and University of Copenhagen, Denmark
Corresponding author: Henrik B. Larsen, CMRC, Section 7652, Rigshospitalet, Blegdamsvej 9, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø,
Denmark. Tel: 145 3545 7621, Fax: 145 3545 7634, E-mail: hboegh@cmrc.dk
Accepted for publication 24 November 2003
To investigate the response to endurance training on
physiological characteristics, 10 Nandi town boys and 14
Nandi village boys 16.5 and 16.6 years of age, respectively,
from western Kenya performed 12 weeks of running
training. The study was performed at altitude (  2000
m.a.s.l.  595 mm Hg). Training heart rate and speed were
registered during every training session throughout the
entire training period. While town and village boys trained
at similar heart rates (172.1 vs. 172.5 beats min 1), the
training speed of the town boys was 9% lower compared
with the village boys (12.4 vs. 13.6 km h 1, Po0.001).
Significant increases in VO2max were observed in the town
boys (from 50.3 to 55.6 mL kg 1 min 1, Po0.001) and in
village boys (from 56.0 to 59.1 mL kg 1 min 1, Po0.002).
Significant decreases in submaximal heart rate (from 172.4
to 160.3 beats min 1 (Po0.005)), blood lactate (from 2.7
to 1.4 mmol L 1 (Po0.005)) and ammonia concentration
Over the last few decades, Kenyan runners have
dominated middle- and long-distance running events
(800 m marathon). The Kenyan record of success
has been particularly profound at the world cross-
country championships at which the Kenyan senior
men have won the team title in the  12 km distance
for the past 18 years. At 10 of these championships,
Kenyan dominance has been so marked that the
aggregate performance of the Kenyan team sur-
passed a team chosen from the best finishers from the
rest of the world. Furthermore, the performances of
Kenyan men in middle- and long-distance events at
the Olympic Games and world championships in
track events have shown Kenyan superiority. A
remarkable observation is that the majority of these
Kenyan achievements have been produced by a
group of 8 small tribes called Kalenjin, which today
number only  3.5 million people. Among the
Kalenjins, the Nandi has been most outstanding.
Even though the Nandi tribe constitutes only  2%
of the Kenyan population, it is the most successful
single tribe in Kenya to date with respect to
performance in running. Success in running events
48
COPYRIGHT & BLACKWELL MUNKSGAARD 2004
(from 102.0 to 71.4 lmol L 1 (Po0.01)) at 9.9 km h 1
were observed in the town boys, while similar decreases in
heart rate (from 170.2 to 159.2 beats min 1 (Po0.001)),
blood lactate (from 2.4 to 1.4 mmol L 1 (Po0.001)) and
ammonia concentration (from 102.5 to 72.7 lmol L 1
(Po0.001)) at 10.9 km h 1 were observed in the village
boys. The oxygen cost of running was decreased from 221.5
to 211.5 mL kg 1 km 1 (Po0.03) in the town boys and
from 220.1 to 207.2 mL kg 1 km 1 (Po0.01) in the village
boys. The 5000 m performance time of the town boys was
significantly greater than that of the village boys (20.25 vs.
18.42 min (P 5 0.01)). It is concluded that no difference was
observed in trainability with respect to VO2max, running
economy, submaximal heart rate, and submaximal blood
lactate and ammonia concentration between Kenyan Nandi
town and village boys. The higher performance level of the
village boys was likely due to a higher VO2max of these boys.
is determined by a number of factors. These include
both aerobic and anaerobic capacity for energy
turnover, muscular strength, running economy,
motivation and tactics.
A previous study of Kenyan elite runners by Saltin
et al. (1995) revealed one of the highest VO2max so
far observed in any elite runner. In addition, the
study showed that Kenyan elite runners have a
highly proficient running economy as judged from
oxygen uptake at submaximal speeds. Furthermore,
Kenyan elite runners had lower plasma lactic acid
and ammonia concentrations during running than
elite runners from Scandinavia (Saltin et al., 1995).
It has been speculated that heredity may play a
role in the success of Kenyan runners. This notion is
supported by the general observation that while the
Kenyans and to some extent the Ethiopians have
excelled in middle- and long-distance races, the West
Africans or runners of West African ancestry have
shown remarkable superiority in the short distances
(100 400 m). In fact, there exists considerable
anecdotal evidence suggesting a greater response
to training in Kenyan runners compared with

Caucasians. In line with this, the study by Saltin
et al. (1995) revealed that adolescent boys who did
not train, but who were physically active, had
maximal oxygen uptakes which were 30% higher
than the oxygen uptakes of sedentary Kenyan boys.
This indicates a high response to training in these
boys. In fact, several training studies have shown
marked variability between individuals in their
physiological response (VO2max) to standardized train-
ing indicating different trainability (Prud’homme
et al., 1984; Bouchard et al., 1992; Bouchard et al.,
1999). In addition, two studies have suggested a
strong genetic determination of the sensitivity of
submaximal endurance performance to training
(Lortie et al., 1984; Hamel et al., 1986).
These findings indicate that different trainability
in Kenyans and Caucasians may underlie Kenyan
superiority in middle- and long-distance running and
that village boys, who, as indicated in a previous
investigation (Larsen et al., 2004) are more physi-
cally active than town boys, may have a further
advantage. Therefore, the hypothesis to be tested
was whether there was a difference in endurance
training response in village as compared with town
boys from the Nandi tribe.
Materials and methods
Subjects
Sixty Kenyan boys from two secondary day schools volun-
teered for the present study. Before entering the investigation,
all subjects completed questionnaires encompassing questions
related to (a) tribe, (b) transportation to and from school
during childhood, (c) leisure time activities and (d) coach-
organized training. Based on the questionnaires, 12 town boys
and 22 village boys all belonging to the Nandi tribe (verified to
the level of grandparents) not previously engaged in any kind
of organized endurance training were selected. The remaining
26 boys were excluded due to the fact that they were not
Nandies. Three Nandi boys were excluded due to illness, while
one was excluded due to insufficient sexual maturation.
During the investigation one town boy left the study due to
injury. In addition, 4 village boys left the study due to the fact
that they left school, while one village boy left the study due to
hospitalization for malaria. Ten Nandi town boys and 14
Nandi village boys completed the study. Mean (range) age,
height and weight were 16.5 (15.7 17.4) years, 168.1
(157 178) cm and 52.7 (41.3 63.4) kg for town boys and
16.6 (15.2 17.9) years, 170.8 (162 187) cm and 53.2
(45.4 63.2) kg for village boys.
The town boys were recruited from Uasin Gishu High
School in the town of Eldoret located in the western part of
Kenya on a plateau at an altitude of  2000 m.a.s.l. Except
for two subjects who were raised in a town/city they were all
born and raised in the rural area around Eldoret. At the age of
 14 years, 9 of the subjects had moved to Eldoret in order to
begin their studies at secondary school, while one subject
continued living in the countryside. The village boys were
recruited from Kamobo Secondary School located in Nandi
district about 50 km southwest of Eldoret at the same altitude
as this town. All subjects were living in the rural area within a
radius of 4 km from the school. Before entering the study,
Trainability of adolescent Kenyan boys
sexual maturation was assessed by checking the development
of secondary sex characteristics. The method described by
Marshall and Tanner (1970) was employed. The vast majority
of the boys were in stage 5 (PH5) while a few ones were
in stage 4 (PH4). The study was approved by the Ethics
Committee of the Faculty of Health Sciences at Moi
University, Eldoret, Kenya. All subjects and their parents
were fully informed of the experimental procedures and
possible risks connected with the study and gave written
consent. All subjects were informed that they were free to
withdraw from the study at any time. All subjects were studied
at altitude (2000 m.a.s.l., barometric pressure  595 mmHg).
Protocol and methods
All subjects performed 12 weeks of endurance running.
Immediately prior to and after the training period the subjects
went through submaximal and maximal tests on a treadmill.
Prior to the initial tests, all boys performed 2–3 (totally more
than 50 min) practice sessions on different days at three
different speeds each day to familiarize themselves with
running on a treadmill as well as to the equipment used to
determine the respiratory variables. The exercise protocol on
the treadmill consisted of a 10-min warm-up at speeds from
6.0 to 10.0 km h 1. After 7–10 min of rest, the subjects ran 7
and 6 min, respectively at 2 different individual speeds with
0.5–1.0 min of rest in between. The two velocities were chosen
to demand a heart rate of 150–155 (6.0–11.5 km h 1) and
165–175 (8.0–14.0 km h 1) b.p.m., respectively. In order to
be able to calculate exact running economy, body weight
including test equipment was measured immediately before
and after the test. After 10 min of rest, the maximal test was
performed at speeds from 13.0 to 17.5 km h 1. The test
started without inclination and every second minute the
inclination was raised by 2% grade until exhaustion. During
the last 1.5 min at each submaximal speed the expired air was
collected in Douglas bags while during the maximal test it was
collected continuously. Heart rate was measured continuously
during all tests, while a blood sample was taken from a
superficial arm vein at rest and during the last 15 s of each
submaximal run or immediately after this. Furthermore,
blood samples were taken at rest shortly before the maximal
run and 1 and 3 min, after the test.
The oxygen uptake was calculated after measuring the
volume of expired air with a gasmeter (London Gasmeter Co.,
London, UK) calibrated with a Tissot spirometer and the
fractions of O2 and CO2 using a Servomex S-3 A/I and a
Beckman LB-2, respectively. Heart rate was monitored with a
telemetric system (Polar Accurex Plus, Polar Electro, Fin-
land). The blood samples were analyzed for lactate and
ammonia (Kun & Kearney, 1974). In addition to the tests of
running economy on the treadmill, similar tests were performed
on a level road on a windless day using a portable metabolic
system (Cosmed K4b2, Italy) for measuring oxygen uptake. In
order to test the validity of the system, comparisons were made
with the Douglas bag system in 21 subjects by performing
VO2max tests with the K4b2 a few days before the initial max-
tests were performed with the Douglas bags. The two methods
gave mean values of 2.79 and 2.81 L min 1 with the K4b2
values given first. The coefficient of variation (c.v.) was 4.9%.
Accurate marks were placed on the road for each 100 m by
using a tape measure. The protocol on the road consisted
of a 10-min warm-up at speeds from 6.0 to 10.0 km h 1.
After  10 min of rest, the subjects ran for 7 min at
 11.0 km h 1. A constant speed was kept by one of the
investigators running alongside the subject checking the speed
by using a stopwatch. The oxygen uptake during the final
49
Larsen et al.
1.5 min was used as a measure of running economy. Body
weight including test equipment was measured immediately
before and after the test.
nificance of differences between conditions was tested using
the paired t-test as well as one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA). Differences between conditions were considered
significant at the 95% confidence level.

Training
During the first 5 weeks of the 12-week training period,
training intensity, frequency and distance increased continu-
ously. The weekly training frequency increased from 2 to 4
times while the distance increased from 8 to 28 km. The
training intensity increased from  70% to  80% of
VO2max. During the last 7 weeks, the weekly training consisted
of four sessions, a total of 28 km performed at an intensity
demanding  80% of VO2max. A total of 40 training sessions
were planned. Heart rate monitors were used during every
training session to control for training intensity. Individual
target heart rates were calculated for all subjects by using the
VO2/heart rate relationships from the initial treadmill tests.
Each heart rate monitor was adjusted to beep if the train
ing heart rate was more than  5 beats min 1 from the
calculated target heart rate. Of the performed number of
training sessions training heart rates were collected in 97.1%
and 96.1%, respectively in town and village boys. In addition,
the target oxygen uptake was verified during training (one
session) using the portable metabolic system (K4b2). Average
oxygen uptake was calculated from the 3rd to the 14th minute
of the training session. All training was performed on a 400-m
track with gravel surface. All training was supervised by one
of the investigators, and the time for each training session was
carefully registered in training logs. Following each training
session, average training speed and heart rate were calculated.
Average training heart rate was calculated from the 2nd
minute to the termination of the training session. Two days
after the final test round, all subjects performed a 5000 m
competition on a 400-m track. Racing time was registered.
During the race, heart rate was recorded each 5 s by using
heart rate monitors. One village boy dropped out of the
competition due to a stitch and the results from one of the
village boys were excluded as he misjudged the opening speed
and finished with a slower average race speed than his average
speed during 8 km of training.
Statistics
Means  SDs and significance between groups were obtained
using standard statistical methods (Siegel, 1956). The sig-
Results
Training (Table 1, Fig. 1)
The mean total training volume, mean number of
training sessions and mean relative training intensity
during the 12-week training period were similar in
the two groups of boys. The town boys reached
252.2 km in 38.2 training sessions at a mean heart
rate of 172.1 beats min 1, while the village boys
trained 260.1 km in 38.6 sessions at a mean heart rate
of 172.5 beats min 1. The training intensity during
the final week of the ‘‘  80% VO2max’’ training
period measured in one training session by using the
portable system was 2.49  0.30 L min 1 (n 5 10)
corresponding to 85.4  6.7% of post VO2max at
13.3  1.4 km h 1 in the town boys and 2.66 
0.38 L min 1 (n 5 13) corresponding to 83.5  6.6%
of post VO2max at 14.6  1.5 km h 1 in the village
boys. The corresponding heart rates were 173.6  7.8
and 175.7  6.1 beats min 1, respectively, in town
and village boys. The average training speed of the
entire training performed was significantly higher in
the village boys compared with the town boys (13.8
vs. 12.4 km h 1, Po0.001). Furthermore, the speed
of the village boys was significantly higher every
single week (Po0.002–Po0.05) except for the
10th week (P 5 0.0503) during the 12-week training
period. During the ‘‘  80% VO2max’’ training
period (weeks 5–12), the average training speed
increased significantly in both groups of boys. For
the town boys, the training speed in weeks 6–12 were
faster than week 5. After this, this elevation in
training speed continued almost weekly. The same
adjustments were made as for the village boys. The
significance level for all these differences is Po0.05.

Table 1. Target training intensity, mean heart rate and training speed, total training volume and number of training sessions during week 1–2, 3–4, 5–12
and 1–12 of the 12-week training period in Nandi town and village boys (mean values  SD are given)

Week Target intensity Heart rate Training speed Cumulative distance Cumulative number of
1
(% of VO2max) (beats min ) (km h 1) (km) training sessions

Town boys 1–2 70 163.5  7.8 10.7  1.1 23.0  0.2 5.0  0.0
3–4 75 168.9  8.7 11.5  0.9 37.9  0.3 6.0  0.0
5–12 80 173.9  9.0 13.1  1.2 191.4  16.4 27.2  1.7
1–12 70–80 172.1  9.7 12.4  1.5 252.2  16.4 38.2  1.7
Village boys 1–2 70 165.5  6.7 12.1  1.3a 19.4  5.0c 4.1  1.1b
3–4 75 168.4  7.1 13.1  1.5a 36.8  3.2 5.8  0.6
5–12 80 174.2  6.5 14.4  1.3a 203.9  6.4c 28.6  0.8c
1–12 70–80 172.5  7.9 13.8  1.6a 260.1  9.5 38.6  1.7

Significantly different from town boys.

a
Po 0.001;
b
Po0.02;
c
Po0.03.

50
 Trainability of adolescent Kenyan boys

222.0  55.6 (n 5 12)

260.4  61.8c(n 5 12)
VOLUME

228.0  71.1 (n 5 7)
241.9  17.2 (n 5 7)
300

)
1
NH3max (mmol l
250

Table 2. VO2max, maximal heart rate and peak blood lactate and ammonia concentration before and after 12 weeks of training in Nandi town and village boys (mean values  SD and range are given)
200
km

150

100

12.2  2.5a(n 5 13)

9.4  1.9 (n 5 13)
50

9.7  2.9 (n 5 7)
11.0  1.7 (n 5 7)
)
1
0

Hlamax (mmol l
SPEED
18

16
km . h-1

14

)
1
HRmax (beats min
12

 10.0b
 11.5

 6.7a
 6.3
10

197.4
189.7
197.6
190.1
0

HEART RATE

1
)
190

min

 10.3b,g
 11.6a
 14.5

 9.1f
0.75
beats . min-1

180

(mL kg

135.5
149.6
151.3
159.4
170

160
1
)

150
min

59.1  3.3b,g
0
55.6  4.0a
56.0  2.9f
50.3  4.4
1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(mL kg

Week

Fig. 1. Average accumulated training volume, average

training speed and average training heart rate during the
12-week training period in Nandi town and village boys.
2.93  0.43c

3.14  0.37c
2.66  0.51

2.98  0.35

Mean values  SD are given. J: town boys }: village boys.

1
)

The relatively high values of heart rate during the first week
VO2max

(l min

of training is due to difficulties for the subjects in finding the

speed eliciting the target heart rate. The subjects ran much
too fast during the very first training session.
Po0.005. Significantly different from town boys posttraining:
Po0.02. Significantly different from town boys pretraining:
Weight (kg)

52.7  7.7
52.7  7.0
53.2  5.2
53.2  4.8

Physical characteristics (Table 2)

The Nandi town boys increased their height by
1.0 cm (Po0.01) while the village boys became
 6.4d

 7.9e
 6.5

 7.7
Height (cm)

Significantly different from pretraining:

0.9 cm (Po0.02) taller after the 12-week training

period. The body weight remained unchanged in
168.1
169.1
170.8
171.7

both groups of boys.

Post

Post
Pre

Pre

Maximal oxygen uptake, heart rate, blood lactate and

ammonia (Table 2, Figs 2 and 3)
Village boys

Po 0.001;
Town boys

Po0.002;
Po0.003;
Po0.01.

Po0.05.

Twelve weeks of endurance training resulted in

significant increases in VO2max for both groups of
boys. The mean increase in mL O2 kg 1 min 1 was
b

g
a

51
Larsen et al.
10% for town boys and 5% for village boys. (Po0.06) no difference in adaptability of VO2max
Although VO2max for the town boys tended to was observed between the two groups of boys.
increase more than it did for the village boys Maximal heart rate decreased significantly in both
groups of boys while peak concentration of blood
25
lactate and ammonia increased significantly in the
Town boys
Slope = -0.49 village boys.
Village boys
20

15 Submaximal heart rate (Table 3, Fig. 3)

At a running speed of 9.9 km h 1, the mean heart
rate decreased from 172.4 to 160.3 beats min 1 in the
%

10

town boys (Po0.005, n 5 9) while it decreased

5 from 170.2 to 159.2 beats min 1 at 10.9 km h 1
(Po0.001, n 5 13) in the village boys. Somewhat
0
smaller but similar decreases (  7 beats min 1) were
observed in the town and the village boys at 8.1 and
-5
0 44 48 52 56 60 64
8.9 km h 1, respectively.
.
Vo2, ml kg-1 . min-1

Fig. 2. Relationship between D VO2max caused by the 12 Submaximal blood lactate and ammonia (Table 3, Fig. 3)
weeks of training and initial VO2max in Nandi town and
village boys. Individual values are given. R 5 0.59 At 9.9 km h 1, the mean concentration of blood
(Po0.001). lactate and ammonia, respectively, decreased from

Vo2max RUNNING ECONOMY (Vo2)

68 260
After After
64
240
60
ml kg-1. mn-1

-1
ml kg km

220
. -1.

56
.

52
200

48
180
44
Before Before
0 0
0 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 0 180 200 220 240 260
. .
ml kg-1 . min-1 ml kg-1 . km-1

BLOOD LACTATE HEART RATE

5 190
After After

4 180
-1
mmoles l-1

beats min

170
3
.

160
2

150
1

Before 140 Before

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 140 150 160 170 180 190
. .
mmoles l-1 beats min-1

Fig. 3. VO2max, running economy, blood lactate, and submaximal heart rate before vs. after 12 weeks of endurance running in
Kenyan town and village boys. Individual values are given. J: town boys }: village boys. The running economy is measured
at 10.4 and 10.9 km h 1, respectively, on average while blood lactate and submaximal heart rates are measured at 9.9 and
10.9 km h 1, respectively, on average in town and village boys.

52
 Trainability of adolescent Kenyan boys
Table 3. Submaximal test speeds, heart rate, blood lactate and ammonia concentration before and after 12 weeks of training in Nandi town and village
boys (mean values  SD and range are given)
1 1 1 1
n Test speed (km h ) Heart rate (beats min ) Blood lactate (mmol L ) NH3 (mmol L )

Town boys 9 8.1  1.5 Pre 153.4  6.3

Post 146.6  9.3d
9.9  1.3 Pre 172.4  11.3
Post 160.3  1.0b
7 8.0  1.7 Pre 2.0  0.9 92.1  17.8
Post 1.2  0.6a 63.3  30.5b
9.9  1.5 Pre 2.7  1.3 102.0  24.2
Post 1.4  0.9b 71.4  24.5c
Village boys 14 8.9  1.1 Pre 152.1  9.5 1.9  0.4 95.9  15.8
Post 144.6  8.0b 1.2  0.7a 66.1  18.7a
13 10.9  1.2 Pre 170.2  7.9 2.4  0.7 102.5  23.1
Post 159.2  7.8a 1.4  0.6a 72.7  22.3a

Significantly different from pre training:

a
Po0.001;
b
Po0.005;
c
Po0.01;
d
Po0.02.

Table 4. Running economy before and after 12 weeks of endurance running in Nandi town and village boys (mean values  SD are given)
1
n Test speed (km h ) VO2
1 1 1 1 0.75 1
(mL min kg ) (mL kg km ) (mL kg km )

Town boys 7 10.4  1.1 Pre 38.1  4.1 221.5  17.2 596.6  50.8
Post 36.5  5.0c 211.3  18.3c 570.5  59.7b
Village boys 13 10.9  1.2 Pre 39.6  3.6 220.1  18.3 593.5  39.3
Post 37.2  2.4a 207.2  20.3a 559.8  46.1b

Significantly different from pre training:

a
Po0.01;
b
Po0.02;
c
Po0.03.

2.7 to 1.4 mmol L 1 (Po0.005, n 5 7) and 102.0 to Field running economy

71.4 mmol L 1 (Po0.01, n 5 7), in the town boys.
Very similar decreases were observed in the village
boys at 10.9 km h 1. The mean concentration of
blood lactate decreased from 2.4 to 1.4 mmol L 1
(Po0.001) while that of ammonia decreased from
102.5 to 72.7 mmol L 1 (Po0.001). Rather similar
decreases in town and village boys were found in
blood lactate as well as in ammonia concentration
measured at 8.0 and 8.9 km h 1, respectively.
Running economy (Table 4, Fig. 3)
The mean oxygen cost of running at 10.4 km h 1
decreased by 4.6% (from 221.5 to 211.3 mLkg 1
km 1, Po0.03, n 5 7) in the town boys. A rather
similar decrease (5.9%) was observed in the village
boys (from 220.1 to 207.2 mL kg 1 km 1, Po0.01,
n 5 13).
The mean oxygen cost of running on a level road at
11.3  0.2 and 11.4  1.8 km h 1 was 227.4 (n 5 3)
and 208.5 (n 5 4) mL kg 1 km 1, respectively in
town and village boys. The corresponding heart rates
were 161.7  16.6 and 163.0  15.5 beats min 1,
respectively.
5000 m performance (Fig. 4)
The mean performance time (range) of the town boys
was significantly greater (10%) than that of the
village boys (20.25 (18.68–23.31) min, n 5 10 vs.
18.42 (16.27–20.31) min, n 5 12, P 5 0.01).
Heart rate during 5000 m competition (Fig. 5)
The heart rate during competition was measured in 2
town and 7 village boys. The mean and peak heart

53
Larsen et al.
PERFORMANCE (Table 2, Figs 2, 3). This is consistent with previous
24
investigations that have demonstrated a higher
Town boys trainability of subjects having the lowest initial
Village boys VO2max (e.g. Saltin et al., 1968; Wenger & Macnab,
21
* 1975). When plotting the D VO2max against the initial
VO2max (Fig. 2) it appears that Kenyan town and
18
village boys achieved similar improvement taken the
initial VO2max into account. Is this elevation more or
Min

15 less than found in boys of similar age of other ethnic

origin? Fournier et al. (1982) conducted a similar
12 study on 16–17-year-old Caucasian boys and found
that the VO2max of these boys increased by 11.6%
9 after training for 3 months. This is in agreement with
0
what was observed in the present study in Kenyan
n = 10 n = 12 town boys (10.2%) but was twice as high as found in
Fig. 4. 5000 m competition time after 12 weeks of endurance
Kenyan village boys (5.4%). The initial VO2max of
running in Nandi town and village boys. Mean values  SD the Caucasian boys was 58.4 mL kg 1 min 1, which
are given. (*P 5 0.01). compares well with 50.3 and 55.6 mL kg 1 min 1 in
the Kenyan town and village boys, respectively.
Thus, it can be argued that the trainability of the
220
HEART RATE Caucasian boys seems to be higher compared with
the Kenyan boys. The training performed by the
Average HR
Kenyan boys Peak HR
Caucasian boys at the end of the training period was
Maximal HR similar to what was carried out by the Kenyan boys
200 with respect to training duration (3 months vs. 12
Beats min-1

weeks), training frequency (4 sessions per week),

training intensity (80–90% vs. 90–92% of the
.

180 maximal heart rate) whereas the duration of each

160
0
Fig. 5. Average and peak heart rate during 5000 m competi-
tion and maximal heart rate during max-test on treadmill in
9 (2 town and 7 village) Kenyan boys. Mean values  SD
are given.
rate (range) for these 9 subjects reached 184.9 (180–
196) and 192.6 (185–202) beats min 1 on average,
respectively, while the mean (range) maximal heart
rate measured during max-test on treadmill after the
12 week training period was 190.1 (180–202)
beats min 1.
single training session was twice as long (60 vs.
30 min) for the Caucasian boys compared with the
Kenyan boys. This implies that the weekly training
volume performed by the Caucasian boys was about
twice as much as that performed by the Kenyan
boys. Therefore, any firm answer cannot be given to
the question with respect to trainability of Kenyan
and Caucasian boys.
The observed decline in maximal heart rate in both
Nandi town and village boys following training is
consistent, although not generally agreed (Ekblom et
al., 1968), with findings in numerous investigations
of Caucasian adults (e.g. Wilmore et al., 2001) and
adolescents (Fournier et al., 1982). However, the
results in the present study are in contrast to what
was found in a training study of black North
Americans by Wilmore et al. (2001). They found
no reduction in maximal heart rate after endurance
training.

Discussion Submaximal heart rate, blood lactate and ammonia

A key finding of the present study was that no
difference was observed in trainability between
Kenyan Nandi town boys and village boys.
The observed trend for a higher relative response
to training with respect to VO2max in the town boys
can be explained by their lower initial VO2max
The principal features of the responses to endurance
training of heart rate, blood lactate and ammonia at
submaximal running velocities observed in the Nandi
boys are consistent with previous findings in
Caucasians. Thus, a decrease in heart rate at
submaximal exercise intensities in the Kenyan boys

54

following training is in line with findings in
numerous training studies of Caucasian adults
(Andrew et al., 1966; Ekblom, 1969) as well as a
study of Caucasian adolescents (Fournier et al.,
1982). In addition, a reduced submaximal heart rate
at a given absolute exercise intensity has been shown
in black North Americans after training (Wilmore et
al., 2001). Similarly, a decrease in blood lactate
concentrations at the same submaximal oxygen
uptake or at a given submaximal running velocity
has been demonstrated in several investigations of
Caucasian adults (e.g. Ekblom et al., 1968; Hurley
et al., 1984). Furthermore, Sjödin and Svedenhag
(1992) have shown that the running velocity corre-
sponding to a blood lactate concentration of
4 mmol L 1 increased in circumpubertal boys during
7 years of running training while no change was
observed over the years in boys who were not
training. Therefore, the observed decrease in blood
lactate concentrations at submaximal running velo-
cities in the Kenyan boys following training is in
agreement with the findings on Caucasians. Finally,
the observed decrease in blood ammonia concentra-
tions at given submaximal running speeds in the
Nandi boys as a result of training is consistent with
findings on Caucasians. Thus, Lo and Dudley (1987)
have demonstrated that short-term, but intensive,
cycle and running training induced a reduction in the
blood ammonia concentration during short constant
submaximal exercise intensities after training.
Furthermore, Denis et al. (1989) and Green et al.
(1991) have demonstrated that short periods of
endurance cycle training resulted in a decline in the
blood ammonia concentration during prolonged
work at submaximal exercise intensities following
training.
Whether the magnitude of the observed decreases
in heart rate, blood lactate and ammonia in the
Kenyan boys differ from observations from other
investigations on Caucasians cannot be established
due to the fact that different training regimens have
been employed, thus making a direct comparison
impossible.
Running economy
While the oxygen cost of running decreased in both
town and village boys as a result of training, no
significant difference was observed between the two
groups of boys with respect to the magnitude of the
adaptation to training. Conflicting results have been
published in the scientific literature on Caucasians
with respect to the trainability of running economy.
While several studies have shown no improvement in
running economy with training (Daniels et al., 1978;
Wilcox & Bulbulian, 1984; Lake & Cavanagh, 1996),
Trainability of adolescent Kenyan boys
other studies have shown that the running economy
is improved by training (Sjödin et al., 1982;
Svedenhag & Sjödin, 1985; Franch et al., 1998).
Three previous studies have examined the long-
itudinal effect of running training during several
years among young Caucasian runners 10–18 years
of age (Daniels & Oldridge, 1971; Daniels et al.,
1978; Sjödin & Svedenhag, 1992). These investiga-
tions showed an improved running economy over
the years when expressing the oxygen cost in
mL kg 1 min 1. However, in one of these studies
the lowered cost of running seemed to be solely due
to an increased body mass of the subjects (Sjödin &
Svedenhag, 1992). That this is a possible explanation
has been demonstrated in a study comparing the
running economy of non-run-trained boys at ages of
10 and 17 years showing a considerable improvement
in running economy expressed in mL kg 1 min 1
with age (Krahenbuhl et al., 1989). However, the
improved running economy in the study by Daniels
et al. (1978) appeared to be due to a combination of
both increased body mass as well as training.
The oxygen cost of running tested with the K4b2
on a road appeared to be higher in the town boys
compared with the village boys. This is due to the
fact that the few town boys who were tested on the
road were among the less efficient town boys when
all the town boys were tested on the treadmill. In the
village boys it was opposite.
Performance
The significantly better 5000-m performance time of
the village boys compared with the town boys is
probably due to the observed higher VO2max of the
village boys. Thus, an inverse correlation between
VO2max and performance was found when taking all
subjects into consideration (R 5 0.82, Po0.001,
n 5 23) as well as when studying town boys
(R 5 0.76, Po0.01, n 5 10) and village boys
(R 5 0.80, Po0.001, n 5 13) separately. In addi-
tion, the fact that no difference was observed in
running economy after 12 weeks of training between
the two groups of boys lends further support to the
assumption of VO2max being the critical physiologi-
cal factor for the observed difference in performance
between the boys. The relationship between perfor-
mance and running economy when studying all boys
was actually rather moderate (R 5 0.53, Po0.02,
n 5 18), which according to the scientific literature is
quite normal when studying groups of runners with
heterogeneous running ability (Sjödin & Svedenhag,
1985). A few scientific studies have shown a
moderate correlation between performance in run-
ning and the percentage of VO2max sustained
throughout competition (Costill et al., 1971; Davies
55
Larsen et al.
& Thompson, 1979; Maughan & Leiper, 1983).
However, when studying the relationship between
the percentage of HRmax, which parallels the
percentage of VO2max, exploited throughout the
competition and performance, no correlation be-
tween these variables was found in the present study
(R 5 0.07, n 5 9). This lends further support to the
assumption that VO2max is the key factor when
explaining the difference in performance between the
Nandi town and village boys.
Training speed
In line with the physiological findings, no difference
in the increase in the training speed was observed
between the town and the village boys during the 12-
week training period (Table 1, Fig. 1). The village
boys ran significantly faster from the very first day of
training, and with the exception of a 1-week period,
they continued to do so during the 12-week training
period. This is probably primarily due to a higher
VO2max of the village boys during all 12 weeks of
training for the same reasons as described above for
the difference in performance.
In conclusion, we found no difference in train-
ability with respect to VO2max, running economy,
submaximal heart rate, and submaximal blood
lactate and ammonia concentration between Kenyan
Nandi town and village boys. In addition, Nandi
village boys perform better in a 5000 m competition
following 12 weeks of endurance running, just as
they run gradually faster during 12 weeks of training
at a given submaximal heart rate compared with
Nandi town boys. This is probably due to a higher
VO2max of the village boys during and after the
training period.
Perspective
While the principal features of the physiological
responses to endurance running in the Nandi boys
are in line with previous findings in Caucasians, it
remains to be established whether the magnitude of
these responses is similar in Kenyans and Caucasians
as well as in people of other ethnic origins, and thus
whether the trainability of the Kenyans contributes to
their dominance in running. Similarly, just as the
village boys had a higher initial level with respect to
physical characteristics necessary to become an elite
runner and performed better following training than
the town boys, it needs to be established whether these
properties are superior in untrained Kenyans com-
pared with untrained people of other ethnic origins.
Key words: Kalenjin, trainability, energy cost, perfor-
mance.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to all participating boys and their parents. We
are also thankful to Gilbert Simiyu, who was a great help
when the study was performed. We thank Johnny Nielsen and
Nike Danmark for supplying all subjects with running shoes
and sports equipment. The study was supported by grants
from TEAM DANMARK Research Committee and the
Danish Ministry of Culture.

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