+1 CBSE - CHEMISTRY CDF MATERIAL (61-116) .PMD PDF

CBSE +1 CHEMISTRY CDF MATERIAL
1. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
1. Building block of matter is atom. Atom is the smallest particle. Atom is indivisible& invisible
I. Sub-Atomic Particles:
2. Atom can be further divided into subatomic particles, they are electron, proton, neutron.
3. Charge to mass ratio of electron  e / m  ratio  1.7588 1011 C / Kg
4. Mass of electron is 9.1  1031 kg
5. Charge of electron is 1.602 1019 C or 4.81010 esu

6. Based on oil drop experiment, mulliken concluded that the magnitude of electric charge on the oil
droplet is always integral multiple of electric charge  q  ne 
7. Mass of Proton is 1.672  1027 Kg or 1.672  1024 gm or 1.00727amu or U

8. Absolute charge of Proton is 1.6 1019 C or 4.8  1010 e.s.u
9. Mass of Neutron is 1.674  1027 kg or 1.674  1024 gm or 1.00867amu or U

II. Atomic Models:
10. Watermelon model (or) Plum pudding model proposed by J.J. Thomson
11. Radius of atom is at the order of 1010 m.
12. Radius of nucleus is at the order of 1015 m
13. Nuclueus inclusive of protons, and neutrons both putting together are called nucleons
14. Element without neutron is____ Ans:- 1 H 1 or Protium
15. Rutherford proposed Nucleus and orbit concept on his   ray Scattering experiment.
16. The number of Protons present in a nucleus of an atom is called Atomic number (Z)
17. The total number of protons and Neutrons present in the Nucleus is called Mass number  A 
18. Isotopes: The atoms with same atomic number but different mass number is called Isotopes.
19. Example of isotopes: 1 H 1 , 1H 2 , 1H 3
20. Isobars: The atoms with same mass number but different atomic number are called Isobars
21. Example of isobars 6C14, 7N14
III. Devlopments Leading To The Bohr’s Model Of Atom:

22. The waves which contains both electric and Magnetic field are called electro magnetic waves
 All Electro magnetic waves are moving with same velocity i.e C  3  108 m / sec (or )
3  1010 cm / sec
23. The order of arrangement of electro magnetic radiations in the increasing order of wavelengths
(or) decreasing order of frequency is called electro magnetic spectrum
24. Emission Spectrum:The Spectrum of radiation emitted by a Substance that has absorbed energy is
called an emission spectrum.
NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[61]

25. Absorption Spectrum:The spectrum of transmitted radiation of the irradiated substance is called
Absorption spectrum.
26. Atoms gives line spectrum where as molecules gives band spectrum
27. Blackbody:An ideal body which emitts and absorbs radiations of all frequency is called Backbody.
28. Energy of one photon E  hv , where v  frequency of radiation
29. Planks Constant h  6.625 1027 erg.sec or h  6.625  1034 Joul.sec
30. Photo eletric effect: Ejection of electrons from the metal surface when a beam of sutiable frequency
light radation falling on it.
2 1
31. Equation of Photo electric effect is hv  W0  K . E or hv  W0  mv
2
Threshold Frequency  v0  : The minimum frequency (energy) required to eject the electron in
Photo electric effect is called Threshold Frequency.
IV. Bohr’s Model For Hydrogen Atom:
32. Bohr’s Postulates:
a) The electron in an atom revolve around the nucleus in a circular path is called orbit (or)
shell (n)
 nh   n  Prinicipal QuantumNumber 
b) The angular momentum of an electron is  mvr   
 2    n  1, 2,3,.......... 
c) When electron jumps from higher orbit to lower orbit then it emits energy
d) When electron jumps from lower orbit to higher orbit then it absorb energy
2
18  z 
33. th
Energy of the n orbit is : 2.18  10  2  Joules
n 
n2 0 52.9 2
34. th
Radius of the n orbit  0.529  A or  n pm
z z
35. Hydrogen Spectrum:
a) When electron jumps from higher orbit to first orbit is called Lyman series. It is observed in uv
region
b) When electron jumps from higher orbit to second orbit is called Balmer series. It is observed in
visible region.
c) When electron jumps from higher orbit to third orbit is called Paschen series. It is observed in
Near Infrared region
d) When electron jumps from higher orbit to fourth orbit is called Brackett series. It is observed in
Middle infrared region
e) When electron jumps from higher orbit to fifth orbit is called pfund series. It is observed in far in-
frared region.

f) Wave number  v  , wave length    of spectral lines can be Calculated by Rydberg equation . i.e
1 1 1
v  R 2  2  Rydberg constant value is 109677 cm  1
  n1 n2 
36. Zeeman effect:The Splitting of Spectral lines in the Presence of Magnetic field is called Zeeman
efffect
37. Stark effect:The splitting Spetral lines in the presence of electric field is called Stark effect
38. Bohr’s Model fails to explain spectra of multi electron atom and fine spectrum
V. Quantum Mechanical Consideration Of Sub Atomic Particles:
h h
39. De Broglie Wave equation   
mv p
m-mass of particle, v  Velocity of particle, p  Momentum
40. Radiation exhibits both particle and wave like properties. This is called dual behaviour.
41. Heisenberg uncertainity Priniciple:
“It is impossible to determine simultaneously the exact position and exact momentum of an electron”
h
x.p  x  Uncertainity in position
4
p  Uncertainity in momentum m  mass of an electron
v  Velocity of an electron p    mv   mv
h h
x.mv   x.v 
4 4 m
VI. Quantum Mechanical Model Of Atom:
42. Schrodinger wave equation is
 2  2  2 82 m
   2  E  v  0
x 2 y 2 z 2 h
  Wave function m  mass of electron
E  Total energy V  Potential energy of an electron
x, y , z  Cartisian Coordinates
43. The probability finding an electron at a point within an atom is proportional to the square of the orbital
wave function   
2
 2  Probability density
44. The region around the nucleus where the electron will most probably be found is called orbital.
45. Orbitals can be distinguished by their size, shape and orientation.

46. Atomic orbitals are precisely distinguished by what are known as Quantum numbers.
47. Principal quantum number(n) was proposed by Neils Bohr n  1, 2,3, 4,......
48. Principal quantum number signifies size and energy of orbit
49. In nth orbit maximum number of orbitals is n2 ,and maximum number of electrons in an orbit is
equal to 2n 2
50. Azimuthal quantum number was proposed by Sommerfeld
l values are l  0,1, 2,....  n  1
l  0  s  orbital l  1  p  orbital
l  2  d  orbital l  3  f  orbital
51. The number of subshells in an energy level is equal to ' n '
52. Azimutal quantum number signifies shape of atomic orbitals
53. Magnetic quantum number  m  propsed by Lande
54. The total number of ' m ' values equal to 2l  1
' m ' value are m  l ....0.....  l For s  orbital m  0
For p  orbital m  1,0, 1 For d orbital m  2, 1,0, 1, 2
For f  orbital m  3, 2, 1,0, 1, 2, 3
55. The total number of eletrons in a subshell 2  2l  1
56. Magnetic quantum number signifies Orientation of orbital it explains stark and Zeeman effect
57. Spin quantum number  s  was proposed by GoudSmith and Uhlenbeck
58. Spin quantum number signfies spin of electron

59. The maximum number of electrons in an orbital is two
1
60. If the electron revolve in clockwise direction the spin is denoted by 
2
1
61. If the electron revolve in anticlockwise direction the spin is denoted by 
2
62. Shapes of orbitals
s  orbital has Spherical symmetrical p  orbital has dumb-bell shape(two lobes)
d  orbital has double dumb-bell in shape(four lobes) f  orbital has complex shape
63. Radial Node:The region where the probability of finding than e  is zero around the nucleus is
Radial node.

 n  principal Quantum Number 

64. Number of Radial nodes  n  l  1  l  Azimuthal Quantum Number 
 
65. Number of angular nodes  l
66. Total number of nodes  l
67. Nodal Plane: The Plane where the Probability of finding the electron is zero is called nodalplane.
68. Number of nodal planes  l
69. Effective Nuclear Charge Z eff :   The net positive charge experienced by the outer electrons is
called effective nuclearcharge.
70. Aufbau Priniciple:In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled with electrons in the order
of their increasing energies.
1s  2s  2 p  3s  3 p  4s  3d  4 p..........
71. Paulis Exclusion Priniciple: No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of all four Quan-
tum numbers
72. Degenerate orbitals: The orbitals having same energy and shape are called Degenerate orbitals.
73. Hunds Rule: In the degenerate orbital pairing of electrons takes place, when each orbital is filled
with one electron
74.  n  l  Rule:- Differentiating electron always tends to occupy an orbital with lower  n  l  value,
then enters into next energy level.
75. The atoms or ions with half filled or completely filled subshells are more stable.
76. An anamalous electronic configuration of chromium  cr    Ar  4s1 3d 5
77. An anamalous electronic configuration of copper  Cu    Ar  4 s1 3d 10
2. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND

PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
I. PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION
1. Dobereiner’s Classification:
According to Dobereiner’s classification, atomic weight of middle element is the average of extreme
elements.
I-Triad: Li Na K II-Triad: Ca Sr Ba III-Triad: Cl Br I
Atomic Wt: 7 23 39 Atomic Wt: 40 88 137 Atomic Wt: 35.5 80 127
2. Law of octaves and Newland’s Octave Classification:

When elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic weights, every eighth element has
properties similar to the first elements like musical nodes.
3. Lother Meyer’s Classification:
i) The physical properties of elemens are periodic functions of their atomic weights.
ii) He ploted graphs betweeen atomic weights and atomic volumes.

4. Mendeleev’s Periodic Classification:
i) The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic weights.
ii) There are eight groups (vertical columns): I to VIII and six periods (horizontal rows).
iii) This classification leads to the correction of atomic weights of some elements Be, In, U using the
formula
iv) Atomic weight of an element = Equivalent weight × Valency
v) This classification leads to the position of newly discovered elements
(a) Eka - Aluminium as Gallium (b) Eka-Silicon as Germanium (c) Ek-Boron as Scandium
vi) Anamolous pairs of Mendeleev’s Classification are
(a) Ar 40 , K 39 (b) Co59 , Ni 58 (c) Te128 , I127 (d) Th232 , Pa 231
5. Moseley’s Periodic Law: The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of
their atomic numbers.
II. Modern Periodic Law And The Present Form Of The Periodic Table:
6. Modern Periodic Law:
i) The physical and chemical propertie of elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers and
electronic configurations.
ii) Moseley’s Equation is   a  z  b where  = Frequency of X-ray
a &b = constants z = atomic number
iii) There are 18 vertical columns or groups and seven horizontal rows or periods. In modern periodic
table, the first periodcontains 2 elements, the subsequent periods consists of 8, 8, 18, 18 and 32 elements.
Lanthanides and Actinides are placed just below the main body of the periodic table. Lanthanides
belongs to 6th period and 3rd group and actinids 7th period and 3rd group.
iv) Last orbit (or) shell with electrons is known as valley shell (or) Ultimate Shell (or)
Outermost Shell (n)
v) Last but one shell with electrons is known as penultimate shell (n – 1)
vi) Last but two shell with is known as Antipenultimate shell (n – 2)
vii) The last electron entering into atomic orbital is called differentiating electron.
7. Electronic configuarions and types of elements:
i) Electronic Configuration of 1 st period element is 1s12 .
ii) Electronic Configuration of 2 nd period element is 2s12 2 p16 .
iii) Electronic Configuration of 3rd period element is 3s12 3 p16 .
iv) Electronic Configuration of 4 th period element is 4s12 3d 110 4 p16 .
v) Electronic Configuration of 5 th period element is 5s12 4d 110 5 p16 .
vi) Electronic Configuration of 6 th period element is 6s12 4 f 114 5d 110 6 p16 .
vii) Electronic Configuration of 7th period element is 7 s12 5 f 114 6d 110 7 p16 .
III. Electronic Configurations and Types of Elements:
8. Blocks: Based on the presence of differentiating electron the elements are classified into
four blocks. They are i) s-Block ii) p-Block ii) d-Block iv)f-Block
i) s-block elements :
a) The elements in which differentiating electrons enters into s-orbital are called s-block
elements. The general electronic configuration is ns12 .
b) It contains two groups namely alkali metals and alkaline earth metals (IA and IIA)
or groups 1 and 2.

ii) p-block elements :-
a) The elements in which differentiating electrons enters into p-orbital are called p-block
elements. It contains ‘6’ groups.
b) The general electronic configuration is ns 2 np16
c) p-block contains all non-metals, metalloids and few metals.
d) It has 6groups IIIA to VIIIA(13th to 18 group)
e) VA or 15- Pnicogens VIA or 16th-Chalcogens
VIIA or 17th-Halogens VIII or 18th-Nobelgases
iii. d-block elements :
a) The elements in which the differentiating electron enters into penultimate shell (n-1)d
sub shell are called d-block elements. The general electronic configuration of these elements
is  n  1 d 110 ns12
b) These are placed in between s- and p-block elements. It contains 10 groups.
iv. f-block elements :
a) The elements in which the differentiating electron enters into anti penultimate shell or
(n-2)f subshell are called f-block elements.The general electronic configuration is
 n  2  f 114  n  1 d 01ns 2
9. Transition elements :
The elements in which two outermost sub shells are incompletely filled [ (n-1) and n]either
in atom state or in dipositive oxidation state(+2) are called transitional elements.
The general electronic configuration is  n  1 d 19 ns1 2 .
IIB elements (Zn, Cd, Hg) are not transitional elements due to fully filled (n-1)d orbital.
10. Characteristic properties:Due to a) Vacant or partially filled d-orbitals b) Small atomic
radius c) High nuclear charge. These elements show characterstic properties.
i) They form coloured ions, interstitial compounds, alloys.
ii) They show variable oxidation states, paramagnetism and ferromagnetism
iii) They form complexs and interstitial compounds.
iv) They act as good catalysts, with high melting and boiling points.
IV. Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements:
11. Periodic Propertie:The repetition of properties of elements at certain regular intervals of
electronic configuration
12. Atomic Radius: The distance between the centre of the nucleus and the outer most shell
of an atom is called as atomic radius.
Units are A0 , nm,pm,m 1Ao  10 10 m, 1 nm  10 9 m, 1 pm  10 12 m 
3-types of radii are: a) Metallic or crystal radius b)covalent radius c)Vandarwaals radius.
13. Metallic radius or Crystal radius : Half of the inter nuclear distance between the two
adjacent metal atoms in the metallic crystal is called crystal radius or metallic radius.
14. Covalent radius : This is generally used for non-metals.
Half of the inter nuclear distance of two atoms, which are held together by a covalent bond
is called covalent radius.
15. Vandarwaals radius:This is generally used for Nobel gas elements and solids
Half of the inter nuclear distance between adjuscent atoms of neighbouring molecules
16. Variation of atomic radii in a group: In a group, from top to bottom the atomic radius
gradually increases.
17. Variation of atomic radii in a period: In a period, from left to right the atomic radius
gradually decreases.

18. Lanthanide contraction : i) The decrease in the size of atoms or ions  M 3  with the
increase in the atomic number among the lanthanides is known as lanthanide contraction
( Except for the atomic radii of Eu and Yb).
ii) A similar decrease in in the size of atoms or ions is also observed in actinides knows as
actinides contraction
19. Consequences of lanthanide contraction :
i) The melting, boiling points and hardness of lanthanides gradually increases.
ii) The crystal structures and other properties of lanthanides becomes almost similar. So it
is difficult to seperate them from the mixture.
iii) Inert pair effect
iv) Due to this, the atomic radius of following elements almost similar even though they
belongs to 4d and 5d series.
Eg : Zr & Hf , Nb & Ta and Mo & W.
20. IONIZATION ENTHALPY (IE): The minimum amount of energy required to remove the most
loosely bound electron from a neutral, isolated gaseous atom.
X  g   IE  X g   e Ionisation Enthalpy is always positive
21. Ionisation Enthalpy(IE) is also known as Ionisation Potential (IP) or Inoisation Energy.
22. Units of IE are kJ/mole or K.Cal/mole.
23. First Ionisation Enthalpy (IE1) : The energy required to remove an electron from a neutral, isolated
gaseous atom.
X g   IE1  X g   e
24. Second Ionisation Enthalpy (IE2): The energy required to remove an electron from unipositve
gaseous ion.
X g   IE2  X 2g  e 
25. Second ionization enthalpy is always more than first ionization enthalpy.  IE2  IE1 
It is due to increase of effective nuclear charge from neutral atom to unipositive ion.
In successive ionization enthalpy values the order is IE1  IE2  IE3  .............  IEn
Factors influencing Ionization Enthalpy:
26. Atomic radius or Atomic Size:Larger is the atomic size smaller is the ionization enthalpy.
1
Ionization enthalpy 
Atomic size
27. Nuclear charge :As the nuclear charge increases, ionization enthalpy values also increases.
Ionization Enthalpy  Nuclear charge
28. Screening effect or Sheilding effect :Higher the screening effect, the lesser is the value
of ionization enthalpy.
1
Ionization Enthalpy 
Screening effect
The electrons present in inner orbitals decrease the nuclear attraction on the valency
electrons. This is called Screening or Sheilding effect.
29. Extent of penetration of orbitals of valence electrons :More is the penetration of
orbital more will be the ionization enthalpy.
Ionization Enthalpy  Penetration power
The order of penetration power or ionization enthalpies is s  p  d  f .

30. Half filled or completely filled subshells :
Atoms with half filled (or) completely filled subshells are more stable. So ionization enthalpy
values of these atoms are high.
31. Variation in a group: In a group from top to bottom, ionisation enthalpy decreases.
Reason : It is due to increase in atomic size and screening effect.
32. Variation in periods:
In a period from left to right, the ionisation enthalpy gradually increases.
Reason : It is due to decrease in atomic size and increase in the nuclear charge.
33. In second period :The high values of Be and N are due to stable configurations.
So the increasing order of ionization enthalpy is Li  B  Be  C  O  N  F  Ne
34. In third period : The high values of Mg, P and Ar are due to stable configurations.
So the increasing order of ionization enthalpy is Na  Al  Mg  Si  S  P  Cl  Ar
35. In periodic table the group with highest ionization enthalpy values is Nobel gas 18th  group
The element with highest ionization enthalpy value is - Helium
36. Electron gain enthalpy ( Electron Affinity ) : The amount of energy released when an
electron is added to the valence shell of neutral gaseous atom is called as electron gain
enthalpy or electron affinity.
X  g   electron  X   g   EA
37. Variation in a group: In a group from top to bottom, electron affinity decreases.
38. Variation in a period: In a period from left to right, electron affinity increases.
39. The element with highest electron gain enthalpy is Chlorine.
40. Electron affinity of chlorine is more than that of fluorine
41. Electronegativity : The relative tendency of an atom to attract the shared electron pair
towards itself in a hetero diatomic molecule is called electronegativity.
42. It is the property of a bonded atom. It has no units, since it is a relative property.
43. EN can be expressed in different scales
(i) Pauling scale (ii) Mulliken-Jaffe scale (iii) Allred-Roschow scale
44. An arbitrary value of 4.0 has been assigned to fluorine (most electronegative element).
45. Variation in a group: In a group from top to bottom, electronegativity decreases.
46. Variation in a period: In a period from left to right, electronegativity increases.
47. Electronegativity is directly related to non-metallic nature.
48. Valency: Combining capacity of an element
i) Valency= group number for IA to IVA
ii) Valency= group number or 8-group number for VA to VIIA
iii) d & f block elements show variable valencies
49. Oxidation states: Its the charge acquired by an atom on the basis of electronegative
consideration from other atoms in the molecule.
50. Second period elements show anomalous properties when compare with other elements of
the same group due to small size large charge to radius ratio and high electronegativity.
Ex: Max covalency of first element of each group is four whereas the other members of the
groups can expand their valence shell to acommodate more than four.
51. Diagonal Relationship : The first three members of second period (Li, Be and B)shows
much similarity with second element of next group. It is termed as diagonal relationship.
This phenomenon is observed only in IA, IIA and IIIA groups.
a) Li - Mg b) Be - Al c) B - Si
52. Reasons for Diagonal relationship : i) Similar size of atoms or ions
ii) Similar electronegativities of the respective elements.
iii) Similar polarizing power

Ionic charge
Polarizing power = 2
 Ionic radius 
Nature of oxides : Metal oxides are basic and non-metal oxides are acidic in nature
53. Variation in group :IA group posses active metals.So they forms strong basic oxides. In
a group from top to bottom, the basic nature of the oxides increases due to increase of
metallic character.
54. Variation in third period:Third period contains metals and non metals.While moving
accross a period the basic nature of the oxides decreases and the acidic nature of oxides
gradually increases due to increase of non metallic character in a period.
Group IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA

Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Nature Metal Metal Metal Non metal Non metal Non metal Non metal
Oxide Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4 O10 SO3 Cl2O7
Oxide Nature Strongly Basic Amphoteric Weakly Acidic Strongly Strongly
basic acidic acidic acidic
3. CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

I. Kossel-Lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding:
1. Octet rule: The phenomenon of having eight electrons in valency shell is called octet
rule.The atom or molecule with octet configuration is more stable.
2. Ca 2  is more stable than Zn2 because Ca 2  has octet configuration in valency shell
where as Zn2 has pseudo octet configuration in valency shell.
3. Cl  ion is more stable than Cl atom,because Cl  possesses stable octet configuration.
4. Argon is mono atomic gas as it possesses stable octet configuration in its valency shell
5. Covalent bond: That involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
1
6. Formal charge : Formal charge= V  L   B
2
V= number of valency electrons L= number of lone pairs electrons
B= number of bond pair of electrons
II. Ionic Bond or ElectroValent Bond:
7. The strong electro static force of attraction formed between two oppositely charged ions is
known as ionic bond.
8. Favourable Conditions for the formation of ionic bond:
The formation of ionic bond is influenced by nature of cation and nature of anion
For cation formation favouring factors are large size, low charge, low IP
For anion formation favouring factors are small size, low charge, high EA
9. Lattice energy : The amount of energy released when one mole of ionic crystal is formed from its
oppositely charged gaseous ions is called lattice energy.
10. Properties of ionic compounds:-
i) Ionic compounds are hard and possess high melting and boiling points
ii) Ionic compounds are soluble in polar solvents like water
iii) Ionic compounds are bad conductors in solid state due to absence of free ions
iv) Ionic compounds act as conductors, in aqueous solutions (or) in fused state.
v) Ionic bond is non directional. Hence Ionic compounds do not exhibit isomerism.
III. Bond Parameters:
11. i. Bond Length : The equilibrium distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms in a

molecule is called bond length. units: A0
ii. Bond Angle : The angle between the orbitals containing bonding electron pairs around
the central atom in a molecule is called bond angle. Units degrees.
iii. Bond Enthalpy : The amount of energy required to break one mole of bonds between two
atoms in a gaseous state is called bond enthalpy .Units: KJmol 1
iv. Bond Order : The number of bonds between the two atoms in a molecule is called bond order.
For isoelectronic molecules and ions have identical bond order.
12. Dipole moment :i) The product of magnitude of charge on the poles and the distance
between the two poles is called dipole moment.It is represented by 
ii)   q  d (q = charge; d = bond length ), units:Debye (D)1D  3.33564 1030 Cm
13. Applications :i) Geometry of the molecule can be determined
ii) Percentage of ionic character of a bond can be calculated
obs
% of ionic character   100
cal
iii) cis and trans isomers can be separated
14. Fajan’s rules :
i) For a given cation covalent character increases with increase in size of anion.
Ex: KI is more covalent than KF
ii) Covalent character increases with increasing charges either on cation or anion.
Ex: SnCl4 is more covalent than SnCl2 .
iii) For a given anion covalent character increases with decrease in size of cation.
Ex: LiF is more covalent than KF.
iv) Covalent character is higher for compounds with cations with pseudo inert gas
configurations than with inert gas configurations.
Ex: CuCl is more covalent than NaCl .
IV. The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory:
15. The shape of the molecule depends upon number of electron pairs in valency shell of central atom.
16. The shape of the molecule also depends upon repulsion between electron pairs.
17. The bond angle of the molecule depends upon repulsion between electron pairs and electro
negativity difference between central atom and bonding atom.
18. A lone pair of electrons occupies more space around the central atom than bond pair of
electrons
19. The repulsions among electron pairs decrease in the order. l. p  l. p  l. p  b. p  b. p  b. p
20. Repulsion among triple,double,single bonds decrease in the order triple bond > double bond > single
bond
21. Repulsion forces decreases sharply with increase in angle between electron pairs.
22. Shape and bond angle of the molecule basing on bond pairs and lone pairs around central atom
23. According to VSEPR theory, bond angle in Ammonia is reduced from 1090 28| to 107 0 . This is
due to repulsion between lone pair and bond pair.
V. Valence bond theory :
24. Valence bond theory explain the directional nature of covalent bonds
25. Covalent bond is formed by overlapping of two atomic orbitals having unpaired electrons
26. Greater the extent of overlapping , the stronger is the bond formed.
27. Strength of the bonds follows the order.  p  p   s  p   s s  
28. Covalent bonds are two types (a) sigma bond (b) pi bond

(a) Sigma bond: End on End (head on head) overlapping of atomic orbitals to form sigma (  )
bond.
(b) Pi bond: Lateral overlapping of atomic orbitals to form Pi  bond.
NOTE : Sigma bond is stronger than Pi bond
VI. Hybridization : The inter mixing of atomic orbitals to form new, same number of equavalent
orbitals is called Hybridisation and the formed orbitals are called hybrid orbitals.
29. SP hybridisation :
i) Inter mixing of one S orbital and one P orbital to give two SP hybrid orbitals is called SP hybridization.
ii) Shape is linear and bond angle is 1800
iii) S character is 50% and P character is 50%
Eg: BeCl2 ,C2H2
30. SP 2 hybridisation :
i) Inter mixing of one S orbital and two P orbitals to give three SP 2 hybrid orbitals is called
SP 2 hybridization
ii) Shape is trigonal planar and bond angle is 1200
iii) S character is 33.3% and P character is 66.6 %
Eg: BCl3 ,C2H4
31. SP3 hybridisation :
i) Inter mixing of one S orbital and three P orbitals to give four SP 3 hybrid orbitals is called SP 3 hybridization
ii) Shape is tetrahedral and bond angle is 1090 28|
iii) S character is 25% and P character is 75%
Eg: CH 4 , C2 H 6
32. SP3d hybridization :
i) Inter mixing of one s-orbital , three p-orbitals and one d-orbital to give 5sp 3 d hybrid orbitals
is called sp 3 d hybridization.
ii) Shape is trigonal bipyramidal and bond angles are 1200 and 900 .
iii) s character is 20%, p character is 60% and d character is 20%. Eg : PCl5
33. SP3d2 hybridization :
i) Intermixing of one s-orbital, three p-orbitals and two d-orbitals to give 6sp 3 d 2 hybrid orbitals
is called sp 3 d 2 hybridization.
ii) Shape of the molecule is octahedral and bond angles are 900 and 1800 Eg: SF6
VI. Coordinate Covalent bond or Dative bond
34. The bond formed by sharing of electron pair is contributed by one of the two bonded atoms is known
as coordinate covalent bond (or) dative bond.
35. The atom which donates electron pair is called donar and the atom which accepts the electron pair is
called acceptor.
Eg. : Formation of NH 4 ion : H  ion accepts a pair of electrons from nitrogen of ammonia and
forms NH 4 ion.
36. The bonds present in NH 4Cl are covalent bond, ionic bond,dative bond

VII. Molecular orbital theory:
37. Molecular orbital theory is used to calculate bond order (number of bonds between atoms)
1
Bond order =  bonding electrons  Anti bonding electrons 
2
38. The distrubution of electrons in the molecular orbitals of N 2
Ec of N 2 =  1s 2   2
*1 s 2  2 s 2  * 2 s 2  2 p x   2 p y
2
2p 2
z
10  4 6
39. Bond order in N 2 molecule  BO  
 3
2 2
40. As there are no unpaired electrons in MOED of N 2 it is diamagnetic in nature.
41. The distrubution of electrons in the molecular orbitals of O2
EC of O2 =  1s 2 *1s 2 2s 2 * 2 s 2 2 Pz 2 2 Px 2   2 Py 2 * 2 Px1   * 2 Py1
42. As there are unpaired electrons in MOED of O2 it is paramagnetic in nature
10  6 4
43. Bond order in O2 molecule  BO    2
2 2
VIII. Hydrogen bond
44. The weak electrostatic force of attraction between a partially positively charged hydrogen atom
and a highly electro negative atoms like F, O, N of the same (or) different molecule is known as
hydrogen bond.Hydrogen bonding is of two types
45. Intermolecular hydrogen bonding : The hydrogen bond is formed between two different polar
molecules is called inter molecular hydrogen bonding
Examples: NH 3 , H 2O, HF
46. Intramolecular hydrogen bonding : The hydrogen bond is formed between two atoms of
same molecule is called intra molecular hydrogen bonding .
Examples: o-hydroxybenzaldehyde, o-nitrophenol, o-nitroaniline
47. Due to the presence of Hydrogen bonding in molecule their melting and boiling points increases.
48. H2O has higher boiling point than HF because more number of hydrogen bonds are present in
H2O molecule than HF
4. STATES OF MATTER
I. Intermolecular forces:-
1. Intermolecular forces are the forces of attractions and repulsion between
interacting particles (atoms and moleculas)
attractive intermolecular forces are known as vanderwaals forces
2. Dispersion forces (London forces ) :-the force of attraction between two temporary dipoles is
known as London force
1
Interaction energy  (r=distance between two particles)
r6
3. Dipole-Dipole Forces:- The force of attraction between two permanent dipoles is known as
Dipole-Dipole forces
1 1
stationary dipoles interaction energy  ; rotating dipoles interaction energy 
r3 r6
4. Hydrogen bond is one of special case of dipole-dipole interaction

5. Dipole-Induced Dipole Forces:- The force of attraction between permanent dipole and The
molecules lacking permanent dipole is called dipole-Induced dipole forces
1
Interaction energy 
r6
II. GAS LAWS
6. Boyle’s law:At constant temperature the volume of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional
1
to it’s pressure vα
p
7. Charles law :At contant pressure the volume of given mass of gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature. VαT
8. Avagadro’s law : At constant temperature and pressure equal volumes of all gases contain
equal number of moles Vα n
9. Gay Lussac’s law: At constant volume pressure of a fixed amout of a gas varies directly with the
temperature PαT
III. Ideal Gas Equation:
10. A gas which obeys all the gas laws under all temperatures and pressures is called Ideal gas.
Ideal gas equation is obtained by combining three gas laws.
PV = nRT
11. The gas constant R is same for all gases. Hence it is called universal gas constant.
R  1.987calK 1mole 1
R  8.314 JK 1mole 1
R  0.0821lit atm K 1 mole 1
12. The graph between P&V at constant temperature is called Isotherm
13. 273.15K temperature and 1atm pressure are S.T.P conditions.
14. one mole of any gas occupy 22.4 lit volume at STP conditions is known as gram molar volume
IV. Graham’s law Diffusion:
15. At constant temperature and pressure rate of diffusion of given mass of gas is inversely propor
1
tional to square root of its density. r  (At constant T, P)
d
16. (
Molar mass is directly proportional to density M  d )
17. Molar mass =2  vapourdensity
18. Molar mass is directly proportional to the vapour density ( M  VD )
19. If r1 , r2 are rates of diffusion of two different gases then Graham’s law is
r1 d M2 VD2
 2  
r2 d1 M1 VD1
v volume of gas diffused
20. The rate of diffusion of a gas r  t  timetaken for diffusion .
21. If t1 and t2 are time taken for the diffusion and v1 and v 2 are volumes of two different gases then
r1 v1t2
Graham’s law is r  v t
2 2 1
.
22. .
Methane gas diffuses faster among N 2 , O2 , CH 4 Because It has low molecular weight
 1 
 r 
 M 
23. Methane gas diffuses 2 times faster than sulphurdioxide  SO2  .
24. Dalton’s law of partial pressures:
At constant temperature and volume the total pressure exerted by the mixture of non-reacting gases
is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of all individual gases. this is called Dalton’s law of
partialpressures. Ptotal  P1  P2  P3
25. Partial pressure =mole fraction  total pressure
number of moles of one component
26. Mole fraction (X)= total number of moles of all components
27. Pressure exerted by saturated water vapour is called aqueous tension

Pdrygas  Ptotal  Aqueous tension.
V. Kinetic molecular theory of gases:
28. (a) Gases contains large number of tiny and discrete particles called molecules.
(b) Gas molecules move randomly in all directions with high speeds
(c) Molecules motions are uneffected by gravity.
(d) Collisions of gas molecules are perfectly elastic.
(e) Pressure is exterted by the gas as result of collision of the particles with the walls of the
container
(f) Average kinetic energy of the gas molecules is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature KE  T
VI. Kinetic Gas Equation of an Ideal Gas:
1 1
29. Kinetic gas eqation PV  m nu 2 M  mn  PV  Mu 2
3 3
3
30. Kinetic energy of ‘n’ moles of gas Ek  nRT
2
3
31. Kinetic energy of 5 moles of nitrogen gas at 27oC is Ek  nRT
2
3
 Ek   5  2  300  4500cal. [R=2cal]
2
32. Gas constant per molecule is known as Boltzmann constant
R
K  1.38  1016 erg.K 1 molecule 1  1.38  1023 J K 1molecule1
N
VII. Distribution of Molecular Speeds:
33. The squareroot of mean of squares of speeds of gas molecules is called rms speed.
34. To calculate RMS speed when the temperature is given, then the formula
3RT 3PV 3P
urms   
M M d

35. The average of speeds of all the molecules present in the gas is called average speed.
8 RT 8 PV 8P
uav   
M M d
36. The speed possessed by maximum number of molecules present in gas is called most probable speed.
2 RT 2 PV 2P
ump   
M M d
37. The Ratio of 3 types of molecular velocities is ump : uav : urms  1:1.128 :1.224
38. Most probable speed U mp  =0.8166  rms speed
39. Average speed  U av  =0.9213×rms speed .

VIII. Behavior of Real Gases:
 an 2 
40. Vanderwaal’s equation :  p  v 2   v  nb   nRT
 
Significance of ‘ a ’ The value of ' a ' measure the magnitude of attractive forces between two
molecules unit of a  atmlit 2 mol 2
Significance of ‘b’ The value of ‘b’ gives an idea about the effect of size of gas molecule
unit of b  lit mol 1
41. Ratio between PV and nRT is called compressibility factor. It is represented by Z. Z 

PV
nRT
IX. Liquefaction of Gases:
42. The temperature above it any gas cannot be liqueified even by applying high pressure is called
critical temperature of the gas.( TC ). TC of CO2  30.980 c
43. The temperature at which Real gas behaves as Ideal gas is known as Boyle’s Temperature.
44. At high temperature and low pressure real gas obeys Ideal behaviour.
X. Liquid State:
45. The pressure exerted by the vapour molecules on the surface of the liquid when it is in equilibrium
with its liquid is called vapour pressure
46. The temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure is
called Boilingpoint
47. As the temperature of liquid increases, vapour pressure increases  v. p  T 
48. The force acting per unit length perpendicular to line drawn on surface of liquid is called
surfacetension (  ). Its units Jm 2 (or ) Nm 1 .

 1
surfacetension decreases as the temperature rises  surfacetension  
 T
49. The viscosity coefficient is the force when velocity gardient is unity and the area of contact is unit
du
area F   A
dz
dv
dz
=velocity gradient, A=area of contact  =viscosity coefficient.
 1
50. viscosity decreases as the temperature rises  vis cos ity  
 T

51. Units of viscosity coefficient is NSm-2 in SI units .In CGS system poise.
(1 poise =1gcm-1s-1 =10-1kgm-1s-1
5. STOICHIOMETRY
1. Stoichiometry: The calculation of masses (Sometimes volume also) of the reactants and the
products involved in a chemical reaction is called “Stoichiometry”
2. Accuracy: The agreement of a particular value to the true value of the result is called accuracy.
3. Precision: The closeness of various Measurements for the same quantity is called precision
4. Significant figures: Significant figures are Meaningful digits which are known with certainty.
5. Every experimental measurement has some uncertainty associated has some uncertainty in the
experimental (or) calculated values is indicated by mentioning the number of significant figures.
I. Loss of Chemical Combinations:
6. Law of conservation of mass: “Matter can neither be created nor destroyed” is called law of
conservation of mass.
(OR)
“The total mass of the reactants is equal to total mass of the products in a balanced chemical
reaction in a balanced chemical reaction’’
7. Whatever may be the source and method of preparation of the compound will have elements
combining in same proportion by weight.
8. Law of multiple proportions.
If two elements combine to form two or more than two compounds then the masses of one of the
elements that combine with fixed mass of the other element are in the ratio of small whole numbers
9. Gay Lussac’s Law : When gases combine are produced in a chemical reaction they do so in a
simple ratio by volume provided all gases are at same temperature and pressure
10. Avogadro Law: Equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure should contain
equal number of molecules is called Avogadro law.
11. The mass of an atom (or) the atomic mass is actually very-very less because atoms are
extremely small.
II. Atomic and Molecular Mass:
12. The present system of atomic masses is based on carbon-12 as the standard.
13. A mass exactly equal to one twelth the mass of one carbon-12 atom is called
atomic mass unit(amu)
14. 1amu  1.66056  1024 g
15. The average of the masses of the isotopes of an element is called average atomic mass.
16. The sum of atomic masses of all the atoms of the elements present in a molecule is called
Molecular mass.
17. Molecular mass of CH 4 is __________ (16 u)
Ans: CH 4  12  4  1  16u
18. Mole concept: The amount of the substance that contains as many particles or entities as there
are atoms is exactly 12 gm of C12 isotope. is called mole.
The number of entities in one mole of substance is called as Avogadro’s number which is
denoted by N and is equal to 6.023 1023 .
19. The mass of one mole of substance is expressed in grams and is called as molar mass. Molar
mass is numerically equal to the atomic or molecular mass.
Example: 1) Molar mass of H 2O  18.02 gm  gram molecular weight
Wt. of substance
20. Number of moles =
G.M.Wt. of substance

21. Equivalent weight: The number of parts by weight of element required to combine 8 parts by
weight oxygen (or) 1.008 parts by weight of hydrogen (or) 35.46 parts by weight of chlorine is
called equivalent weight of an element.
atomic weight of the element
22. Equivalent weight of the element  valency of theelement
molecular weight of an acid
23. Equivalent weight of an acid  basicity of the acid
24. Number of replaceble H  ions in a molcule of an acid is called basicity of the acid
molecular weight of thebase
25. Equivalent weight of a base  acidity of thebase
26. Number of replaceble OH  ions in a molcule of an acid is called acidity of the base
molecular weight of the salt
27. Equivalent weight of salt  thetotal ch arg eon cation (or ) anion
molecular weight of oxidant

28. Equivalent weight of oxidising agent 
n
molecular weight of Reductant
29. Equivalent weight of oxidising agent 
n
(Where n  number of electrons transferred from 1 mole of reductant or to one mole of oxidant)
III. Percentage Composition:
30. Emperical formula :
“The simplest whole number ratio of the number of atoms of various elementsprasent in a molecule
of the compound
31. Molecular formula: The exact number of atoms of different elements present in a molecule of
a compound is called molecular formula.
molecular weight
32. Molecular formula   Empirical formula n Where n
empirical formula weight
33. Limiting Reagent: The reactant which gets consumed, limits the amount of product formed is
called Limiting Reagent.
IV. Methods of Expressing Concentrations:
mass of soute
34. Mass percent  mass of solution  100
35. Molarity : The number of moles of solute present in 1 litre of the solution is called molarity
No of moles of solute
36. Molarity 
volume of solution in litres
wt.of solutein gm 1000

37. Molarity (M)  
GMW of solute V  ml 
38. Normality : The number of gram equivalents of solute present in 1 litre of the solution is called
normality

Number of gram equivalent weight of solute
39. N
volume of solution in liters
weight of solute 1000
40. N= ×
gramequivalent weight of solute V  in ml 
41. Molality:The number of moles of solute present in 1 kg of solvent is called molality

number of moles of solute
42. m=
weight of solvent  in Kg 
wt.of solutein gm 1000

43. m 
GMW of solute wt.of solvent in gm
44. The ratio of number of moles of one component to the total number of moles of all the
Components of mixture of substances is called mole fraction of that component is called mole
fraction.
number of moles of onecomponent
45. Mole fraction = total number of moles of all thecomponents
46. Redox Reaction: Chemical reaction in which both oxidation and reduction takes place
simultaneously is called redox reaction.
V. Oxidation Number Concept:
47. Oxidation: Loss of electron(s) by any species is called oxidation or adition of oxygen or
removol of hydrogen is also called oxidation.
48. Reduction: Gain of electron(s) bye any species is called Reduction or adition of hydrogen or
removol of oxygen is also called reduction.
49. Oxidising agent: A substance self it undergoes reduction is called oxidising agent
50. Reducing agent: A substance self it undergoes oxidation is called reducing agent
51. Oxidation state an element in a compound is called Oxidation number.
52. Oxidation number rules :
i) In elements, in the free or the uncombined state, each atom bears an osidation number of zero.
ii) For ions composed of only one atom, the oxidation number is equal to the charge on the ion.
iii) All alkali metals have oxidation number of +1.
iv) All alkaline earth metals have an oxisation number of +2
v) Oxidation number of aluminium is +3 in all its compounds
vi) The oxidation number of oxygen in its compounds is generally -2
vii) The oxidation number of oxygen in peroxides is -1
viii) The oxidation number of oxygen in superoxides is -(1/2)
ix) The oxidation number of hydrogen in its compounds is generally +1
x) The oxidation number of hydrogen in metal hydrides is -1
xi) Flourine has an oxidation number of -1 in its compounds
xii) Chlorine, bromine and iodine when combined with oxygen, have positive oxidation numbers
as they are less electronegative than oxygen.
xiii) The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a compound must be zero.
xiv) The algebraic sum of the all the oxidation numbers of atoms of the ion must equal the charge
on the ion in polyatomic ion.
xv) In amalgam oxdiation state of both metal and Hg is zero

53. Oxidation numbers:-
(a) H4P2O7 (b) K 2 MnO4
4( 1)  2 x  7(2)  0 2( 1)  x  4(2)  0
4  2 x  14  0 x6 0
2 x  10 , x  5 x  6
VI. Types of Redox reactions:
54. Combination reaction: A combination reaction is denoted as A  B  C . Both reactant
or any one of the reactant must be in the elementary form
55. Decomposition reaction: The compounds break down to give products in which atleast one
must be in elementary form.
56. Displacement reaction: In this reaction an atom or ion in a compound is replaced by an atom
or an ion of other element.
57. Disproportionation reaction: The same element undergoing both reduction and oxidation in a
chemical reaction is called disproportionation reaction.
The element that undergoes disproportionation has an intermediate oxidation state.
1 1 2 0
Example: 1) 2 H 2 O 2  2 H 2 O  O2
VII. Balancing of redox reaction:
58. Two methods are used to balance Redox chemical equations. One method is named as the
oxidation number method and the other method is named as Half reaction method or
ion-electron method.
59. A) Balancing of redox reaction by oxidation number method :-
Step 1 : Skeleton equation / given equation
H 2 SO4  HBr  SO2  Br2  H 2O
Step 2 : Identification of oxidation numer of every element in the given equation
1 6 2 1 1 4 2 0 1 2
H 2 S O 4  H Br  S O2  Br 2  H 2 O
Step 3 : Based on the change in oxidation number identify the oxidation, reduction reaction and
oxidant, reducatant
Reductant
Oxidation
H2SO 4 + HBr SO2 +Br 2 +H2O

Reduction
Oxidant
Step 4 : Equalise the number of electrons ( to this purpose multiply the oxidant with change in the
oxidation number of reductant and multiply the reductant with change in the oxidation
number of oxidant ).
H 2 SO4  2 HBr  SO2  Br2  H 2O
Step 5 : Balancing the elements in the equation other than Hydrogen and Oxygen.
H 2 SO4  2 HBr  SO2  Br2  H 2O
Step 6 : Writhe the balanced equation by the balancing of Hydrogne and Oxygen.
H 2 SO4  2 HBr  SO2  Br2  2 H 2O
B) Balancing of redox reactions by ion electron method in acide medium : -
Step 1 : Write the skeletal ionic equation
Cr2O72  aq   SO32  aq   Cr 3 aq   SO42  aq 

Step 2 : Assign oxidation numbers in skeletal ionic equation
6 2 4 2 6 2
C r2 O 72  aq   S O 32 aq  Cr 3 aq   S O 42 aq 
Step 3 : Calculate the increase and decrease of oxidation numbers of respective species and make
them equal
6 2 4 2 6 2
C r2 O 72  aq   3 S O 32  aq  Cr 3 aq   S O 4 2  aq 
Step 4 : Adjust the coefficients of the products accordingly
6 2 4 2 6 2
C r2 O 72  aq   3 S O 32  aq   2Cr 3 aq   3 S O 42  aq 
Step 5 : a) Add H  ions in acid medium or H 2O molecules in basic medium in the required
number to hydrogen atom deficient side.
Cr2O72  aq   3SO32  aq   8 H   2Cr 3 aq   3SO42  aq 
b) Add H 2O molecules in acid medium or OH  ions in basci medium in the required
number of oxygen atoms deficient side (a) and (b) may be repeated any number of tiems
by hit and trial method until hydrogen and oxygen atoms are same in number on both the
sides of the redox reaction.
Cr2O72  aq   3SO32 aq   8 H   2Cr 3 aq   3SO42 aq   4 H 2O
C) Balanceing of equation in basic medium :-
Step 1 : Write the skeletal ionic equation
MnO4 aq   Br  aq   MnO2  s   BrO3  aq 
Step 2 : Assign oxidation numbers in skeletal ionic equation
7 2 4 2 5 2
MnO 4  aq   Br  aq   MnO 2  s   Br O 3  aq 
Step 3 : Split the reaction into to half reactions based on the change in oxidation number of ele
ments
O.H.R (6e-)
MnO4  aq   Br  aq   MnO2  s  BrO3 aq

R.H.R (3e-)
Step 4 : Oxidation half reaction Reduction half reaction
Br   BrO3 MnO4  MnO2
a. Balancing the atoms other than Oxygen and Hydrogen.
Br   BrO3 MnO4  MnO2
b.Balancing of Oxygen atoms, add sufficient number of OH  ions to that side
whihc is defficient in oxygen
Br   3OH   BrO3 MnO4  MnO2  2OH 
c. Balancing of Hydrogen atoms, add sufficient number of water molecules to that side
which is defficient in Hydrogen atoms then add equal number of OH  ions to that
opposite side
Br   6OH   BrO3  3H 2O MnO4  2 H 2O  MnO2  4OH 
d. Balancing the charges adding sufficient number of electrons that side which is defficient
in negative charge or excess of positive charge.
Br   6OH   BrO3  3H 2O  6e  MnO4  2 H 2O  3e   MnO2  4OH 
e. Equalising the electrons in both half reactions by multiplying with opposite side number
of electrons.
1 2
3  Br   6OH   BrO3  3H 2O  6e   6  MnO4  2 H 2O  3e   MnO2  4OH  
f. Add to half reactions
Br   6OH   BrO3  3H 2O  6e 
2MnO4  4 H 2O  6e   2 MnO2  8OH 
Br   2 MnO4  H 2O  BrO3  2MnO2  2OH 
VIII. Redox reactions in Tirimetry:
60. The end point of titrations detected : Quantitative chemical analysis is carried out by titrating a
standard solution against unknown solution by using suitable indicator.
61. MnO42 oxidises Fe2 : MnO4 acts as self indicatior: The end point can be detected when
pale pink colour appears in the solution. This appears when MnO4 completely oxidises
62. Cr2O72 oxidises Fe2 : This titration takes place in presence of diphenyl amine as a indicator.
Formation of internse blue colour solution indicates the endpoint
63. Cu 2 oxidise I  : Starch is used as indicator.. Iodine combine with starch to give intense blue
colour which dis appears as it is consumed by thiosulphate
6. THERMODYNAMICS
I. Thermodynamic Terms:
1. System: The part of universe in which observation are made
2. Surroundings: Include everything other than system
The universe = system + surroundings
3. Types of system:
a) Open system: There is exchange of energy and matter between system and surroundings
b) Close system: There is no exchange of matter but exchange of energy is possible between system
and surroundings.
c) Isolated system: There is no exchange of energy or matter between the system and surroundings.
4. State functions: These do not depend upon path of a reaction but depends upon state of reaction.
Eg: Volume, Pressure, Temperature, Ethalpy, Entropy
5. Path Function: Depends upon path of a reaction. Eg: Work, Heat
6. First law of the thermodynamics : " The energy in a process may be transformed from one form into
the other but is neither created nor destroyed". (or)
" The impossibility of construction of a perpetual motion machine of first kind"
 It is also known as law of conservation of energy ΔU = Q + W
Work done on the system is positive,work done by the system is negative.
Heat absorbed by the system is positive,heat released by the system is negative
II. Applications:
7. For isothermal irreversible change w   Pex V f  Vi 

Vf
For isothermal reversible change w  2.303nRT log
Vi
For adiabatic change, q  0, U  Wad
8. Relationship between ΔU and ΔH : H  U  ng RT
9. Intensive Properties: The properties which are independent on the amount of substance are called
intensive properties. Eg: Density, Pressure, Temperature
10. Extensive Properties: The properties which are dependent on the amount of substance are called
extensive properties. Eg: Mass, volume, heat capacity, internal energy, Enthalpy
11. Heat capacity of a substance (C): Heat capacity of a substance is defined as the amount of heat
required to raise its temperature through one degree
C = q / dT; q is heat absorbed; dT rise in temperature
12. Specific Heat: It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gm of substance by 1°C
13. The relationship between Cp and Cv is CP – CV = R
CP = molar heat capacity at constant pressure
CV= molar heat capacity at constant volume
R = Universal gas constant
III. Enthaply change Δr , H of a reaction -reaction enthalpy:
14. Enthalpy of a reaction  H r  : The heat change involved in a chemical reaciton is called Enthalpy of
the reaction.
The chemical reactions which takeplace with the liberation of heat are called exothermic reactions
Eg : N 2( g )  3H 2( g )  2 NH 3( g ) ; H  92kJ
15. Standard enthalpy of formation: The amount of heat absorbed or evolved when 1 mole of a substance
is obtained from its constituent elements is called Enthalpy of formation. The elements should be in their
standard state for the formation reaction.
1
Examples : H2( g )  O2( g )  H2O(l ) ; H 0f  286 KJ / mol
2
16. Standard enthalpy of sublimation: The amount of heat required to convert one mole of a simple
substance in the solid state into the gaseous state without decomposition of the substance.
Na S   Na g  ;  sub H 0  108.4 KJ mol 1
17. The enthalpy of combustion (  c H 0 ) : The heat evolved when one mole of a substance is complety
burnt in excess of oxygen or air is called enthalpy of combustion.
C s   O2 g   CO2 g  0
H comb  393.5 KJ / mol
18. Hess law of constant heat summation: “The total heat change in a reaction is the same whether the
chemical reaction takes place in a single step or in several steps”.
Qf
 A  D
q1 q3
Q f  q1  q2  q3
q2
 B  C
IV. Enthalpies for Different types of Reactions:
19. Enthalpy of atomization: It is the enthalpy change on breaking one mole of bonds completely to
obtain neutral atoms in the gas phase.
20. Bond Enthalpy: It is the change in enthalpy when one mole of covalent bond of a gaseous covalent
compound is broken to form products in the gas phase
21. Enthaply of solution: It is the enthalpy change when one mole of substance dissolves in a specified
amount of solvent.
22. Lattice enthalpy: It is the enthalpy change when one mole of ionic compound dissociates into its
ions in gaseous state.
23. Second law of thermodynamics is stated in different forms.
(1) It is impossible to construct a machine working in cycles which transforms heat from a lower
temperature region to higher temparature region without the intervention of any external agency. Such
a machine is called perpetual motion machine of second kind ( This is not possible)
(2) All spontaneous processes are thermodynamically irreversible and entropy of the system increases
in all spontaneous processes.
Eg : All natural processes are spontaneous.
V. Spontaneity:
24. The spontaneity of a process : A process is said to be spontaneous if it occurs on its own without
the intervention of external agency of any kind.
Eg : a) Heat flows from hot end to cold end b) Water flows from higher level to lower level
25. Entropy : The thermodynamical quantity which measures “disorder” of molecules or randomness of
the system is called “Entropy”
It is a state function & extensive property
It is denoted by “S” & Change in entropy is denoted by S
Example -1: Ice  water  vapour q = Quantity of heat
S ice < S water < S vapour T = Absolute temparature
qrev H rev
S   Units of ΔS  J mol -1K -1
T T
26. Change in entropy “ S  positive” is a condition but is not necessary and sufficient condition for the
spontaneous nature of a reaction.
27. Gibbs energy : The amount of energy whcih is available to do some useful work called Gibbs
energy. Gibbs introduced another thermodynamic function which involved both enthalpy (H) and
entropy functions. This is called free energy function (G). It is given by the equation.
G  H  TS ΔG = ΔH - TΔS
G = Gibbs energy (or) Gibbs function
28. If G is negative the process is spontaneous
If G is zero, the process does not occur or the system is in equilibrium
If G is positive, the process is non spontaneous
29. Gibbs energy change and Equilibrium: G 0 is related to equilibrium constant of reaction
ΔG = ΔG 0  2.303RT logQ .
ΔG 0 = -2.303nRTlogk eq
30. The third law of thermodynamics : The entropy of a pure and perfectly crystalline substance is zero
at the absolute zero of temparature (– 2730C).
lim S = 0
T 0

7. CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM AND ACIDS & BASES
I. Equilibrium in Chemical processes-Dynamic equilibrium:
1. In a reaction the state at which the rate of forword reaction is equal to rate of backword reaction
called as Equilibrium state.
2. Equilibrium can exist in both physical prcesses and chemical reactions.
3. Equilibrium is dyanamic in nature.
4. Law of mass action :- At a given temperature the rate of chemical reaction is directly proportional to
the product of the active mass of the reactants at that instant called as Law of mass action.
II. Law of Chemical Equilibrium and Equilibrium Constant:
5. Equilibrium constant with respective concentrations of reactants and products  K c  .

aA  bB  cC  dD
c d
Kc 
C   D 
 A  B          are concentrationof reactants and products at equlibrium.
a b A , B , C , D
with respective of partial pressure of reactants and products  K p  .
PCc  PDd
Kp  P , P , P , P - Partial pressure of reactants and products at equilibrium.
PAa  PBb A B C D
6. Relation between K p and K c :-
n
K p  K c  RT 
n   No. of moles of gaseous products    No. of moles of gaseous reac tan ts 
n  0 K p  K c , n  0 K p  K c , n  0 K p  K c
7. Homogeneous Equilibrium :- In this equilibrium system all the reactants and products are in the
same phase (physical state) called as Homogeneous Equilibrium.
Examples:-
N 2  3 H 2  2 NH 3
g  g  g 
8. Heterogeneous Equilibrium :- In this equilibrium system reactants and products are in more than
one phase called as Heterogeneous Equilibrium.
Example:- CaCO3  CaO CO2

 s s   s
9. The realtion between standard Gibb’s energy  G  and equilibrium constant (K)
G   RTl n k K  e G  / RT
II. Factors effecting the equilibrium:
10. Le Chatelier’s principle: - “If a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in concentration,
temperature or pressure then the equilibrium will shift in that direction to nullify the effect of change”
11. With increase of concentration of reactants decreasing of concentration of products favours the forward
reaction
12. Pressure will have no effect when no.of moles of reactants is equal to no.of moles of products i.e. n  0 .
13. Increase of pressure pushes the reaction equilibrium in the direction in which there is a decrease in
the number of moles.
14. Decreaseof pressure pushes the reaction equilibrium in the direction in which there is increase in the
number of moles.
15. Decreasing the temperature favours the exothermic reaction.
16. Increasing the temperature favours the endothermic reaction.

17. Application of Le Chatelier’s Principle synthesis of Ammonia by Haber’s process :-
N2 g  3H 2 g  2 NH3 g  ; H  92kJ / mole
4 volumes 2 volumes
a) Effect of Concentration:Increase the concentration of N 2 and H 2 and decrease the concenetration
of NH 3 favours the formation of NH 3
b) Effect of Pressure:- High pressure favours the reactions towards lesser volume side. Hence
high pressure are required for the more yield of NH 3 . That is 200atm
c) Effect of Temperature : Formation of ammonia is Exothermic reaction.
Low temperatures favours exothermic reactions. Hence low temperatures are required. But at low
temperature the reaction is slow. Therefore optimum temperature
(725 K–775K) is used in Haber’s process.
d) Effect of Catalyst : To speed up the reaction, finely divided iron is used as catalyst.
To increase the activity of the catalyst molybdenum or a mixture of oxides of K and Al is used as
promoter.
18. Application of Le chatelier’s principle - synthesis of SO3 by contact process :-
2 SO2 g   O2 g   2 SO3 g  H  189 KJ / mole

;
3 volumes 2 volumes
a) Effect of concentration: If SO2 and O 2 are increased and continueous removal of SO3 the
equlibrium shifts in the forward direction.
b) Effect of pressure: The formation of SO3 is accompanied by decrease in volume. Higher the
pressure greater is the yield of SO3. But in contact process high pressures are not used because
towers used in the manufacture are corroded by the acidic SO3 at these high pressures. Therefore
optimum pressure is used 1.5 to 1.7 atm
c) Effect of Temperature : The formation of SO3 is exothermic Low temperatures are favourable
for the formation of SO3 At low temperature the reaction is too slow. Therefore an optimum temperature
673 K is used.To speed up the reaction V2O5 is used as catalyst .
III. Ionic equilibrium in Solution:
19. Arrhenius acid - base theory :-
Acid :- The substance which gives H  ion in aq solutions
Example :- HCl , H 2 SO4 , HNO3 , HClO4
20. Base :- The substance which gives hydroxyl ions OH 
Example :- NaOH , KOH , LiOH , Ca  OH  2
21. Neutralisation :- Acid and base react with each other to give salt and water.
HCl  NaOH   NaCl  H 2O
22. Bronsted - Lowry theory (proton theory) of acids and bases : -
Acid : A chemical species which shows a tendency to lose or donate a proton or protons to
other substance is called an acid. An acid is a proton donor
Example: HCl, H3PO4, CH3COOH.....etc
23. Base : A chemical species which shows a tendency to gain a proton or protons from other
substance. A base is proton acceptor. Ex : H 2 O, HSO4 , HCO 3
24. Neutralisation : The transfer of proton from acid to base is called neutralization.
Ex- :When hydrogen chloride is dissolved in water, HCl donates proton and H 2 O accepts
proton. HCl is acid and H 2 O is base.
25. Conjugate acid - base pair:
A pair of acid and base which differ in a single proton is called conjugate acid-base pair.
Species Conjugate acid Conjugate base

H 2O H 3O  OH 
NH 3 NH 4 NH 2
26. Stronger the acid its conjugated base is weak and viceversa.
27. Stronger the base its conjugated acid is weak and viceversa.
28. Lewis Acid-base theory :-
Lewis acid: A substance that can accept an electron pair from other substance to form
co-ordinate covalent bond is called Lewis acid. It is electron pair acceptor.
Type of Lewis acids:
i) Simple cations Ag  , Co 3 , Cu 2 , Fe 3 , Al3 act as Lewis acids.
ii) Compounds in which the central atom has an incomplete octet and possessing an empty
p-orbital can act as a lewis acid. Ex: BF3 , BCl 3 , AlCl 3
iii) Compounds in which the central atom has vacant d-orbitals and may expand its octet can act as
Lewis acids . Ex: SiF4 , SF4 , SnCl4 , FeCl3
iv) Molecules having multiple bonds between atoms of dissimilar electronegativities can be have
like Lewis acids. Ex: CO 2 , SO 2 , SO3 , NO 2 .
v) Elements with six electrons in the valence shell or electron sextet can act as Lewis acids.
Ex: O, S .
29. Lewis base :-A base is a substance which can donate an electron pair to other substance to
form co-ordinate covalent bond. It is electron pair donor.
Type of Lewis bases:
i) All simple anions like Cl  , OH  , CN  , F can act as Lewis bases.
ii) Molecules with one or two lone pairs on the central atom can act as Lewis bases.
Ex: H2 O, NH3 , R  OH, R  O R

iii) Molecules containing multiple bonds between similar atoms can act as Lewis bases.
Ex: C2 H 2 , C 2 H 4
30. Neutralisation : The formation of a co-ordinate covalent bond, between a base and an acid is
called neutralisation.
Ex. Formation of NH 4  ion : H  ion accepts a pair of electrons from nitrogen of NH3
and forms NH 4  ion.
31. Limitations of Lewis theory :-One of the serious defects in the theory is that it cannot explain
the strengths of acids and bases.

32. Acids like HCl, H 2SO4 react with bases such as NaOH or KOH but do not form
coordinate covalent bond.
IV. Ionization of acids and bases:
33. Ionic product of water  K w  :- The product of concentration of H  and OH  ions in water at
any temperature called as Ionic product of water.
K w   H   OH   or  H 3 O    O H 

34. At 298K  H    OH    1 107 M in water
K w  1014 M 2
35. K w dependent on temperature
36. pH :- The negative logarithm, to the base 10, of the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution is
known as the PH of the solution.
1
37. p H   log10 [H  ]; p H  log10 
; Similarly, p OH   log10 [OH  ]
[H ]
38.  H    10  PH If PH given for a solution.
OH    10 POH If POH given for a solution.
39. For a given solution at 25 0 C, p H  p OH  14

40. For acids, p H  7 a n d p O H  7
41. For bases, pH  7 and pOH  7
42. For neutral solutions pH  pOH  7
43. As the pH increases, the acidic nature of a solution decreases and basic nature increases, as
temperature increases, pH of water decreases, although it is neutral.
44. Relation between K a and K b :-
K a  Kb  K w
K a = Ionisation constant of weak acid K a  strength of acid
K b = Ionisation constant of weak base K b  strength of base
45. PK a  PK b  PK w  14
46. Common Ion Effect :- Shift in equilibrium on adding a substance that provides more of an ionic
species already present in the dissociation equilibrium.
(or)
The ionisation of weak electrolyte decreases by adding of strong electrolyte. Which has common
ion with weak electtolyte called as Common Ion Effect .
Example :- Ionisation of CH 3COOH decreased by adding of CH 3COONa
47. Salt Hydrolysis :- The interaction of cation (or) anion (or) both of salt with water called as
Salt Hydrolysis.
48. Salt of strong acid and strong base do not hydrolysed and the solution is neutral. PH = 7.
Example :- NaCl , Na2 SO4 , NaNO3
49. Salt of strong acid and weak base undergo cationic hydrolysis and the solution is acidic. PH < 7
Example :- NH 4Cl ,  NH 4  2 SO4
50. Salt of stong base and weak acid undergo anionic hydrolysis and the solution is basic. PH > 7
Example:- Na2 CO3 , NaCN , K 2 CO3
51. Salt of weak acid and weak base undergo both cationic and anionic hydrolysis
Example:- CH 3COONH 4 ,  NH 4  2 CO3
1
52. pH of weak acid and weak base salt  7   PK a  PKb 
2
V. Buffer Solution:
The solution which can resists change in its P H value on dilution or on addition of small amount of
strong acid or strong base. Is known as buffer solution.
53. Types of Buffer solution: There are two types of buffer solutions.
i) Acidic buffer solution ii) Basic buffer solutions
54. Acidic Buffer solution : An acid buffer consists of a weak acid and its salt with a strong base
Ex: CH3 COOH  CH 3 COONa
55. Basic buffer solution : A basic buffer consists of a mixture of a weak base and its salt with a strong
acid
Ex: NH 4 OH  NH 4 Cl
[Salt]
56. Henderson’s equation for Acidic buffer solution is :- pH  pK a  log
[Acid]
 salt 
57. Henderson’s equation for Basic buffer solution is :- POH  PK b  log base
 
58. Buffer Capacity :- The number of moles of strong acid or strong base add to 1L of buffer solu
tion to change it’s pH by one unit called as Buffer Capacity..
No.of moles of strong acid (or)strongbase
Buffer Capacity = add to1L of buffer solution
Change in PH of buffer solution
59. Solubility product  K SP  :- The product of concentration of oppositly charged ions of an

electrolyte in a saturated solution called as Solubility product.
For a given electrolyte M x X y
Mx Xy x M y   yX x 
x y
K sp   M y    X x  
K sp  x x  y y S x  y
S = solubility
8. HYDROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS
I. Position of Hydrogen in The Periodic Table:
1. Hydrogen is the first element in the periodictable
2. Hydrogen has the electronic configuration 1s1 .
II. DIHYDROGEN :
3. Dihydrogen isthe most abundant element in the universe.
4. Isotopes of Hydrogen: Hydrogen has three isotopes: protium, ,deuterium, and tritium

5. These isotopes differ from one another in respect of the presence of neutrons .
6. Ordinary hydrogen, protium has no neutrons, deuterium ( also known as heavy hydrogen) has
one and tritium has two neutrons in their nuclei respectively.
III. Preparation of Dihydrogen:
7. Laboratory preparation of Dihydrogen :It is usually prepared by the reaction of granulated
zinc with dilute acids.
 2
Zn  2 H  Zn H
2
8. It can also be prepared by thereaction of zinc with aqueous alkali.
Zn  2 NaOH  Na2 ZnO2  H 2
Sodium zincate
9. Commercial production of Dihydrogen:Electrolysis of acidified or alkaline water using
platinum electrodes gives hydrogen.
acid / base
2 H 2O ( )  2 H 2 ( g )  O2 ( g )
10. High purity (>99. 95%) dihydrogen is obtained by electrolysing warm aqueous
barium hydroxide solution between nickel electrodes.
11. Reaction of steam on hydrocarbons or coke at high temperatures in the presence of a
catalyst yields hydrogen.
1270 K / Ni
Cn H 2n 2  nH 2 O  nCO  (2n  1) H 2
12. The mixture of CO and H 2 is called water gas. It is also called synthesis gas or syngas.
IV. PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN:
13. Physical properties: Dihydrogen is a colourless, odourless,tasteless, combustible gas.
14. It is lighter than air and is insoluble in water.
15. Chemical properties:
i) Reaction with Halogens: It reacts with halogens’ X 2 ’to give hydrogen halides, HX,
H 2 (g)  X 2 ( g )  2 HX ( g )[X  F , Cl , Br , I ]
The reaction with fluorine occurs even in the dark, with iodine it requires a catalyst.
ii) Reaction with Dioxygen :
It reacts with oxygen to form water.The reaction is highly exothermic.
catalyst or heating 1
2 H 2 (g)  O2 ( g )  2 H 2O (l ); H  285.9 kJ mol
iii) Reaction with Nitrogen: With Nitrogen it forms ammonia.
 2 NH 3 ( g ); H  92.6kJ mol 1
673K ,200 atm / Fe
3H 2 ( g )  N 2 ( g ) 
iv) Reactions with metals:
With highly reactive metals it combines, at a high temperature, to yield the corresponding
hydrides.
v) Reactions with metal ions and metal oxides:
It reduces some metal ions in aqueous solution and oxides of metals (less active than iron) into
corresponding metals.
2 
H 2 ( g )  Pd (aq)  Pd ( s )  2 H (aq);
H 2 ( g )  CuO (s)  Cu ( s )  H 2 O(g);

vi) Reactions with organic compounds:
a) Hydrogenation of vegetable oils using nickelas catalyst gives edible fats ( margarine and
vanaspati)
b) Hydroformylation of olefins yields aldehydes which further undergo reduction to give alcohols.
H 2  CO  RCH  CH 2  RCH 2CH 2CHO
H 2  RCH 2 CH 2 CHO  RCH 2CH 2CH 2 OH

16. Uses of Dihydrogen:
i) It is used in the manufacture of methanol,ammonia.
ii) It is widely used for the manufacture of metal hydrides.
V. Hydrides of Hydrogen :
17. Dihydrogen combines with all elements,except noble gases, to form binary compounds, called hydrides.
18. If ‘E’is the symbol of an element then hydride can be expressed as EH x  e.g .MgH 2  or
Em H n  e.g.B2 H 6  .
The hydrides are classiifed into three categories.
i) Ionic or saline or saltlike hydrides.
ii)Covalent or molecular hydrides.
iii)Metallic or non-stiochiometric hydrides.
19. Ionic or saline hydrides:
i) These are stiochiometric compounds of dihydrogen formed with s-block elements
ii) The ionic hydrides are crystalline, non-volatile and non-conducting in solid state.
iii) Saline hydrides react violently with waterproducing dihydrogen gas
NaH ( s )  H 2 O ( aq )  NaOH (aq )  H 2 ( g )
iv) Lithium hydrideis rather unreactive.
20. Covalentor Molecular Hydride:
i) Dihydrogen forms molecular compounds with p-block elements.examples : CH 4 , NH 3 , H 2O and
HF.
ii) Being covalent, they are volatilecompounds. Molecular hydrides are further classified into.
a) Electron-deficient, b) Electron-precise,and c) Electron-rich hydrides.
a) An electron- deficient hydride,has too few electrons for writing its conventional
Lewis structure.example Diborane  B2 H 6  , elements of group 13
They act as Lewis acids i.e.,electron acceptors.
b) Electron -precise compounds have the required number of electrons to write their conventional
Lewis structures.Example: Group 14 compounds  e.g .. CH 4 
c) Electron rich hydrides have excess electrons which are present as lone pairs.
(ii)Elements of group 15-17 form such compounds.
(iii) They will behave as Lewis bases i.e., electron donors.
21. Metallic or non-stoichiometric (or interstitial)hydrides:
i) These are formed by d-block and f-block elements.
example LaH 2.87 , YbH 2.55 , TiH1.51.8 , ZrH1.31.75 ,
ii) In such hydrides, the law of constant composition does not hold good.
VI. WATER:
22. Physical properties:
i) It is a colourless and tasteless liquid.

ii) Water has high freezing point,high boiling point high heat of vapourisation due to the hydrogen
bonding.
iii) Water has higher specific heat, thermal conductivity, surface tension,dipole moment and
dielectric constant.
23. Structure of water:
i) In the gas phase water is a bent molecule with a bond angle of 104.50 ,
ii) It is a polar molecule.
iii) The crystalline form of water is ice. At atmosphere pressure ice crystallises in the hexagonal
form, but at very low temperaturees it condenses to cubic form.
24. Structure of Ice:
i) Ice has a highly orderd three dimensionalhydrogen bonded structure.
ii) In ice each oxygen atom is surrounded tetrahedrally by four other oxygen atoms
25. Chemical properties of water:
i) Amphoteric nature:It has the ability to act as an acid as well as a base i.e.,it behaves as an
amphoteric substance.
In the Bronsted sense it acts as an acid with NH 3 and a base with H 2 S .
 
H 2 O()  NH 3 ( aq ) OH (aq )  NH 4 ( aq )
 
H 2 O()  H 2 S(aq ) H 3 O ( aq )  HS ( aq )
ii) Hydrolysis reaction: Due to high dielectric constant,it has a very strong hydrating tendency.
It dissolves many ionic
compounds.
iii) Hydrates formation:
From aqueous solutions many salts can be crystallised as hydrated salts.
e.g., BaCl2 .2 H 2O, Cu  H 2O 4  SO4 .H 2O in CuSO4 .5H 2O
26. Hard and soft water:Hard water does not give lather readily with soap. Presence of calcium and
magne sium salts in the form of hydrogencarbonate, chloride and sulphate in water makes water
‘hard’.
Water free from soluble salts of calcium and magnesium is called Soft water.
27. Temporary hardness:
Temporary hardness is due to the presence of magnesium and calcium hydrogen-carbonates. It can
be removed by i) Boiling. ii) Clark’s method:
28. Permanent hardness:
It is due to the presence of soluble salts of magnesium and calcium in the form of chlorides and
sulphates in water. It can be removed by the following methods:
i) Treatment with washing soda(sodium carbonate):
ii) Calgon method:Sodium hexametaphosphate  Na6 P6O18  is known as calgon.
iii) Ion-exchange method:
iv) Synthetic resins method:
VII. Hydrogen Peroxide( H 2 O2 ):Preparation:
29. When barium peroxide solution is treated with dilute . H 2 SO4 under reduced pressure,
excess water can be evaporated H 2O2 is produced
BaO .8H O  H SO  BaSO  H O  8H O
2 2 2 4 4 2 2 2

30. From auto Oxidation method :- H 2 O2 is prepared by auto oxidation of 2-alkylanthraquinol.
This oxidises in atmospheric air to give 2-alkyl anthraquinone and H 2 O2
O  air 

2
  2-alkylanthraquinone +
2-alkylanthraquinol 
H / Pd
 H 2O2
2
31. Preparation of D 2 O 2 :
K 2 S 2O8 is treated with heavy water to prepare D2 O2 .
K 2 S2O  2 D2O  2 KDSO  D2 O
8( S ) (l ) 4(aq ) 2(l )
32. Oxidising properties :
i) H 2 O2 oxidizes black lead sulphide to white lead sulphate
PbS  4 H O  PbSO  4 H O
2 2 4 2
ii) In alkaline medium H 2O2 oxidises the Mn 2 to Mn 4
Mn2  2OH   H O  Mn 4  2 H O
2 2 2
33. Reducing properties:
i) Hypochlorous acid is reduced to Cl  ion
HOCl  H O  H O   Cl   O
2 2 3 2
ii) In presence of base I 2 is reduced to  I   iodide ion
I  H O  2OH   2 I   2 H O  O
2 2 2 2 2
34. Uses of Hydrogen as a fuel:
i) Hydrogen releases large quantity of heat energy on combustion.
ii) Pollutants in combustion of hydrogen will be less.
iii) Atomic hydrogen and oxy hydrogen torches are used for welding and cutting the metals
iv) Hydrogen is used as a rocket fuel
v) Hydrogen is used in fuel cells for generating electrical energy
vi) Hydrogen economy: The basic principle of hydrogen economy is the transportaion and storage
of energy in the form of liquid or gaseous dihydrogen.
35. Uses of D2O .
i) It is used as a moderator in nuclear reactor
ii) It is used in exchage reaction for the study of reaction mechanism.
9. S- BLOCK ELEMENTS
1. Elements in which differentiating electron is present in s-orbital are called as s-block elements.
2. s-blcok elements consist 2 groups they are IA group elements and IIA group elements.
3. General electronic configration of s-block elements is ns1to 2
Group IA elements

I. Alkali metals:
4. Lithium  Li  , Sodium  Na  , Potassium  K  , Rubidium  Rb  , Caesium  Cs  and Francium (Fr)
are belongs to IA group elements.
5. The oxides of IA group elements forms hydroxides when they reacts with water which are strongly
alkaline in nature hence these are also called as Alkalimetals.
6. General electronic configuration of IA group elements is ns1
7. These are most electropositive due to loosely held s  electron in the outermost valence shell.
8. These are readily loose electron to give monovalent  M   ions.
9. IA group elements are not found in free state due to more reactivity.
10. In the periodic table the largest size elements are IA group elements.
11. The monovalent ions  M   are smaller than the parent atom.
12. Down the group the atomic and ionic radii of alkali metals increases.
13. Alkali metals are having low ionisation potential.
14. Down the group the ionisation potential decreases due to increases of atomic size, and decreases of
nuclear charge.
15. In Alkali metals the outer most electron is very well screened from the nuclear charge.
16. Down the group hydration enthalpies decreases.
17. i) Order of hydration enthalpy : Li   Na   K   Rb   Cs 
ii) Order of MP and BP Li  Na  K  Rb  Cs
18. The MP and BP of the alkali metals are low due to weak metallic bonding.
19. Lithium has maximum degree of hydration due to this reason lithium salts are mostly hydrated e.g.
LiCl.2 H 2O
20. All the alkali metals are silvery white, soft and light metals.
21. These are having low density due to large size.
22. Order of density Li  K  Na  Rb  Cs
23. The abnormal density of potassium is due to abnormal increase in atomic size.
24. The alkali metals and their salts shows characterstics colour to an oxidising flame.
Li  Crimson red Na  Yellow K  Violet Rb  Red violet Cs  Blue
25. Caesium and potassium are used as electrodes in photoelectric cells.
26. The reactivity of these metals increases down the group. Due to high reactivity these are not found in
free state.
27. The alkali metal oxides forms hydroxides when they reacts with moisture.
28. Lithium forms only monoxides.
29. Sodium forms monoxides in limited supply of oxygen and peroxide in excess of oxygen.
30. K, Rb, Cs forms super oxides  O2 
31. In all these oxides the oxidation state of the alkali metal is +1.
32. Only Lithium directly reacts with Nitrogen of air to form the Nitride. 6 Li  N 2  2 Li3 N
N
33. Because of high reactivity towards air and water alkali metals are normally kept in kerosene oil.
34. The alkali metals react with water to form hydroxides and dihydrogen.
2M  2 H 2O  2 MOH  H 2 ( M = An alkali metal)
35. Lithium reacts with water less vigorously than the sodium even though it has high negative E 0 value
compare to sodium due to its small size and high hydration energy.
36. Except Lithium the other metals of IA group elements react explosively with water.
37. Alkali metals reacts with proton donors such as alcohol, Gaseous NH 3 and 1 alkynes.
38. All the alkali metal hydrides are ionic solids with high melting point.
39. Li halides are covalent due to high polarisation capacity of Li  ion.
40. Lithium has most reducing nature Na has the least reducing nature.
41. The alkali metals dissolve in liquid ammonia give deep blue solution.
 
M   x  y  NH 3   M  NH 3  x    e  NH 3  y 
 
The solutions are paramagnetic.
42. Uses of Alkali metals :
i) Lithium is used to make alloys Ex : White metal ( Li  Pb )
ii) Li, is used to make electro chemical cells.
iii) Sodium is used to make a Na / Pb alloy..
iv) Liquid sodium metal is used as a coolant in fast breader nuclear reactors.
v) K is used in fertilizers, manufacture of soft soaps and it is good absorber of CO2
II. General Characteristics of the compounds of the Alkali Metals:

43. Oxides and hydroxides :
i) Oxides and Peroxides are colourless when pure but superoxides are yellow or orange.
ii) When oxides of IA group elements reacts with water forms hydroxides.
44. Halides :
i) All halides having negative enthalpies of formation.
ii) The MP and BP order : Fluorides > Chlorides > Bromides > Iodides
iii) All these halides are soluble in water.
iv) LiCl is soluble in pyridine also.
45. Salts of oxoacids :
i)Carbonates and bicarbonates are stable to heat and soluble in water.
ii) Down the group the stability of carbonates and bicarbonates increases.
iii) Lithium bicarbonates does not exist as a solid.
46. Anamolous behaviour of Li :
i) It is due to small size, high polarising power.
ii) Li is hard metal, least reactive and forms hydrated salts.
iii) LiHCO3 is not obtained in the solid state but all other forms solid bicarbonates.
iv) Unlike other alkalimetals Li forms no ethynide on reaction with ethyne.
v) Lithium nitrate when heated forms lithium oxide where as other decomposes to give corresponding
nitrite.
vi) Li compounds are less soluble in water.
47. Diagonal relationship between Li and Mg :
i) Due to similar sizes Li and Mg shows similar properties.
ii) Both are harder and lighter than other element in the respective groups.
iii) Li and Mg reacts slowly with water.
iv) Both form Nitrides by direct combination with nitrogen.
v) The carbonates of Li and Mg decompose on heating to form the oxides and CO2
vi) Both LiCl and MgCl2 are soluble in ethanol.
vii) Both forms hydrated salts LiCl.2 H 2O and MgCl2 .6H 2O
III. Some Important Compounds of Sodium:
48. Sodium hydroxide (Caustic soda), NaOH :
i) NaOH is commercially prepared by Castner Kellner process.
Anode : Carbon Cathode : Mercury
Electrolyte : Brine solution (10 % NaCl solution)
At cathode : N a   e   Hg
 N aH g (sodium amalgam)
 1 
Anode : Cl  Cl2  e
2
2 NaHg  2 H 2 O  2 NaOH  2 Hg  H 2
49. Uses of NaOH :
i) It is used in manufacture of soap, paper, artificial silk and chemicals.
ii) In petrolium refining, purification of bauxite.
iii) In textile industries for Mercirising cotton fabrics. Preparation of pure fats and oils.
iv) Act as a laboratory reagent.
50. Sodium bicarbonate  NaHCO3  :
Na2CO3  H 2 O  CO2  2 NaHCO3
i) It is mild antiseptic for skin infections.
ii) Used in fire extinguishers.
51. Sodium Carbonate (Washing Soda), Na2CO3 .10 H 2O :
i) Prepared by Solvay process.
ii) Chemicals required: NH 3 , H 2O, CO2 , NaCl
2NH 3  H 2O  CO2   NH 4 2 CO3

 NH 4 2 CO3  H 2O  CO2  2 NH 4 HCO3
NH 4 HCO3  NaCl  NH 4 Cl  NaHCO3

2NaHCO3   Na2CO3  CO2  H 2O
52. Properties of Sodium Carbonate :
i) On heating the decahydrate loses its water to form monohydrate. Above 373 K becomes completely
anhydrous and forms soda ash. (anhydrous)
373 K
Na2 CO3 .10 H 2O   Na2 CO3 .H 2O  9 H 2O
373 K
Na2CO3 .H 2O   Na2CO3  H 2O
53. Uses of Na2 CO3 :
i) It is used in water softening, cleaning and laundries.
ii) It is used in paper, paints, textile industries.
iii) It is used in the manufacure of glass, soap, borax and NaOH.
iv) It is an important Laboratory reagent.
54. Biological importance of sodium and potassium :
i) Na  ions and K  ions participate in the transmission of nerve signals.
ii) Na  ions regulates the flow of water across cell membranes.
iii) Na  ions responsible for transport of sugars and amino acids into cells.
iv) K  ions are useful in activating enzymes.
v) K  ions participate in the oxidation of glucose to produce ATP..
IIA GROUP ELEMENTS
I. Alkaline Earth Metals:
1. M g , C a , Sr , B a , R a elements are called alkaline earth metals (except Be)
2. These elements react with water to form oxides & hydroxides. They are basic(alkali)
in nature. There fore they are called alkaline earth metals
3. Fifth most abundant element in earth crust is ............................ans:Calcium
4. Sixth most abundant element in the earth crust is .................ans:magnesium
5. General electronic configuration of alkaline earthmetals is ns 2
6. All the alkaline earth metal compounds are ionic except ' Be ' compounds
7. In group atomic and ionic radii increases with increase in atomic number
8. alkaline earth metals are high ionisation enthalpies in comparision to
alkalimetals due to small size of atoms
9. Order of hydration enthalpy of IIA group elements : Be2  Mg 2  Ca2  Sr 2  Ba2
10. Hydration enthalpies of alkaline earthmetal ions are larger than those of alkali metal ions
11. alkaline earth metals are more hydrated than alkali metals. Ex: MgCl2 Hydrated as,
MgCl2 .6 H 2O , CaCl2 hydrated as CaCl2 .2 H 2O
12. Alkaline earth metals are silvery white, lustrous and soft metals
13. The colour of beryllium and magnesium ..................ans:greyish
14. alkalineearth metals are hard. therefore they are having high Melting point and Boiling point
15. Alkaline earth metals are highly electro positive due to ................ans:low ionisation enthalphy

16. In group electropositive character from Be to Ba ................ans:increase
17 Flame Test:Ca gives Brick Red, Sr gives Crimson Red and Ba gives Apple Green colours
18. Alkaline earth metals are high electrical and thermal conductivities
19. In group from top to bottom reactivity increases
20. Be, Mg do not react with oxygen and water due to formation of oxide layer on the surface of
Be and Mg
21. Powdered Be burns with air to give BeO and Be3 N 2
22. Powdered Mg burns with dazzling brilliance in air to give MgO & Mg3 N 2
23. Ca, Sr, Ba directly react with air to form their oxides & nitrides
24. BeF2 can be prepared by thermal decomposition of  NH 4  2 BeF4
25. Alkaline earth metals react with acids liberates dihydrogen gas
26. Alkaline earth metals are strong reducing agents due to their large negative E 0 values
27. ‘Be” has less negative E 0 value even it act as reducing agent because it has large hydration
enthalpy and small size and large atomisation enthalpy
28. alkaline earth metal dissolved in liquid ammonia to give deep blue black solution due to
ammoniated electron
29 Uses of Be-alloys
a) Cu  Be alloy used in prepartion of high strength springs
b) Metallic beryllium is used in making the windows of x-ray tubes
c) Mg  Al - alloy is used in air crafts construction
30. A suspension of Mg  OH  2 solution in water is called milk of magnesia it is used as Antacid
31 ............used as a Ingradiant in tooth paste ans: MgCO3
32 ............used in extraction of metal from their oxides ans: Calcium
33 ............metals are used to remove air from vaccum tubes ans: Calcium and Barium
34 ........... metal is used in treatment of cancer and radiotherapy ans: Radium
35. Alkaline earth metals are ionic due to increase nuclear charge, and smaller size
36. Beryllium oxide (BeO), Beryllium hydroxides  Be  OH  2  are amphoteric
37. All alkaline earthmetal oxides are hydroxides are basic Except Be: Ex: CaO, MgO
38. The solubility, thermal stability and basic nature of alkaline earth metal hydroxides increases with
increasing atomic number from Mg  OH  2 to Ba  OH  2
39. BeCl2 is polymeric chain structure in solid state
40. BeCl2 is chloro bridged dimer  Be2Cl4  in vapour state it dissociate into linear monomer at 1200K
41. Alkaline earth metal halides forms hydrates like
MgCl2 .8 H 2O , CaCl2 .6 H 2O , SrCl2 .6 H 2O , BeCl2 .2 H 2O
42. The solubility of alkaline earthmetal carbonate decreases with increasing atomic numbers of
element
43. Order of solubility of alkaline earth metal carbonates :
BeCO3  MgCO3  CaCO3  SrCO3  BaCO3
44. Order of solubility of alkaline earth metal sulphates :
BeSO4  MgSO4  CaSO4  SrSO4  BaSO4
45. BeSO4 , MgSO4 are highly soluble in water due to greater hydration enthalpy than the lattice
enthalpy
NARAYANA
N
GROUP Page.No.[98]
46. All the Alkaline earth metal nitrates decomposes on heating to give the respective oxides
47. ‘Be’ shows diagonal relation ship with ‘ Al ’
48. Beryllium forms covalent compounds due to small size and high ionisation enthalpy
49. Beryllium coordination number is only four remaining elements have coordination number is six by
using d-orbitals
2
50. Be  OH  2 dissolve in excess alkali to give beryllate ion  Be  OH  4 
51. Be, and Al having strong tendency to form complexes like BeF42 , AlF63
II. Some Important of Compounds of Calcium:
52. Lime stone on heating to high temperature ( 1070-1270 K) to form quick lime  CaO 
53. Quick lime exposed to atmosphere, it absorbs moisture and carbondioxide to form
Ca  OH  2 and CaCO3
54. Limited amount of water is added to quick lime (CaO) it breaks lump of lime. This process is
called slaking of lime
55. Mixture of NaOH and CaO is called sodalime
56. The aqueous solution of Ca  OH  2 is called lime water
57. A suspension (thick solution) of Ca  OH  2 is called milk of lime

58. When CO2 gas passed through lime water it turns milky(white) precipitate ( CaCO3 ) is formed
59. If we passing excess CO2 through lime water it forms calcium hydrogen carbonate
Ca  HCO3 2 
60. Milk of lime react with chlorine to form bleaching powder Ca  OH  2  Cl2  CaOCl2  H 2O
61. Slaked lime used as white wash and used in glass making, in tanning industry and preparation of
bleaching powder and purification of sugar
62. Calcium carbonate react with acids  HCl , H 2 SO4  to liberates CO2 gas
63. CaCO3 is used in building material, along with MgCO3 is used as a flux in the extraction of iron.
1
64. Hemi hydrate of calcium sulphate is called plaster of paris( CaSO4 . H 2O )
2
65. Plaster of paris is obtained from heating of gypsum  CaSO4 .2 H 2O  at 393 K
66. Anhydrous calcium sulpahte  CaSO4  is called ............. ans: dead burnt plaster
67. Plaster of paris is used in bonefracture or sprain and also used in dentistry, in ornamental
work and for making casts of statues
68. Composition in Portland cement
CaO  50  60% SiO2  20  25% Al2O3  5  10%
MgO  2  3% Fe2O3  1  2% SO3  1  2%
69. For good quality cement the ratio of silica  SiO2  to alumina  Al2O3  in between 2.5 and 4
70. For good quality cement the ratio lime (CaO) to the total of the oxides of silicon  SiO2  ,
aluminium  Al2O3  and iron  Fe2O3  should be closed to 2

71. In the manufacture of cement 2-3 % gypsum  CaSO4 .2 H 2O  is added
72. The purpose of adding gypsum to the cement is only to slowdown the process of setting of the
cement so that it gets sufficiently hardened
III. Biological Importance of Magnesium and Calcium:
73. All enzymes that utilize ATP in phosphate transfer require magnesium as the co-factor
74. The main pigment in chlorophyll-II is magnesium it absorbs light in plants
75. Human body contains 99% of calcium present in bones and teeths
76. Calcium play an important role in neuro muscular function, inter neutral transmission, cell
membrane integritys and blood coagulation
77. Calcium maintained by two harmones : calcitonin, parathyroid
10. THE P-BLOCK ELEMENTS – GROUP 13
I. Boran Family:
1. Boric acid - H 3 BO3
2. Borax - Na2 B4O7 10 H 2O
3. Colemanite - Ca2 B6O11 5H 2O
4. The general electronic configuration of IIIA group elements is ns2np1
5. Inert pair effect: The reluctance of ns2 electrons to take part in bond formation is known as
inert pair effect.
Due to inert pair effect Tl shows stable +1 oxidation state
6. The common oxidation number of IIIA group elements is +3. From B to Tl stability of +3
oxidation number gradually decreases.
7. AlCl3 exist as a dimer  Al2Cl6 
8. Aluminium shows amphoteric character due to dissolve in mineral acids and aqeous alkalies.
9. Aluminium passive with conc.HNO3 by forming a protective oxide layer on the surface.
II. Some Important compounds of Boran:
10. Compounds in which the central atom does not have eight electrons in the valence shell are
called electron deficient molecules. Eg : BF3 , BCl3 , B2 H 6 etc…
11. Borax bead test : On heating, borax first loses water molecules and swells up on further
heating it turns into a transparent liquid, which modifies into glass like material known as
borax bead.
Δ Δ
Na2B4O7 .10H2O   Na2B4O7   2NaBO2 + BO 2 3
Borax Sodium metaborate Boric anlhydride
12. The metaborates of many transition elements have characteristic colours and, therefore, borax
bead test can be used to identify them in the laboratory.
13. B2O3 reacts with CoO and forms blue coloured meta borate, its formula is Co  BO2 2 
B2O3 + CoO  Co  BO2 2
14. Ortho boric acid - H 3 BO3 or B  OH 3

15. Boric acid is a weak mono basic acid.
16. Boric acid has a layer structure in which planar BO3 units are joined by hydrogen bonds.
17. On heating orthoboric acid above 370K forms metaboric acid and finally gives boric oxide.
Δ Δ
H 3 BO 3   HBO 2   B 2O 3

18. Diborane - B2 H 6
Preparation of Diborane :
19. BF3 reacts with LiAlH 4 to form Diborane in presence of diethyl ether
4BF3 + 3LiAlH 4  2B 2 H 6 + 3LiF + 3AlF3
20. Sodium borohydride  NaBH 4  reacts with Iodine to form Diborane by the oxidation.
2NaBH4  I2  B2 H6  2NaI  H2
21. BF3 reacts with NaH to form Diborane.
450K
2BF3 + 6NaH   B 2 H 6 + 6NaF
22. Diborane is a colourless, highly toxic gas
23. Diborane reacts with water to give Boric acid.
B2H 6 + 6H 2O  2B  OH  3 + 6H 2
24. Diborane reacts with carbon monoxide to give Boron carbonyl.
B 2 H 6 + 2CO  2BH 3 .CO
25. Diborane reacts with trimethyl ammine to give Borazine adduct.
B 2 H 6 + 2NMe 3  2BH 3 .NMe 3
26. Diborane reacts with ammonia at 1200C, diammoniate of diborane is formed. This on again
heating at 2000 C gives borazole

B 2H 6 + 2NH 3   B 2H 6 .2NH 3

3B 2H 6 + 2NH 3   2B 3N 3H 6 + 12H 2
27. Formula of borazine is B 3 N 3 H 6 .
28. Borazine is also is known as Borazole (or) Inorganic benzene
29. In B3 N 3 H 6 , each boron and nitrogen undergoes sp 2 hybridization.
30. Borazine on strong heating gives boron nitride  BN  n  .

31. In diborane each boron atom undergoes SP3 Hybridisation.
32. Diborane contains 4 terminal Hydrogens atom and 2 bridged Hydrogen atoms
33. Boron atoms in diborane bonded to 4 terminal Hydrogens through  sp 3  s bonds are called two
centered two electron bonds.
34. B-H-B bond is formed by the overlapping of sp 3 hybrid orbital with one electron from one boron
atom, 1S orbital of hydrogen atom and vacant sp 3 hybrid orbital of another boron atom
35. Three centred two electron bond is known as banana bond or tau bond.
36. In B2 H 6 four terminal hydrogen atoms and the two boron atoms lie in one plane. Remaining two
hydrogens, one is above and another one is below the plane.
37. LiBH 4 and NaBH 4 are used as reducing agents in organic synthesis.
38. Aluminium forms alloys with Cu, Mn, Mg, Si and Zn. These are used in utensil making, aeroplane
and transportation industry.

11. THE P-BLOCK ELEMENTS – GROUP 14
I. Carbon Family:
1. IV-A group elements are C, Si, Ge, Sn and Pb.
2. IV-A group elements are also known as Chalcogens.
3. The general outer most electronic configuration of these elements is ns2np2.
4. The 17th most abundant element by mass in the earth crust is Carbon.
5. The mineral of Tin is Cassiterite(SnO2).
6. The mineral of Lead is Galena(PbS) and Cerrusite(PbCO3).
7. The order of covalent radius of these elements - C < Si < Ge < Sn < Pb.
8. The order of electronegativity of these elements - C > Pb > Ge > Sn> Si.
9. The order of metallic nature of these elements - C < Si < Ge < Sn < Pb.
10. The order of ionization potential of these elements - C > Si > Ge > Pb > Sn.
11. The order of melting point of these elements - C > Si > Ge > Pb > Sn.
12. The order of boiling point of these elements - C > Si > Ge > Sn > Pb.
13. The order of density of these elements - Pb > Sn > Ge > C > Si.
14. The common oxidation states of IV-A group elements +2 and +4.
15. In Lead element Pb+2 is more stable than Pb+4 due to inert pair effect.
16. In Germanium element Ge+4 is more stable than Ge+2.
17. The element carbon forms neutral mono oxide CO and acidic di oxide CO2.
18. The order of acidic nature of IV-A group dioxides is CO2  SiO2  GeO2  SnO2  PbO2 .
19. Reactivity towards water:Carbon silicon and germanium are not affected by water.
Tin decomposes steam to form dioxide and dihydrogen gas.

Sn  2 H 2O   SnO2  2 H 2
20. The order of thermal stability of IV-A group hydrides is CH 4  SiH 4  GeH 4  SnH 4  PbH 4 .
21. The order of thermal stability of tetrahalides of carbon is CF4  CCl4  CBr4  CI 4 .
22. The reason for CCl4 does not undergoes hydrolysis due to absence of vacant d-orbitals in Carbon.
23. The reason for SiCl4 undergoes hydrolysis due to the presence of vacant d-orbitals in Silicon.
24. Silicic acid is formed by the hydrolysis of SiCl4
S i C l 4  4 H 2 O  H 4 S iO 4  4 H C l
S i lic ic a c i d
25. The tetrahalides of Si, Ge, Sn and Pb acts as lewis acids.

26. The CCl4 does not acts as lewis acid due to the absence of vacant d-orbitals in Carbon.
27. PbI 4 dose not exist due to inert pair effect.
2 2 2
28. The hybridizaiton of central atom in  SiF6  , GeCl6  and  Sn  OH 6  is sp3d2.
29. The reason for anamalous behaviour of carbon due to small size, high EN, High IP and absence
of vacant d-bitals.
30. Catenation: Self linkage of identical atoms to form long chains or branches or rings is called Catena-
tion.
31. The order of Catenation capacity in IV-A group elements is C  Si  Ge  Sn (except Pb)
32. Allotropy: Existence of an element in two or more physical forms having similar chemical properties
but different physical properties is called allotropy.
33. Carbon shows crystalline and Amorphous types of allotropic forms.
34. The crystalline allotropic forms of carbon are Diamond, Graphite, Fullerene, etc.,
35. The amorphous allotropic forms of carbon are Coke, Charcoal, Wood charcoal, animal charcoal, lamp
black, carbon black etc.,

3
36. The hybridization of carbon atom in Diamond is sp .
37. The hybridization of carbon atom in Graphite and Fullerene is sp2.
38. The C-C bond length in Diamond is 1.54A0 & bond angle is 1090 28` .
39. The C-C bond length in Graphite is 1.42A0 & bond angle is 120 0 .
40. In Fullerene the minimum number of carbon atoms present is 60 that is C60(Buckminster Fullerene)
II. Some Important compounds of Carbon and Silicon:
41. Water gas: It is formed by passing steam over red hot coke.
473 1273 K
C s   H 2 O g    CO g   H 2 g 
42. The water gas is also called blue gas or syn gas.
43. Producer gas: It is formed by passing air over red hot coke.
1273 K
2C s   O2 g   4 N 2 g    2CO g   N 2 g 
44. Carboxyhaemoglobin: It is formed by combining CO with haemoglobin.
45. The crystalline allotropic forms of Silica (SiO2) are Quartz, Tridymite, Cristobalite.
46. The amorphous allotropic forms of Silica (SiO2) are Agate, Jasper, Oonyx.
47. The purest form of Silica is Quartz.
48. The crushed form of Quartz is Sand.
49. The mixture of amorphous silica and quartz is called Flint.
50. The silica is covalent, three dimensional network solid.
51. Silica on reaction with carbon forms Carborundum(SiC).
SiO2  3C  SiC  2CO
52. Silicones: - These are organo silicon polymers containing Si-O-Si bonds.
53. The hydrolysis of RSiCl3 gives crosslinked silicones.
54. Silicates: The metal derivatives of Silicic acid(H4SiO4) are called Silicates.
55. The basic structural unit of silicate is SiO44  .
56. The man made silicates are glass and cement.
57. Zeolites: Hydrated sodium aluminium silicates are called as Zeolites.
58. Zeolites have honeycomb structure.
59. Zeolites are used as ion-exchnage materials and as molecular sieves.
60. The natural ion-exhanger is Natrolite.
61. The ZSM-5 is used to convert alcohol directly into gasoline.
62. The hydrated Zeolites are used as ion-exchangers in softening of hard water.
12. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
I. Deffination of Terms:
1. Pollutant:The substance which is present in nature and causes the pollution is called as pollutant.
2. Contaminant: The substance does not occur in nature but releases due to human activity and
causes the pollution is known as contaminant
3. COD : The amount of oxygen required to oxidise organic substances present in polluted water is
called as chemical oxygen demand.
4 BOD : The amount of oxygen used by the suitable micro-organisms present in water during five days
at 200 C is called biochemical oxygen demand.
5 The BOD value for clean water is about 1ppm.
6. The BOD value for municipal sewage water is about 100 - 4000 ppm
7. The BOD value for polluted water is 17ppm.

8. Sink: The medium which reacts with pollutant is called the sink.
Ex: Oceans are important sinks for atmospheric CO2
9. TLV (Threshold Limit Value): The permissible level of the toxic substances (or) pollutants in the
atmosphere, which affects a person adversely when he is exposed to this for 7 – 8 hrs. in a day is
called TLV.
10. Receptors : The medium which is effected by a pollutant is called Receptor.
Eg: eye irritation caused by smoke.
11. Speciation: The detection of different chemical forms of inorganic, organic compounds present in
the Environment causing pollution is known as speciation
II. Environmental Pollution:
12. Green house effect or Global warming: The process of increasing of temperature of surface of
earth is called green house effect or global warming .
13. Green house effect is caused by CO2 ,ozone, chlorofluoro carbons and water vapour when present in
troposphere.
14. Effects of green house effect are:
i) It lead to melting of polar ice caps and flooding of low lying areas.
ii) Increase in the global temperature, increases the infectious diseases like dengue, malaria, yellow
fever etc...
15. Acid rains : Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide after oxidation and reaction with water forms
oxoacids of S, N which causes or acid rains. The P H of acid rain water is less than 5.6
16. Effects of acid rains are :
i) It washes away nutrients needed for the growth of plants.
ii) It causes respiratory ailments in human beings and animals.
iii) It corrodes water pipes resulting in leaching of heavy metals like iron.
iv) It damages the life of buildings
17. Classical smog is a mixture of smoke,fog and sulphur dioxide.
18. Ozone,nitric oxide,acrolein, formaldehyde and peroxyacetyl nitrate are the common components of
photochemical smog.
19. Effects of photochemical smog :
i) It causes serious health problems
ii) It also causes corrosion of metals , stones and building materials.
20. PAN is peroxyacetyl nitrate. It acts as powerful eye irritant.
21. Ozone hole : Depletion of ozone layer commonly known as ozone hole.
22. The depletion of ozone layer causes skin cancer, cataract, damage to fish production.
23. Sodium chlorate,Sodium arsinate,Aldrin Dialdrin,etc. are responsible for water pollution.
24. Eutrophication :- Water becomes over nutritious when organic substances from agriculture and
industry are thrown into the water resoures like ponds and lakes. Due to this, excess growth of algae
occurs which leads to drying of lake. This phenomenon is commonly known as eutrophication.
25. Fluorosis:- Fluoride conecntation above 2ppm causes brown mottling of teeth excess fluoride over
10ppm casuses harmful effect to bones and teeth it is called fluorosis.

13. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

I. General Introduction:
1. The first organic compound synthesised from other compound in the laboratory is urea by wohler
2. Acetic acid is prepared by kolbe and methane by Berthelot from elements
3. The valency of carbon in organic compounds is four
4. Hybridisation of carbon atom in methane, ethene and ethyne are sp3 , sp 2 , sp respectively
5. On increasing s-character electronegativity of carbon atom increases.
6. The orderf of Electro negative and acidic nature is Csp  Csp 2  C sp 3
7. The carbon atom with sp hybridization is more electronegative
8. The unsaturated organic compounds are more reactive due to  -electron cloud is located above and
below the plane of bonding atoms.
9. 3D-representation of methane on paper has been as shown
H below the plane

with in the plane
C H
H
above the plane
H
10. The organic compounds which consist of straight or branched chains are called open chain or Acyclic
compounds
11. The organic componds contain carbon atoms in the form of ring Homocyclic (or) Hetrocyclic are called
Alicyclic or closed chian or ring compounds
12. A group or a series of organic cmpounds with same molecular formula and characterstic functional
group, which differ by CH 2 group is called Homologoes series
13. An atom or group of atoms which are responsible for the characrerstic chemical properties of the
organic compounds are called Functional groups
II. Nomenclature of organic compounds:
14. The organic compounds in which carbon forms a multiple bond (double (or) triple bonds) are called
unsaturated compounds
15. Functional group of alcohol is OH and its secondary suffix is ol
16. Functional group of aldehydes is -CHO and its secondary suffix is al
17. Functional group of ketone is C=O and its secondary suffix is one
18. Functional group of cyanides is -CN and its secondary suffix is nitrile
19. Functional group of ether is R O  R
20. Functional group of carboxylic acid is -COOH and secondary suffix is oic acid
21. Functional group of ester is -COOR and secondary suffix is oate
22. Functional group of acid halide is COX and secondary suffix is oylhalide

23. The functional group of amines is   NH 2  and secondary suffix is amine
24. The functional group of amides is CONH 2 and secondary suffix is Amide
25. General structure of IUPAC name 20 prefix + 10 prefix+ Root word +10 suffix+ 20 suffix
fix
26. Root word represents number of carbon atoms present in parent chain.
27. 10 suffix represents the nature of carbon chain i.e saturated or unsaturated.
28. 20 suffix represents the main functional group present in the organic compound.
29. 10 prefix represents cyclo/bicyclo/spiro.
30. 20 prefix represents substituents and sub functional groups present on parent chain.
31. Order of decreasing priority of functional groups:- COOH   SO3 H  COOR  COCl
 CONH 2  CN  CHO  CO   OH   NH 2  CH 2  CH 2  CH  CH

III. Isomerism
32. The phenomenon of existance of two or more compounds possessing the same molecular formula but
different properties is known as isomerism.
33. Two or more compounds have same molecular formula but differ in carbon skeletons are called chian
isomers and is known as chain isomerism
34. Two or more compounds have same molecular formula but differ in position of the substituents or
funtional group are multiple bond are called position isomers and is known as position Isomerism
35. Two or more compounds have same molecular formula but different functional group are called functional
isomers and is known as Functional group isomerism.
36. The phenomenon of existance of two or more compounds possessing the same molecular formula but
different in the nature of alkyl groups which are attached to the main functional group is called
metamerism.
IV. Fundamental Concepts in Organic Reaction Mechanism:
37. Homolysis cleavage leads to the formation of free radicals sp3 hybridized and paramagnetic nature.
38. Heterolytic cleavage leads to the formation of carbocation and carbanion.
39. Carbocations are Trigonal planar shaped and sp 2 hybridized .
40. The order of stability of cabrocations is  CH 3  10  20  30 
.
41. The order of stability of alkyl free radicals: C H 3  10  20  30 .
42. The reagent with an electron pair or free lone pairs is nucleophile
OH 
,CN  , H 2O , NH 3 , R  NH 2etc 
43. The reagent which is electron seeking is called electrophile  H  , R  ,CCl 2 , BCl3 , AlCl 3 etc 

44. The polarization of  bond caused by the polarization of the adjacent  bond is referred as inductive
effect.
45. The groups which release electrons relative to hydrogen are called +I- groups Eg: Alkyl groups.
46. The groups which withdraw electrons relative to hydrogen are called -I groups.
Eg:  NO2 , CN , COOH , COOR
47. The polarity produced in the molecule by the interaction of two   bonds or between a   bond
and lone pair of electrons present on an adjacent atom is resonance effect
48. The transfer of shared pair of  electrons to one of the atoms joined by a multiple bond in presence of
attacking regent is Electromeric effect
49. The delocalization of  electrons of C – H bond of an alkyl group directly attached to an atom of
unsaturated system is hyper conjugation or no bond Resonance
V. Types Organic Reactions and Mechanisms:
50. The organic reactions in which reagent and substrate combined together to give a simple product are
addition reactions
51. The organic reactions in which an atom or group of substrate species is replaced by another atom or
group are called substitution reactions
52. The reactions in which two or more atoms or groups of an organic substrate are removed to form
multiple bonds are called elimination reactions
53. The organic reactions involving rearrangement of less stable species to more stable species are called
rearrangement reactions
VI. Methods of Purification Organic Compounds:
54. The method used to separate sublimable compounds from non sublimable impurities is called
sublimation.
55. The solids which differ in their solubilities are separated by Crystallisation
56. The method used to separate volatile liquids from non-volatile impurities is called distillation
57. The liquids which differ in their boiling points are separated by distillation
58. Chemical compounds are separated by heating them to a temperature at which one or more fractions
of the mixture will vaporize is called Fractional distillation.
59. Glyceral can be separated from spent-lye in soap industry by using Distllation under reduced pressure
60. The method to separate substances which are steam volatile and are immissible with water is called
Steam Distillation.
61. Chromatography is a useful technique of separation, identification and purification of compounds.
62. The method is based on differential adsorption of various compounds of a mixture on adsorbent is
called Adsorption chromatography
63. Partition chromatography involves continuous partitioning of the components of a mixture between
stationary and mobile phases
64. Column chromatography involves separation of a mixture over a column of adsorbent (stationary
phase) packed in a glass tube.

65. Thin layer chromatography (TLC) involves separation of substances of a mixture over a thin layer
of an adsorbent coated on glass plate.
VII. Qualitative Elemental analysis of organic compounds:
66. Carbon and hydrogen are detected by heating the compound with copper (II) oxide.
67. Carbon and hydrogen in a organic compound are oxidised to carbondioxide and water
 y y
C x H y   x   02  xCO2  H 2O
 4 2
68. Nitrogen, sulphur, halogens, phosphorus present in organic compounds are detected by Lassaigne’s
test
69. 
Ionic form of sodium nitro prusside is  Fe  CN 5 NO 
2
 (Prussian blue colour)
70. The organic compound with nitrogen and sulphur on reaction with sodium metal form NaSCN- Sodium
thiocyanate
71. Amout of nitrogen present in organic compound can be estimated by Dumas method and Kjeldadhls
method.
72. Kjeldadhls method is not applicable to compounds containing nitogen in nitro, azo groups and nitrogen
present in the ring (Eg: pyridine)
73. Halogen,sulphur and phosphorus present in a organic compounds are estimated by carius method
12 Weight of CO2 formed 2 Weight of H 2O formed

74. %C    100 %H    100
44 Weight of subs tan ce 18 Weight of subs tan ce
28 Volume of N 2 at STP
75. In Dumas method: % N  22400  Weight of compound  100
Normality of the acid  volume of the acid

76. In Kjeldahls method: % N  1.4  Weight of compound
 100
35.5 Weight of Agcl

77. In carius method: % Cl  143.5  Weight of compound  100
32 Weight of BaSo4
%S    100
233 Weight of compound
62 Weight of Mg 2 P2O7
%p  100
222 Weight of compound
14. ALKANES
1. Alkanes are saturated open chain hydrocarbon contain carbon-carbon single bonds
2. General formula of alkanes is Cn H 2n 2

3. Methane  CH 4  is the first member of this family..
4. Methane is a gas found in coalmines and marshy places

5. Alkanes are also known as paraffins (Lation : parum = little, affinis = affinity)
6. In alkanes each carbon atom undergoe’s ‘ Sp3 ’ hybridisation
7. Alkanes with more than ‘3’ carbon atoms they shows chain isomerism
Eg I : Butane  C4 H10  forms two structural isomers
Eg II :Pentane  C5 H12  forms three structural isomers

8. Boiling point increases with increase in molecular weight.
9. Increase of chain isomers boiling point decreases with minimum surface area
10. Ethane can forms infinite number of conformations due to free rotation of sigma   bond.
11. In which hydrogen atoms attached to two carbons are as close together as possible is called
‘eclipsed’
12. In which hydrogens are as far a part as possible is known as the staggered conformation
13. Any other intermediate conformation is called as ‘skew’ conformation.
14. Staggered conformation is more stable than ‘eclipsed’ conformation
15. Energy difference between these isomers is 12.5KJ/mole
16. Carbon atom attached to one other carbon atom in ethane is called primary carbon 10  atom.
17.
0
 
Carbon atom attached to two carbon atoms is known as secondary carbon 2 atom.
Carbon atom attached to three carbon atoms is known as tertiary carbon  3  atom.
0
18.
19. Carbon atom is attached to four carbon atoms is known as neo (or) quarternary carbon atom.
20. In alkanes the C-C bond length and C-H bond lengths are 154pm and 112 pm.
21. Alkanes undregoes substitution reactions.
I. Preparation of alkanes :
22. Decarboxylation (Removal of CO2 )
i) Sodalime is a mixture of  NaOH  CaO  for decarboxylation
ii) Sodium propionate on decarboxylation gives C2 H 6
CaO
CH 3  CH 2  COONa  NaOH 

 CH 3  CH 3  Na2CO3
Sodiumpropionate Ethane
23. Reduction of alkyl halides :- Alkyl halide give alkanes on reduction with Zn and Dil HCl

Zn / H
CH 3  Cl  H 2   CH 4  HCl
chloromethane methane
24. Wurtz reaction :-The reaction of alkylhalides with sodium metal in dry ether to give higher
alkane is called as wurtz reaction.
Electrolysis
2CH 3COONa  2 H 2O  CH3  CH3  2CO2  H 2  2NaOH
sodium acetate  anode  cathode 

dry ether
CH 3Cl  2 Na  CH 3Cl    CH 3  CH 3  2 NaCl
25. Kolbe’s electrolysis :- An aqueous solution of sodium or potassium salt of a carboxylic acid on
electrolysis give alkanes
C H 3 C O O N a  2 H 2 O  E
lectrolysis
  C H 3  C H 3  2 C O 2  H 2  N aO H
sodium acetate  anode   cathode 
26. Addition of dihydrogen :- Alkenes and alkynes on addition of dihydrogen gas they forms alkanes
in the presences of Pt/Pd/Ni
Pt / Pd / Ni
CH 2  CH 2  H 2   CH 3  CH 3
Ethene Ethane
27. Physical Properties :- Due to the weak forces, the first four numbers C1 toC4 are gases,
C5 toC17 are liquids and other are solids.
28. Chemical Properties :- Nitro ethane  C2 H 5 NO2  is the product obtained when C2 H 6 reacts
with HNO3 at 400  4500 C
0
400 600 C
C2 H 6  HNO3   C2 H 5 NO2  H 2O
29. Combution :- Alkanes on heating in the presence of air or dioxygen carbon changes to CO2 ,
hydrogen changes to H 2O with the evolution of large amount of heat
CH 4  2O2 g   CO2 g   2H 2Ol H  890KJ / mole
 3n  1 
Cn H 2 n  2    O2  nCO2   n  1 H 2O
 2 
30. Isomerisation :- n-alkanes on heating in the presence of anhy. AlCl3 / HCl isomerise to branched
chain alkanes
31. Aromatization :- Conditions in aromatization are 773K,10-20 atm Cr2O3 ,V2O5 , MO2O3 catalyst
Cr 2O3 - 773K
CH 3 (CH2)4 CH3
10 - 20 aln
n hexan
Benzene
32. Reaction with steam :- Methane on reaction with steam in the presence of Nickel as a catalyst
gives CO and H2
Ni
CH 4  H 2O 

 CO  3H 2
33. The mixture of CO  H 2 is called water gas.
34. Pyrolysis :- Decomposition of higher alkane to lower alkenes and alkanes due to strong heating
0
450 c
in absence of air is called pyrolysis C2 H 6   C2 H 4  H 2

15. ALKENES
35. The general formula of alkenes is CnH2n
36. Alkenes are also known as olefins (oil forming)
37. Hybridisation of unsaturated carbon in alkenes is sp 2 . The bond length and bond enthalpy of C  C
are 134 pm and 384 KJ/mole respectively
38. Name of CH 2  CH  Cl is Vinyl chloride (or) Chloro ethene
39. The dipole moment of cis 2- butene is 0.33 debye and trans 2-butene is zero
40. Alkenes show both structural Isomerism & geometrical isomerism
Preparation of Alkenes:-Alkenes are the rich source of loosely held  e  , due to which they show
addition reactions.
41. From Alkynes: Cis alkene is formed, when alkynes reacts with H2 in presence of Pd-BaSO4/Quinoline.
Palladised charcoal and BaSO4 in quinoline is called Lindlar’s catalyst.
R R|
RC CR |+ H2 Pd/C C C
H H
Trans alkene is formed, when alkynes reacts with H 2 presence of Na / liq. NH3
Na/liquidNH 3 R H
RC CR |+H 2 C C
H R|
42. From Alkyl Halides:-Dehydro halogenation of ethyl bromide with alc. KOH gives ethylene.
Dehalogenation of 1, 2 – dibromo ethane with Zn dust in alcohol gives ethylene.
alcoholic KOH
CH 3CH 2 Br   CH 2  CH 2  KBr  H 2 O
43. From Vicinal Dihalides: Dihalides in which two halogen atoms are attached to two adjacent carbon
atoms are known as vicinal dihalides.
Vicinal dihalides on treatement with zinc metal to give alkene
H H
Zn H H
H C C H C C +ZnBr2
H H
Br Br
44. From alcohols: Alcohols on heating with concentrated sulphuric acid to give alkenes.
Dehydrating Reagent is conc. H2SO4 at 1700C or anhydrous Al2O3 at 3500C
H H
Conc.H 2SO4 H H
H C C H C C +H 2O
H H
H OH
45. Physical Properties: -a) Physical state :- C1  C3  Gases, C4  C14  liquids,  C14  solids
b) for every CH 2 group added increases the boiling point by 20-30k

46. Chemical Properties: Alkenes are the rich source of loosely held  e , due to which they show
addition reactions and also undergo free radical substitutions under special conditions
47. Addition of dihydrogen: Alkenes are converted to alkanes by the addition of H 2 in the presence of
finely divided Ni , Pt or pd
48. Addition of halogens: The reddish brown colour of bromine solution in CCl4 is discharged when
bromine solution adds to an unsaturation site of alkene
CCl4
CH2=CH2+Br2 CH2 - CH2
Br Br
49. Addition of hydrogen halides:Addition of hydrogen halides to alkene is an example of electrophilic
addition reaction.
Markowni Koff’s rule:-
The rule states that negative part of reagent gets attached to double bonded carbon atom which posses
lesser number of H-atoms.
50. According to Markowni Koff’s rule, propene reacts with HBr and gives 2-bromopropane as major
product and 1-bromopropane is minor product.
CH3 CH=CH2 +HBr CH3 - CH -CH3 + CH 3 CH2 CH2 -Br
Br
2-bromopropane 1-bromopropane
51. In presence of peroxide, negitave part of the reagent gets attached to double bonded carbon atom
which posses more number of H-atoms is called Anti Moakowin Koff’s rule or peroxide effect or
Kharash effect.
52. According to anti Markowni Koff’s rule, propene reacts with HBr and gives 1-bromopropane as
major product
(C 6 H 5 C O)2 O 2
C H3 C H=C H 2 + HB r CH 3 - C H -CH 3 + C H 3 CH 2 CH 2 -Br
Br
2-bromopropane 1-bromopropane
53. The order of reactivity of the hydrogen halides is HI  HBr  HCl
54. Addition of sulphuric acid: Cold concentrated sulphuric acid adds to alkenes to form alkyl hydrogen
sulphate.
CH2=CH2+H2SO4 CH3-CH2-OSO3H
55. Addition of water: In the presence of a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid alkenes react with
water to form alcohols.
CH3
H+ CH 3
CH3 CH=CH2 +H 2O CH3 C
2-Methylpropene OH
2-Methylpropan-2-ol

56. Oxidation: Alkenes on reaction with cold, dil, alkaline solution of Kmno4 (Baeyer’s reagent) produce
vicinal diols
dil.K MnO4
CH 2=CH 2+H 2 O+O CH 2-CH 2
273K
O H OH
Ethane-1,2-diol
57. Acidic Kmno4 or K 2cr2o7 oxidises alkenes to ketones and/or acids depends up on the nature of the
alkene and the experimental conditions.

Kmno / H
 CH 3 2 C  CH 2  4
  CH 3  2 C  O  CO2  H 2O
2  Methyl Pr opene Pr opan  2  one

KMnO4 / H
CH 3  CH  CH  CH 3   2CH 3COOH
But  2  ene Ethanoic Acid
58. Ozonolysis: Ozonolysis of alkenes gives ozonides and then cleavage by Zn  H 2O gives carbonyl
compounds. Propene on reductive Ozonolysis gives ethanal and methanal
O
Zn + H 2 O
C H 3 - C H = C H 2+ O 3 C H 3 -C H C H2 C H 3C H O + H C H O
E th a n al M e th an a l
O O
P r o p e n e o z o n id e
59. Polymerization:Polythene is obtained by the combination of large number of ethene molecules at high
temperature, high pressure & in the presence of catalyst. This reaction is known as polymerization.
High temp./Pressure
n(CH2=CH2) ( CH2-CH2 )
n
60. Large molecules thus obtained in polymerization process are called polymers and Simple molecules
from which polymers are made are called monomers.
16. ALKYNES
61. Unsturated hydrocarbons with atleast one triple bond  C  C  are called alkynes. The general
formula of alkynes is Cn H 2 n2
62. In common system alkynes are named as derivatives of acetylene

63. Ethyne  C2 H 2  is popularly known as acetylene.
64. Ethyne molecule undergo ' sp ' hybridisation it consists of one C  C bond, two C  H 
bonds, and two C  C  bonds.
65. The strength of C  C bond enthalpy is 823KJ/M and the C  C bond length is 120PM
66. The electron cloud between two carbon atoms is cylindrically symmetrical about interneuclear
axis. Thus ethyne is linear molecule.
67. Alkynes are immiscible with water but soluble in organic solvents like ethers, carbontetrachloride
and benzene.

68. Acetylene is used for arc welding purposes in the form of oxyacetylene flame obtained by mixing
acetylene with oxygen gas.
Preparations of acetylene:
69. From calcium carbide: Calcium carbide  CaC2  on hydrolysis gives C2 H 2 (acetylene (or)
ethyne)
CaC2  2 H 2O  C2 H 2  Ca  OH  2
70. From vicinal dihalides: Vicinal dihalides on treatment with alchoholic potassium hydroxide
undergo dehydrohalogenation. One molecule of hydrogen halide is eliminated to form alkenyl halide
which on treatment with sodamide gives alkyne.
Where alocholic KOH and NaNH 2 are act as a dehydrohalogenating agents
This reaction also called dehydrohalogenation reaction.
Alcoholic NaNH 2
H 2 C  C H 2  KOH 
 KBr
 H 2C  C H   HC  CH
| | |
Br Br  H 2O Br
71. 1,1,2,2, tetrabromoethane on heating with Zinc dust gives acetylene.
Where alocholic Zn act as dehalogenting agent. This reaction aslo called dehalogenation
reaction.
Br Br
| |
Alcohol
H C  C  H  2 Zn  HC  CH  2 ZnBr2
| |
Br Br
72. Chemical Properties :
Acidic character of alkynes :Alkanes, alkenes and alkynes follow the following trend in their
acidic behaviour
HC  CH  H 2C  CH 2  CH 3  CH 3
73. Acetylene react with molten sodium metal in NH3 gives mono sodium acetylide and disodium
acetylide.
HC  CH  Na  HC  C  Na   1 2 H 2
Monosodium ethynide
HC  C  Na   Na  Na C   C  Na   1 2 H 2
Disodium ethynide
74. Addition of halogen : Acetylene undergo addition with 2 molecules of Br2 gives 1,1,2,
2-tetrabromo ethane
Br Br
| |
CCl4
HC  CH  2 Br2   H  C  C H
| |
Br Br
This is used as a test for unsaturation.

75. Addition of water : Reagent used to convert acelyne into acetaldehyde is
1% HgSO4  40% H 2 SO4 ,600 c & H 2O
2 
Hg / H Isomersim
HC  CH  H 2O 
333 K
 CH 2  CH  OH   CH 3CHO
2 
Hg / H isomerisation
CH 3  C  CH  H  OH 
333 K
 CH 3  C  CH 2    CH 3  C  CH 3
| ||
Propyne OH O
Propanone
76. Addition of dihydrogen :

Pt / Pd / Ni H2
HC  CH  H 2   H 2C  CH 2   CH 3  CH 3
77. Addition of hydrogen halide:

Two molecules of hydrogen halide  HCl , HBr , HI  add to alkynes to form gem dihalides.
HC  CH  H  Br  CH 2  CH  Br  
HBr
  CH 3  CHBr2
Bromoethene 1,1-Dibromoethane
78. Cyclic polymerisation :
In the presence of red hot ‘Fe’ tube, three acetylene molecules get polymerized to gives benzene
Re d hot irontube
3CH  CH  873 K
 C6 H 6
17. AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS

79. Aromatic hydrocarbons are also called arenes.
80. Aromatic compounds containing benzene ring are known as benzenoids
81. Aromatic compounds don’t containing a benzene ring are knows as non-benzenoids
BENZENE
82. The molecular formula of Benzene is C6H6
83. The hybridization of carbon in Benzene is sp2
84. C-C bond length are identical in benzene i.e(139pm)
85. Non-polar molecule
86. Immiscible with water but are readily miscible with organic solvents
87. Burns with sooty flame.
I. Preparation of Benzene:
88. The distillation of Sodium Benzoate (C6H5COONa) with Soda lime (NaOH + CaO) gives C6H6
89. The reduction of Phenol (C6H5OH) in the presence of Zn-dust gives C6H6
90. Three molecules of acetylene (C2H2) undergo polymerization in the presence of Red-hot iron/copper
tubes gives C6H6
91. Hydrolysis of Benzene sulphonic acid (C6H5SO3H) gives C6H6
II. Properties of Benzene:
92. Benzene undergoes electrophilic substitutionreactions readily.
93. Halogenation takes in presence of lewis acids like anhydrous AlCl 3 or FeCl 3 or FeBr3
94. Chlorination of benzene in presence of anhydrous AlCl 3 gives Chlorobenzene
95. Benzene on treatment with excess of chlorine in the presence of anhydrous AlCl3 gives
hexachlorobenzene  C6Cl6 
96. Mixture of 1:1 ratio of Conc. HNO3 and Conc. H2SO4 is called nitration mixture
97. Benzene undergoes nitration in the presence of nitration mixture (conc. HNO3 + conc. H2SO4) below
600C gives nitrobenzene
98. In the nitration, the electrophile is Nitronium ion – NO2+
99. Benzene undergoes sulphonation in the presence of fuming sulphuric acid gives Benzene sulphonic acid
100. Oleum is called fuming sulphuric acid  H 2 SO4  SO3 
101. Benzene reacts with alkyl halide in the presence of anhydrous AlX3 (or) FeX3 and gives alkyl benzene
and it is called Friedel-Craft’s alkylation
102. Benzene reacts with acylhalide or acid anhydride in The presence of lewis acids  AlCl3  gives
acylbenzene it is called friendel-craft’s acylation.
103. Catalytic hydrogenation of Benzene (Nickel catalyst) gives cyclohexane (C6H12)
104. Benzene undergoes addition with chlorine in the presence of sun light gives hexachloro cyclo hexane
(or) benzene hexa chloride (or) Gammaxane (or) Lindane (or) C6H6Cl6
UV
C6 H 6  3Cl2 
500K
 C6 H 6Cl6
gammaxane
105. Benzene reacts with 3 moles of Ozone and form Benzene triozonide which undergo decomposition in
the presence of Zn/H2O and gives 3 moles of Glyoxal
106. During electrophilic substitution mechanism, the formed carbocation is called arenium ion or  - complex
107. The groups which direct the incoming group to ortho and para positions are called ortho and para
directing groups.
108. The groups which directing the in coming group to meta position are called meta directing groups.
109. Benzene and polynuclear hydrocarbons containing more than two benzene rings fused together are
toxic and said to posses cancer producing property, this is called carcinogenicity
H 2O hot metal tube AlCl 3 CH 3Cl
110. CaC 2   A   B  C

A  C 2H 2 , B  C6 H 6 , C  C 6H 5CH 3
***

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CBSE +1 CHEMISTRY CDF MATERIAL

4. Mass of electron is 9.1  1031 kg

5. Charge of electron is 1.602 1019 C or 4.81010 esu

7. Mass of Proton is 1.672  1027 Kg or 1.672  1024 gm or 1.00727amu or U

9. Mass of Neutron is 1.674  1027 kg or 1.674  1024 gm or 1.00867amu or U

19. Example of isotopes: 1 H 1 , 1H 2 , 1H 3

21. Example of isobars 6C14, 7N14

III. Devlopments Leading To The Bohr’s Model Of Atom:

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[61]

29. Planks Constant h  6.625 1027 erg.sec or h  6.625  1034 Joul.sec

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[62]

v  Velocity of an electron p    mv   mv

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[63]

l values are l  0,1, 2,....  n  1

53. Magnetic quantum number  m  propsed by Lande

54. The total number of ' m ' values equal to 2l  1

' m ' value are m  l ....0.....  l For s  orbital m  0

For p  orbital m  1,0, 1 For d orbital m  2, 1,0, 1, 2

For f  orbital m  3, 2, 1,0, 1, 2, 3

55. The total number of eletrons in a subshell 2  2l  1

57. Spin quantum number  s  was proposed by GoudSmith and Uhlenbeck

58. Spin quantum number signfies spin of electron

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[64]

 n  principal Quantum Number 

76. An anamalous electronic configuration of chromium  cr    Ar  4s1 3d 5

77. An anamalous electronic configuration of copper  Cu    Ar  4 s1 3d 10

2. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND

2. Law of octaves and Newland’s Octave Classification:

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[65]

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[66]

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[67]

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[68]

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[69]

Group IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA

3. CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[70]

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[71]

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[72]

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[73]

27. Pressure exerted by saturated water vapour is called aqueous tension

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[75]

38. Most probable speed U mp  =0.8166  rms speed

39. Average speed  U av  =0.9213×rms speed .

41. Ratio between PV and nRT is called compressibility factor. It is represented by Z. Z 

surfacetension (  ). Its units Jm 2 (or ) Nm 1 .

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[76]

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[77]

molecular weight of oxidant

wt.of solutein gm 1000

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[78]

41. Molality:The number of moles of solute present in 1 kg of solvent is called molality

wt.of solutein gm 1000

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[79]

H2SO 4 + HBr SO2 +Br 2 +H2O

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[80]

MnO4  aq   Br  aq   MnO2  s  BrO3 aq

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[82]

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[84]

with respective of partial pressure of reactants and products  K p  .

Example:- CaCO3  CaO CO2

NARAYANA GROUP Page.No.[85]

2 SO2 g   O2 g   2 SO3 g  H  189 KJ / mole

Species Conjugate acid Conjugate base