Additional Short Notes for Electronic Configurations

• One can determine an element's group and

Chemistry period using its electronic configuration.
By: Nikko Carisma o Period: Energy Level
nikkocarisma@gmail.com § The highest energy level in an
element's configuration refers to its
Note: These are things that may or may not come period (seen as the rows [horizontal] in
out on the tests, but it's good to have a few aces up the periodic table)
your sleeves. Good luck! Look at these lessons one
Example: Bromine
at a time; reading this whole thing in one go is 2 2 6 2 6 2 10 5
discouraged. 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p
Period: 4
Contents
• Phase Transitions in Matter
• Electronic Configurations o Group: Valence Electrons
§ The valence electrons (no. of electrons
• Chemical Reactions
in the highest energy level) of an
• Molecular and Empirical Formulas element refers to its group (seen as
• Basic Stoichiometry the columns [vertical] in the periodic
• Molality and Molarity table)
• Other Stuff
Example: Bromine
2 2 6 2 6 2 10 5
Phase Transitions in Matter 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p
The fourth energy level has a
Phase total of 7 electrons.
What it's called Examples
Transition
Group: 17 or VIIA
solid to liquid melting, fusion melting ice
dry ice, freeze- DISCLAIMER: This method is
solid to gas sublimation applicable for representative elements
drying coffee
(Groups 1-2, and 13-18). Don't worry
liquid to solid freezing freezing water though; you'll mostly encounter only
these in the tests.
liquid to gas vaporization steaming
condensation, formation of
gas to liquid § This is so because of the Octet Rule. In
liquefaction dew
the above example, only Group A
formation of elements (representative elements)
gas to solid deposition
frost and snow follow the Octet Rule, this doesn't work
for the Group B elements (transition
Phase Change Graphs elements). Review: What are representative
and transition elements? Are there differences
between them?
• The Octet Rule: Elements
are stable when they have
eight valence electrons.

Chemical Reactions

More Types of Chemical Reactions

• Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
• Neutralization Reactions

• When heat is applied to matter, its curve (or
graph), when plotted, contain two main
observations. It has regions where:
o temperature increase (seen in blue,
diagonal lines)
§ this is where the state of matter stays
the same
o there are temperature plateaus where
temperature stays constant (red, flat
lines)
§ this is where the phase transition or
phase change occurs (e.g. melting,
vaporization)
• This is also applicable when a substance cools
down:
Basic Information
Exothermic Reactions
• A chemical reaction that releases heat to
proceed; this means that heat is considered a
product
o Heat goes out of the system (ex- in the name)
• An example of this involves a combustion of
fuels, where heat is released, like in fire.
o Another analogy: when one has an "ex", and he/she
is out of his/her life
Endothermic Reactions
• A chemical change that absorbs heat energy;
heat is considered a reactant in this situation.
• An example of this involves melting ice. The ice
absorbs heat energy for it to melt.

Summary
Endothermic Exothermic
heat is absorbed heat is released
heat is a reactant heat is a product
energy must be applied and
work must be done for it may occur spontaneously
to start
Neutralization Reactions Getting the Molecular Formula
• A chemical reaction that occurs when an acid Note: The molecular weight of the substance is usually
and a base combine to form water and a salt. given for this, in addition to the requirements for the
• A good example of this involves the common empirical formula.
examples for acids and bases: hydrochloric acid
and lye (sodium hydroxide: • Empirical: Get the empirical formula of the
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O substance.
• This reaction formed water and sodium chloride • Total Mass: Get the total mass of the substance
(also known as table salt). by adding the respective products of the whole-
o Note that mixing strong acids and strong bases number ratios to each element's atomic weight.
usually form substances with a pH of 7, like This gives one empirical unit.
water (e.g. the example reaction above). • Divide: Divide the empirical unit by the given
molecular weight.
The Molecular and Empirical Formulas • Multiply: Multiply each element's coefficient by
the given quotient to get the molecular formula.
Empirical Formula
• The simplest formula for a compound; Example:
this is similar to a fraction being transformed
into lowest terms. Determine the molecular formula of a molecule composed
of 30.4% nitrogen and 69.6% oxygen and has a molecular
• This involves the lowest whole-number
weight of about 138 g/mol. (atomic weights: N = 14, O =
ratios between the numbers of elements in a 16).
compound.
N:O = 1:2
Molecular Formula
Empirical The empirical formula is NO2.
• The actual formula for a molecule; this
(As seen in the previous example).
can be an empirical formula or a multiple of
it. Review: What type of chemical bond is present in 1(14 ) + 2 (16 ) = 14 + 32
molecules?
Total = 46 g / mol
• Examples of molecular formulas for
Mass One mole of the substance weight 46
C3HO2
o C3HO2, C6H2O4, etc. grams. (This is one empirical unit)
138
=3
NOTE: For getting these formulas, values (percentage 46
compositions of the element and/or atomic weights, etc.) Divide
There are there empirical units in one
are required. However, these will be given in the tests. molecule of the substance.

Getting the Empirical Formula NO2 → N3O6

Note: Percentage compositions and atomic weights are Multiply The molecular formula is N3O6 since
usually given for this. there are 3 empirical units in a molecule.

• 100g: Assume 100g of the substance

• Mass: Get the masses of each element given Basic Stoichiometry
100g of the substance.
• Moles: Divide each element's mass by its The Basic Concept
respective atomic weight. This expresses each
element's mass in moles. Stoichiometry is branch of science that deals with the
• Smallest: Divide each mole measure by the quantitative relationships between reactants and products
smallest acquired mole quantity. in a chemical reaction.
• Ratio: Get a ratio based on each element's
resulting number. In English:

Example: How much of the reactants will transform into

these products? (and vice-versa)
Determine the empirical formula of a molecule composed One should remember this question when performing calculations for
stoichiometry.
of 30.4% nitrogen and 69.6% oxygen.
(molar masses: N = 14, O = 16)
Example:
In this reaction: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O, it can be determined
that:
100g There is 100g of the substance. • 2 moles of hydrogen and 1 mole of oxygen will
transform into 2 moles of water, and/or;
Nitrogen: Oxygen: • 2 moles of water will be produced if 2 moles of
Mass 100 × 30.4% = 30.4 g 100 × 69.6% = 69.6 g hydrogen and 1 mole of oxygen are used as
reactants
o Note that the number of moles in the relationship can be
30.4 30 69.6 70
Moles ≈ ≈ 2 mol N ≈ ≈ 4 mol O seen in the coefficients of each component in the
14 14 16 16 reaction.

Performing Stoichiometric Calculations

2 mol 4 mol
Smallest =1 =2 • Questions involving stoichiometry usually ask
2 mol 2 mol how much of one reactant produces a given
amount of product, and vice-versa.
• There are two main measures that are used in
N:O = 1:2 these questions: mole, and mass.
Ratio
Therefore, the empirical formula is NO2. o Review: One mole of an element is equal to its
molar mass in mass, and vice versa.

Estimation is important especially when solving for this formula during a

test, where no calculators are allowed. (Seen in the "Moles" step)
Solving Problems in Basic Stoichiometry
Using the ratio

How to Practice Solving These Problems

2 : 3 = x : 2.5 , solve for x.
• Balance: Check and make sure that the equation
There are 18 moles of ( 2.5 ) ( 2 ) 5
is balanced. Review: How does one balance chemical x= =
O2 produced. This is 3 3
equations?
expressed in grams as:
• Table: It's a good start to use a table. :) = 1.6667 mol
⎛ 32 g ⎞
• 18 mol ⎜ = 576 g
⎝ 1 mol ⎟⎠
Organize: Organize in it how many moles and
mass (given one mole) are involved in the 1.6667 mol of NaCl is
Solve produced. This is expressed
reaction. (cont.) in grams as:
• Ratio: Write the ratio of the involved elements'
mole measures. ⎛ 58.44 g ⎞
1.6667 mol ⎜
⎝ 1 mol ⎟⎠
= 97.4 g
• Solve: Given two ratios, (one will be unknown:
what we're solving for), solve for the unknown
quantity. Get ready to convert at any point
during solving. Review: How to convert? Final Answer: Final Answer:
576 g of O2 are 97.4 g of NaCl are
Example 1: produced. produced.
Given this reaction: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O, how many moles of
water is produced by 5 moles of oxygen? Your skills in conversion and ratios will be crucial in solving these types of
(molar masses: H = 14, O = 16) problems, so practicing with these is essential.

Balance This equation is balanced. Molarity and Molality

2H2 O2 2H2O Basic Information

Table Moles • Molarity and molality are both measures of
Molar mass solutions' concentrations. Review: What are
concentrations?

2H2 O2 2H2O • These two measurements both express a

Moles 2 1 2
solution's concentration, but use different
Organize aspects of the solution. These involve the
2(1) 2(16) 2(1) + 16
Molar mass
= 2 g/mol = 32 g/mol = 18 g/mol solute and the solvent in the solution.
o Solute - the substance dissolved
o Solvent - the substance that dissolves
O2: H2O = 1: 2
Ratio 1: 2 = 5 : x Molarity
Given this ratio, x represents the number of moles
of water produced.
• Also known as the molar concentration of a
solution
• A measurement of how much solute there
1: 2 = 5 : x
is in a solution; this is expressed in mol/L
x = 10
Solve or a unit called molar (M).
Solve for x in this ratio, this gives x = 10. • To put it simply: it is the amount of
Therefore, 10 moles of water are produced. substance in a given volume

Example 2: What is Standard

Given this reaction: NaClO3 → NaCl + O2 Formula for molarity
measured Units
(1) 12.00 moles of NaClO3 will produce how many
grams of O2? solute moles (mol) moles of solute
molarity =
(2) How many grams of NaCl are produced when 80.0 solution liter (L) liters of solution
grams of O2 are produced?
(molar masses: Na = 23, Cl = 35.45, O = 16)
Molality
This equation is not balanced. • Also known as the molal concentration of a
Balance The balanced equation is: solution
2NaClO3 → 2NaCl + 3O2 • A measurement of how much solute there
is in terms of its solvent; this is expressed
2NaClO3 2NaCl 3O2
in mol/kg or a unit called molal (m).
Table Moles

Molar mass
What is Standard
Formula for molarity
measured Units
2NaClO3 2NaCl 3O2
solute moles (mol) moles of solute
Organize
Moles 2 2 3 molality =
106.44 58.44 solvent kilograms (kg) kgof solvent
Molar mass 32 g/mol
g/mol g/mol

Summary
For (1) For (2)
Molarity Molality
NaCl : O2 = 2 : 3
Ratio measurements of a solution's
NaClO3 : O2 = 2 : 3 2 : 3 = x : 80 g What they are
2 : 3 = 12 : x concetration
80 g needs to be converted to moles
of O2 for the mole ratio. What they need moles of solute; moles of solute;
Conversion: to measure liters of solution kg of solvent
2 : 3 = 12 : x ⎛ 1 mol ⎞ mol
80 g ⎜ = 2.5 mol Units of mol
Solve ⎝ 32 g ⎟⎠ measurement
molar (M) or molal (m) or
kg
(12 )( 3) L
x= = 18 mol With this, the new mole ratio is:
one mole of a one mole of a solute
2 What one unit is substance in one liter dissolved by one kg of
2 : 3 = x : 2.5 of solution solute.
Solving for Basic Molarity and Molality Example 2:
Determine the molality of a solution with 100 g of sucrose, with a
molar mass of 342.3 g/mol, dissolved in 1.50 kg of water.
• Identify: Which is the unknown in the
situation?
Identify The identified unkown is the molality of the solution.
• Convert: Check and make sure that
100 g must be converted to moles:
measurements are in their standard units
Convert ⎛ 1 mol ⎞
(See Basic Information) 100 g ⎜ = 0.292 mol
o Review: One mole of an element is equal to its ⎝ 342.3 mL ⎟⎠
molar mass in mass, and vice versa.

The molar mass has already been given in the

• Molar Mass: Get the molar mass of the Molar Mass
problem.
compound.

• Triangles: Using these triangle figures

much like the speed-distance-time ones can
greatly help in solving for these
measurements.
Based on the triangles, the one with the m (for molality)
must be used.
Triangles
Based on this triangle, getting the molality of the solution
involves dividing the moles of solvent and the mass of
the solute.

mol
m=
kg

0.292 mol
o In these figures: molality =
1.50 kg
§ M = molarity of a solution in mol/L
§ m = molality of a solution in mol/kg Solve = 0.195 m
§ L = volume of the solution in liters (L)
§ kg = mass of the solvent in kilograms (kg) Therefore, the molality of the solution is
0.195 m.
• Solve: Using the triangles, solve for missing
quantities and convert if necessary. Other Stuff
Example 1:
How many grams of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) are needed to Acids and Bases
make 200 mL of a 2.5 M solution? § This must be remembered:
(molar masses: K = 39.1, C = 12, O = 16) o Acids are associated with hydrogren ions.
+
[H ions].
The identified unkown is the moles of solute needed o Bases are associated with hydroxide ions.
Identify (mol). -
[(OH) ions].
200 mL must be converted to liters: § Definitions: Acids and bases have different
⎛ 1L ⎞ definitions in chemistry. These definitions may be
Convert 200 mL ⎜ = 0.2 L
⎝ 1000 mL ⎟⎠
asked for in the tests as knowledge questions.

2 ( 39.1) + 12 + 3 (16 ) = 138.2 g / mol

Definitions of
Acids and Bases
Acid Base
Molar Mass
There are 138 g in one mole of K2CO3.
A substance that yields A substance that yields
+ -
Arrhneius H ions in an aquaeous OH ions in an aquaeous
solution solution
Brønsted–
Lowry A proton donor A proton acceptor
(proton-centered)

Lewis An electron pair acceptor An electron pair donor

(electron-centered)
Based on the triangles, the one with the M (for molarity)
Triangles must be used.

Based on this triangle, getting the moles of solute

needed involves multiplying the molarity and the
STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure)
volume. § This set of conditions is the most commonly used
when performing calculations involving gases.
mol = M × L
Volume of one
Temperature Pressure
Mole of Gas
0°C = 273.15 K 1 atm = 760 torr 22.4 L
moles of solute = 2.5 M × 0.2 L
= 0.5 mol Sources Used:

Converting this to grams gives: Chemteam.info,. ChemTeam: Molality. Retrieved 31 May 2015, from
http://www.chemteam.info/Solutions/Molality.html
Solve ⎛ 138.2 g ⎞ Everythingmaths.co.za,. Retrieved 31 May 2015, from
0.5 mol ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 69.1 g
⎝ 1 mol
http://everythingmaths.co.za/science/grade-10/03-states-of-
matter/pspictures/2acffd6119ed6a0e144b2d95232d4e53.png
Images.tutorvista.com,. Retrieved 31 May 2015, from
http://images.tutorvista.com/cms/images/101/phase-change-diagram.png
Therefore, 69.1 g of potassium carbonate is Maruja, V., & Ma. Justina, E. (2007). UPCAT Reviewer: A study guide for college
needed. entrance tests to UP, Ateneo, La Salle, UA&P, UST. Quezon City, Philippines:
V.E.A. Learning.
Scienceiscool.org,. Lowell High School Chemistry Stoichiometry Help. Retrieved 31 May
2015, from http://www.scienceiscool.org/stoichiometry/problems.html