EARTH SCIENCE

MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE

2011
CHAPTER 1
• An ecologist studies relationships in the different ecosystems
• Meteorite-impact hypothesis: rocks contain high levels of iridium
• Spectroscope determines a star’s composition or chemical makeup
• A proven theory becomes a law
• Red shift is evidence of the universe expanding
• Big bang theory: all matter and energy was in an extremely small volume, something
happened and it continued to expand. Background radiation is evidence.
4 Branches of Earth Science
• Meteorology: weather
• Geology: solid earth
• Oceanography: oceans
• Astronomy: universe beyond Earth’s surface
Ecology (ecosystems)
• Biosphere: Largest; contains the other three
• Hydrosphere: water
• Geosphere: land
• Atmosphere: gases
Scientific Method:
• State the problem
• Gather information
• Form a hypothesis (a solution or explanation of the problem)
• Test the hypothesis
• State a conclusion
CHAPTER 2
• Asthenosphere is solid but can flow.
• Oceanic crust and continental crust make up the outermost layer of the earth.
• Atmosphere is made up of nitrogen and oxygen.
• The outer core is made up of liquid iron.
• Because certain seismic waves are not detected in shadow zones, it is hypothesized that the
earth’s interior is partially liquid.
• Most seismic waves come from earthquakes and explosions.
• One characteristic of S waves is that they travel only through solid material.
• The boundary between the earth’s crust and mantle where the speed of seismic waves
changes is called the Moho.
• Geologists believe the source of the earth’s magnetic field may be in the core.
• The mass of an object is defined by the amount of matter in the object.
• The earth reaches perihelion during the month of January.
• When the earth is at the farthest point in its orbit from the sun, it is said to be at aphelion.
• When the South Pole tilts toward the sun, the Northern Hemisphere experiences winter.
• Each year, the area south of the Antarctic Circle experiences 24 hours of darkness on June 21
or 22.
• There are 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness south of the Antarctic Circle on the
day of the vernal equinox.
• Each time zone covers approximately 15º of the earth’s total circumference.
• The sun is highest over the center of each standard time zone at 12:00 noon.
• There are 24 standard time zones around the earth.
• A satellite that passes over a different portion of the earth during each revolution is traveling
in a polar orbit.
• A satellite in a geosynchronous orbit would probably be more useful than one in a polar orbit
for relaying television signals across the Atlantic.
 CHAPTER 4
• Pangaea was the term Wegener used to describe an ancient single landmass.
• Similarity in continental margins was used as evidence for the theory of continental
drift.
• The type of collision that occurs when two lithospheric plates converge is determined
primarily by plate density.
• As rock moves away from a mid-ocean ridge, it is replaced by molten rock.
• Seafloor spreading occurs at divergent boundaries.
• A convergent boundary may result from the collision of one plate with another.
• When examining rocks from both sides of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, scientists found
evidence for the phenomenon of magnetic reversal.
• The earth’s layer of solid rock that flows under pressure is called the asthenosphere.
• The transfer of heat through the movement of heated fluid material in the earth’s crust
is called convection.

Chapter 6 Study Guide

Focus = where the earthquakes slippage first occurs (under the surface)
• Shallow
• Intermediate
• Deep Focus – 1 plate subducts under another
• Shallow focus quakes cause the most damage because they are closest to the surface

Epicenter = on the earth’s surface

Elastic Rebound Theory

• Fault is locked (stress increases), THEN
• Too much stress makes the rocks separate, THEN
• They spring back (rebound) to their original shape, THEN
• Energy is released called seismic waves (vibrations)

P Waves – Travel the fastest

S Waves – Travel only through solids
Surface Waves – Cause the most damage

Aftershock – Small tremors after an earthquake

• Aftershocks are always smaller in magnitude that original earthquakes

Tsunami (What is it and what causes it)

• They occur under the water – epicenters are on the ocean floor
• Warnings issued by the PTWC
• Landslides on the sea floor can produce tsunamis

Magnitude – measure of how much energy an earthquake releases (Largest ever recorded 8.9)
- Highest intensity is 10 (X)
Seismic Gaps – Zones of immobile rock along faults

How does an earthquake happen?

 M ost likely to occur near active faults
Plates release and give off energy in the form of seismic waves
The Pacific Ring of Fire – Ring around the Pacific Ocean

The safest place to be during an earthquake is an open field

To determine distance from a seismograph station, scientists plot difference in arrival time between
P and S waves.
Chapter 7 Study Guide

Define:

1. Vent- Opening in the Earth’s surface through which molten rock flows
2. Volcano- Opening in the Earth’s surface through which molten rock flows and the material builds
up around the opening
3. Island arc- A string of volcanoes that forms along a trench
4. Volcanic bombs- Large pieces of volcanic material that are round or spindle-shaped
5. Caldera- Formed when a magma chamber empties and collapses

Things to know:

• Iceland was formed over a mid-ocean ridge

• Seismographs measure earthquake activity – Useful in predicting volcanic eruptions
• When a plate with oceanic crust meets a plate with continental crust the oceanic plate is
subducted.
• Types of lava:
1. pillow lava- Rounded formations made when magma erupts under water
2. felsic lava- Identified by its color and silica content
3. aa-
4. pahoehoe-
• Pyroclastic material would most likely be formed by a violent eruption.
• The material that collects around the vent of a volcano as a result of eruptions forms three
major types of volcanic cones.
• Types of volcanoes/cones
1. Shield Volcanoes- A broad volcanic feature formed by quiet eruptions of thin lava
flow
2. Cinder Cones- Results from a single violent eruption
3. Composite Volcanoes-
• Before a volcanic eruption, seismic activity seems to increase in both frequency and
intensity.
• What causes bulging in the surface of volcanoes – The upward movement of the magma
• Olympus Mons- Shield volcano located on Mars
 • Io- Planetary body with far more volcanic activity than Earth – The material erupting is
mostly sulfur and sulfur dioxide – The heat causing the melting of the interior is probably
generated by friction from surface movement

CHAPTER 9
• Quartz is the most common mineral.
• Silicon is an abundant element in minerals.
• Native elements are found on the Periodic Table of elements.
• 90% of the earth’s crust is made up of the 10 most common minerals
Characteristics of Minerals:
• Streak is a mineral in powder form.
• Luster is the way light is reflected.
• Cleavage breaks in nice, even sheets.
• Fracture breaks in uneven pieces.
• Hardness is the ability to resist scratching.
Special Properties of Minerals:
• Magnetism: Lodestone and Magnetite
• Fluorescence: the ability to glow under UV light
• Phosphorescence: continues to glow after UV exposure
• Radioactivity: subatomic particles are released
• Pitchblende: most common mineral