Condenser and Cooling Tower Performance PDF

A STUDY ON ROLE OF CONDENSER AND COOLING
TOWER ON THE PERFORMANCE OF THERMAL POWER

PLANT.
A PROJECT REPORT
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE

REQUIREMENT OF
POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA COURSE

IN
THERMAL POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
2014-2015.
SUBMITTED BY:-
AMIT KUMAR
ANUBHAV SAHU
ISHAN GURUNG
MANVAR BRIJESHKUMAR CHHAGANBHAI
RAVICHANDRAN.V
SUMIT GOPAL
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

SHRI.P.MUTHUSAMY
Deputy Director
NPTI (SR)
NATIONAL POWER TRAINING INSTITUTE (SR)

(AN ISO 9001:2000 & 14001 ORGANISATION)
UNDER MINISTRY OF POWER, GOVT. OF INDIA
NEYVELI, TAMILNADU-607 803
i
NATIONAL POWER TRAINING INSTITUTE (SR)
(AN ISO 9001:2000 & 14001 ORGANISATION)
UNDER MINISTRY OF POWER, GOVT. OF INDIA
NEYVELI, TAMILNADU-607 803
CERTIFICATE
This is to Certify that the work entitled “A STUDY ON ROLE OF
CONDENSER AND COOLING TOWER ON THE PERFORMANCE OF
THERMAL POWER PLANT” has been carried out by Amit Kumar, Anubhav
Sahu, Ishan Gurung, Manvar Brijeshkumar Chhaganbhai, Ravichandran.V,
Sumit Gopal under our supervision in partial fulfillment for the requirement of
Post Graduate Diploma Course in Thermal Power Plant Engineering, during
the session 2014-2015 in National Power Training Institute (SR), Neyveli,
Tamilnadu-607 803.
GUIDED BY AND COURSE COORDINATOR
SHRI P. MUTHUSAMY
DEPUTY DIRECTOR
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are thankful to Shri S.Viswanathan, NPTI (SR), Neyveli, for extending

valuable training reserve unit facilities.
We bring out profound and overwhelming gratitude to our Project Guide

and Program Director Shri P.Muthusamy, Deputy Director, NPTI (SR), Neyveli,
for his relentless guidance, valuable suggestions, constant encouragement
throughout this dissertation work, which were of immense help in successful
completion of this project.
We take this opportunity to thank NEYVELI LIGNITE CORPORATION

LIMITED, Neyveli and authorities especially Er.J.Subbiah ACM/MECH for
providing necessary guidance to carry out this project work.
Finally, we also thank all those who have helped directly and indirectly
during this project and also for the successful completion of the same.
iii
ABSTRACT
In a thermal power plant the efficiency and performance of its individual equipment and
component plays a very vital role in deciding the overall power plant efficiency. As the
overall efficiency of thermal power plant is product of boiler, turbine, generator and
cycle efficiency, where boiler efficiency is around 85-90%, turbine efficiency is around
80-90% and generator efficiency is about 98%. But when cycle efficiency is included
the turbo-generator efficiency is reduced to below 40%, due to which the overall plant
efficiency drops to 32-42 %.
As thermal power plant is based modified Rankine cycle, the most important parameters
of this cycle are pressure and temperature of superheated steam at inlet of high pressure
turbine and pressure and temperature of exhaust steam at outlet of low pressure turbine.
So to increase the cycle efficiency either inlet parameter is to be increased or outlet
parameters to be decreased.
The most of the heat loss in any power plant occurs at the condenser side. This heat
which is lost cannot used for further work done in turbine to rotate the turbo- generator
and produce electricity. So the performance of the condenser plays a very vital role on
deciding the overall performance of power plant. Therefore our aim in this project is to
study, analyse and various factors and parameters which are effecting the condenser
performance and efficiency, calculate its performance and how its optimum
performance can be achieved.
Since the cooling tower is also an important component of power plant, as the
circulating cooling water which coming out of condenser taking the latent heat from
exhaust steam changing its state to water during this heat exchanging process and losses
its heat to the atmosphere .We will also study the how performance of cooling towers
effects the performance of condenser and its impact on plant efficiency.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.NO TITLE OF CHAPTER PAGE NO

1 INTRODUCTION 1-11
1.1 THERMAL POWER PLANT CYCLE 1
1.2 ROLE OF CONDENSER IN THERMAL CYCLE 5
1.3 PRINCIPLE OF CONDENSER 5
1.4 ADVANTAGES OF CONDENSER 6
1.5 PRESSSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT 8
1.6 VACUUM AND ITS MEASUREMENT 9
1.7 TERMINAL TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE 10
1.8 INITIAL TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE 11
1.9 LOG MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE 11
1.10 SATURATION TEMPERATURE 11
2. CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF CONDENSER 13-26
2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF CONDENSER 13
2.2 CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF UNIT-6/ST-2/TPS -2(NEYVELI) 21
2.3 TECHNICAL DATA OF UNIT-6/ST-2/TPS-2 26
3. FACOTRS AFFECTING CONDENSER PERFORMANCE 28-35

AND EFFICIENCY
3.1 EFFECT OF VARYING THE BACK PRESSURE 28

3.2 EFFECT OF AIR ON BACK PRESSURE 29
3.3 SCALE FORMATION 30
3.4 EFFECT ON VACCUM DUE TO VARIOUS FACTORS 31
3.5 CONDENSER EFFICIENCY AND PERFORMANCE 34
4. CALCULATIONS ON THE FACTORS AFFECTING 36-40

CONDENSER PERFORMANCE
4.1 EFFECT IN CONDENSER VACUUM DUE TO CIRCULATING 37

WATER INLET TEMPERATURE
4.2 EFFECT IN CONDENSER VACUUM DUE TO CIRCULATING 38
WATER FLOW
4.3 EFFECT IN CONDENSER VACUUM DUE AIR INGRESS 39
/DIRTY TUBES
5 FAULT ANALYSIS IN CONDENSER 41-44
6 INTRODUCTION TO COOLING TOWERS 45-51
6.1 COOLING TOWER IN POWER PLANTS 45

6.2 COMPONENTS IN COOLING TOWER 45
6.3 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION 47
6.4 TYPES OF COOLING TOWER 48
6.5 TERMINOLOGIES 50
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6.6 DALTONS LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE 51
7 COOLING TOWER PERFORMANCE ASSESMENT 52-59
7.1 COOLING TOWER PERFORMANCE 52

7.2 FACTORS AFFECTING COOLING TOWER 53
PERFORMANCE
7.3 PERFORMANCE ASSESMENT OF COOLING TOWERS 57
7.4 DISCRIPTION OF NATURAL DRAFT COOLING TOWER 57
OF STAGE-2/TPS-2 (NEYVELI)
7.5 COOLING TOWER SAMPLE PERFORMANCE 59
CALCULATION
8. BIBILOGRAPHY 61
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. FIGURE NAME PAGE NO.
Fig 1.1 Thermal Power Plant Cycle 1
Fig 1.2 Rankine Cycle With Reheat 2
Fig 1.3 Rankine Cycle With Regeneration 3
Fig 1.4 Modified Rankine Cycle 4
Fig 1.5 Heat Increases Pressure 6
Fig 1.6 Cooling Decreases Pressure 6
Fig 1.7 Pressure Diagram 9
Fig 1.8 Terminal Temperature Difference 10
Fig 2.1 Low Level Jet Condenser 14
Fig 2.2 High Level Jet Condenser 15
Fig 2.3 Ejector Condenser 15
Fig 2.4 Double Flow Type Condenser 17
Fig 2.5 Central Flow Type Condenser 17
Fig 2.6 Evaporative Type Condenser 18
Fig 2.7 Underslug-Axial or Transverse Condenser 18
Fig 2.8 Internal Condenser 19
Fig 2.9 Pennier or Side Mounted Condenser 20
Fig 2.10 Single And Double Pass Condenser 20
Fig 2.11 A Typical 210 MW Condenser 21
Fig 2.12 Condenser Supports 22
Fig 2.13 Steam- Dumping (Throw Off) Device 26
Fig 3.1 Condenser Conditioning Graph 33
Fig 6.1 Schematic Diagram of Cooling Tower 45
Fig 6.2 Cooling Tower Operation 48
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Fig 6.3 (A) Cross Flow Natural Draft Cooling Tower 49
(B) Counter Flow Natural Draft Cooling Tower 49
Fig 6.4 Types of Mechanical Cooling Tower 50
Fig 7.1 Performance of Cooling Tower 54
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CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION
Condenser serves as the closing link in the thermal cycle. The entire heat energy in the steam
entering the turbine cannot be converted into mechanical work. The unutilized heat energy has
to be rejected to a ‘sink’. Condenser acts as a heat sink in the thermal cycle in which rejection
of heat energy takes place on condensation of exhaust steam of turbine. With this, the
Herculean task of replenishing the working fluid completely is eliminated.
1.1) THERMAL POWER PLANT CYCLE
A typical 210 MW thermal power plant cycle based on modified Rankine cycle.
Fig 1.1 Thermal Power plant Cycle

Modified Rankine cycle:-
Modified Rankine cycle is based on theory of Rankine cycle. Working of modified Rankine
cycle is similar to that of Rankine cycle with some practical modification in the cycle to make
it more operational.
1
The Rankine cycle is a model that is used to predict the performance of steam turbine systems.
The Rankine cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle of a heat engine that converts heat into
mechanical work. The heat is supplied externally to a closed loop, which usually uses water as
the working fluid.
The following modifications are done on Rankine cycle to make it practically more operational
and efficient:-
1. Rankine cycle with reheat
FIG. 1.2: - RANKINE CYCLE WITH REHEAT
The purpose of a reheating cycle is to remove the moisture carried by the steam at the final
stages of the expansion process. In this variation, two turbines work in series. The first accepts
vapour from the boiler at high pressure. After the vapour has passed through the first turbine,
it re-enters the boiler and is reheated before passing through a second, lower-pressure turbine.
The reheat temperatures are very close or equal to the inlet temperatures, whereas the optimum
reheat pressure needed is only one fourth of the original boiler pressure. Among other
advantages, this prevents the vapour from condensing during its expansion and thereby
damaging the turbine blades, and improves the efficiency of the cycle, given that more of the
heat flow into the cycle occurs at higher temperature.
2
2. Regenerative Rankine cycle
The regenerative Rankine cycle is so named because after emerging from the condenser
(possibly as a sub cooled liquid) the working fluid is heated by steam tapped from the hot
portion of the cycle. On the diagram shown, the fluid at 2 is mixed with the fluid at 4 (both at
the same pressure) to end up with the saturated liquid at 7. This is called "direct contact
heating". The Regenerative Rankine cycle (with minor variants) is commonly used in real
power stations.
Another variation is where bleed steam from between turbine stages is sent to feed water
heaters to preheat the water on its way from the condenser to the boiler. These heaters do not
mix the input steam and condensate, function as an ordinary tubular heat exchanger, and are
named "closed feed water heaters".
The regenerative features here effectively raise the nominal cycle heat input temperature, by
reducing the addition of heat from the boiler/fuel source at the relatively low feed water
temperatures that would exist without regenerative feed water heating. This improves the
efficiency of the cycle, as more of the heat flow into the cycle occurs at higher temperature.
This process ensures cycle economy.
FIG. 1.3: - RANKINE CYCLE WITH REGENERATION
3
MODIFIED RAKINE CYCLE PROCESS
The various processes in modified Rankine cycle are as follows
 Process 1-2-3-4-5: The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure. As the
fluid is a liquid at this stage, the pump requires little input energy.
 Process 5-6-7: The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at constant
pressure by an external heat source to become a dry saturated vapour. After that it
heated in super heater to make it superheated steam.
 Process 7-8: The superheated steam expands through a HP turbine, generating power.
This decreases the temperature and pressure of the vapour, and some condensation
may occur.
 Process 8-9: The steam coming out of the HP turbine is send back to the furnace
through re-heater again to make it superheated steam.
 Process 9-10-11: The superheated steam from re-heater is sent to IP turbine where it
expands isentropically and work is done on turbine blades to produce torque for
rotating of the shaft. The outlet steam from IP turbine is sent to LP turbine, where it
again expands and work is done on the turbine shaft to rotate the shaft which in turn
coupled with the generator to generate electricity.
 Process 11-1:The exhaust from the LP turbine is now sent to condenser which is
under vacuum where the steam losses its latent heat to change it’s to water. During
this process no change of temperature of steam takes place, so temperature of steam
and water remains the same.
FIG. 1.4: - MODIFIED RANKINE CYCLE
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1.2) ROLE OF CONDENSER IN THERMAL CYCLE:
Condenser is simply not a closing link, but a vital one in the thermal cycle. Constant
temperature heat rejection is taking place here. It is the only process similar in Carnot and
Rankine cycles. The latent heat of exhaust steam of Turbine is absorbed as sensible heat by the
circulating water.
To extract maximum work from the steam expanding in the Turbine, expansion of steam should
be high. Since the condenser helps in maintaining high vacuum that is practically possible,
maximum work can be expected. If the steam had exhausted at atmospheric pressure, this
would not have become possible.
1.3) PRINCIPLE OF A CONDENSER
1. Volume of Steam:-
If water is put into a closed vessel and heated, a quantity of heat known as sensible heat is
required to bring the water to boiling point and if further heat is added to convert the water into
steam this is known as latent heat.
The volume of the steam formed is far greater than that of the water and consequently the
pressure in the vessel rises. Thus the application of the latent heat has caused an increase in
pressure. (Figure 4 and 5).
2. Removal of Heat:-
Now reverse the process and remove some heat by cooling the vessel. During this cooling the
latent heat is removed from the steam which is reduced to water (or condensed) with a
consequent fall in pressure. (Figure 4)
This removal of latent heat happens on a very large scale in a turbine condenser.
5
Fig.1. 5: Heat increases pressure Fig.1 6: Cooling decreases pressure
3. Condenser Pressure:-
The condenser is an airtight vessel where the steam exhausted from the turbine is cooled and
condensed. The condensation is so complete that the pressure inside the condenser is reduced
below that of the atmosphere and this condition is referred to as the vacuum in the condenser.
To maintain this low pressure condition it is essential that any air or other incondensable gases,
passing in to the condenser with the steam must be continuously removed and, in addition to
condensing the steam, the condenser must separate, these gases from the steam for discharge
by an ejector or air pump.
1.4) ADVANTAGES OF CONDENSER: -
1. Improvement of thermal cycle efficiency:
The minimum absolute pressure, that is practically possible (or the maximum possible
vacuum), which is maintained in the condenser helps to extract maximum work from the steam
expanding in the turbine. This achieves considerable efficiency increase of the turbine. Overall
efficiency of the cycle is raised due to this.
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2. Easy handling of the working fluid, i.e. by condensing and reuse:
Since the condensed steam is reused, make up water requirement is drastically reduced. The
make-up water rate has to be around 3% of steam generation rate in the boiler in normal
working conditions, practically it will be high. After exhaust steam from turbine, which
occupies the first place, the drain condensate (drip) from LP heaters is the major source of
recovery of the working fluid.
3. Hot-well is a water reserve and hence provides flexibility in operation:
Even though the cycle is a closed one, constant water levels are maintained in condenser,
Deaerator and boiler drum. System losses are made up continuously.
During start up, shut down, load raising, load reduction or during any emergency situation, the
water storage in the Hot-well serves as a cushion. This gives flexibility in operation of the
plant. During the situations mentioned above, the incoming fluid rate and outgoing fluid rate
may not exactly match but still the plant can be operated smoothly because the Hot-well serves
as a reservoir.
4. Helping to conserve DM water since the drains are diverted to condenser through flash
boxes:
Many drains are provided in steam and water lines in Turbine area. If these drains are not
properly diverted, wastage of DM water will be there mainly during start up and shut down.
Since condenser is the reserve operating at the lowest pressure in thermal power plant, its serves
as the receiving point. Maximum possible recovery of working fluid is accomplished by
diverting all the drain to the flash boxes, which in turn divert them to the condenser in the form
of steam and water.
5. Thermal cycle water losses are advantageously made up at the Hot-well:
Thermal cycle water losses are made up at the Hot-well. This arrangement has many
advantages over other options.
7
Advantages of adding make up water at the Hot-well:
i). Pumping power required is bare minimum since the pressure required is very small. Higher
pressure will be required to inject the make-up water, if it is done at any other point of the
cycle. In fact, without any pumping, the make-up water can be made to be sucked by the
condenser from the CST.
ii). Temperature difference between the make-up water and main condensate water in the
condenser hot-well is the lowest encountered anywhere in the cycle. Hence the problem of
thermal shock (violent heat transfer) is avoided.
iii). As the make-up water undergoes deaeration in the condenser, a portion of the dissolved
oxygen coming along with the make-up water is removed through ejectors.
iv). Since the make-up water is added/injected at the neck of the condenser, i.e., right into the
flow of exhaust steam, condensation of exhaust steam is further improved as the make-up
water directly quenches the exhaust steam
1.5) PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT:-

Pressure may be defined as the force per unit area applied in a direction perpendicular to the
surface of an object.
Mathematically, pressure may be expressed as:
p = F/A
Where: p is the pressure, F is the force and A is the area.
Everyday pressure measurements are usually made relative to ambient air pressure. In other
cases measurements are made relative to a vacuum or to some other specific reference. When
distinguishing between these zero references, the following terms are used:
 Absolute pressure is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, so it is equal to gauge

pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
8
 Gauge pressure is zero-referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to
absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted. To
distinguish a negative pressure, the value may be appended with the word "vacuum" or
the gauge may be labelled a "vacuum gauge."
 Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points.
Fig 1.7 Pressure Diagram
From above figure we can establish the following relations:-

1. Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
i.e., Pabs = Pg + Patm
2. Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure – Absolute pressure
i.e., Pvac = Patm - Pabs
1.6) VACUUM AND ITS MEASUREMENT:-

Vacuum is sub-atmospheric pressure. It is measured as the pressure depression below
atmospheric. The term vacuum in the case of a condenser means pressure below atmospheric
pressure. It is generally expressed in mm of Hg (mercury).The vacuum is measured by means
of a vacuum gauge. Usually for calculation purpose the vacuum gauge reading is corrected to
standard barometric reading 760 mm as follows:
9
Corrected vacuum in mm of Hg = (760-absolute pressure in mm of Hg)
= 760- (actual barometric reading – actual vacuum)
Also, 760 mm of Hg = 1.010325 bar
Therefore, 1 mm of Hg = 1.01325/760 = 0.0013322368 bar
Vacuum Efficiency: - It is defined as the ratio of the actual vacuum to the maximum obtainable
vacuum
Actual vacuum
Vacuum Efficiency = Maximum obtainable vacuum
Condenser Efficiency: -It is defined as the ratio of the difference between the outlet and inlet
temperatures of cooling water to its difference between the temperature corresponding to the
vacuum in the condenser and inlet temperature of cooling water.
Rise in temp. of cooling water

Condenser Efficiency = Temp corr. to vacuum in condenser-inlet temp. of cooling water
1.7) TERMINAL TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE (T.T.D.):-
The temperature difference between the exhaust steam and the cooling water is least at the top
of the condenser where the cooling water leaves. Here the cooling water has its highest
temperature. This particular temperature difference is very important and is given a special
name. It is called the terminal temperature difference. The important point is that any increase
in this terminal difference leads directly to increase in the saturation temperature of the exhaust
steam and a higher back pressure.
Fig 1.8 Terminal Temperature Difference
T.T.D. = Condensing Steam saturation temperature – Cooling Water outlet temperature
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i.e., Θ2= t3 – t2
1.8) INITIAL TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE (I.T.D.): -
It is defined as the difference between saturation temperature of the condensate water in the
condenser and temperature of cooling water coming into the condenser.
I.T.D. = Condensing Steam saturation temperature – Cooling Water inlet temperature
i.e., Θ1= t3 – t1
1.9) LOGARITHIMIC MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE:-
The logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) is used to determine the temperature
driving force for heat transfer in flow systems, most notably in heat exchangers. The LMTD is
a logarithmic average of the temperature difference between the hot and cold streams at each
end of the exchanger. The larger the LMTD, the more heat is transferred. The use of the LMTD
arises straightforwardly from the analysis of a heat exchanger with constant flow rate and fluid
thermal properties.
Mathematically it can be given as,
Θ1 - Θ2
LMTD =
lnΘ1/Θ2
1.10) SATURATION TEMPERATURE:-
A saturated liquid contains as much thermal energy as it can without boiling (or conversely a
saturated vapour contains as little thermal energy as it can without condensing).
Saturation temperature means boiling point. The saturation temperature is the temperature for
a corresponding saturation pressure at which a liquid boils into its vapour phase. The liquid
can be said to be saturated with thermal energy. Any addition of thermal energy results in a
phase transition.
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If the pressure in a system remains constant (isobaric), a vapour at saturation temperature will
begin to condense into its liquid phase as thermal energy (heat) is removed. Similarly, a
liquid at saturation temperature and pressure will boil into its vapour phase as additional
thermal energy is applied.
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CHAPTER -2
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF CONDENSER
Since the condenser is one of the critical components of a power plant and it’s also don’t have
another backup condenser, so knowledge of its constructional details of every elements
becomes vital before knowing other details on it. Study of its elements will help us to
understand its importance and function in condenser. In this chapter we will deal with each
elements of a condenser in brief to get an idea about it importance.
2.1) CLASSIFICATION OF CONDENSERS
Modern day condensers comes in various types, shapes and arrangements. So it becomes
essential to have classification of these condensers for its easy identification. The condenser
can be classified under various categories which are as follows:
1. According to type of heat rejection of steam to the cooling water.

2. According to the position and arrangement of the condenser itself.
3. According to the flow path of cooling water.
1. According to the heat rejection of steam to the cooling water:-
In condenser steam can be condensed by using either-
a. Jet condenser (Also known as direct contact type).

b. Surface type condenser.
a. Jet condenser: - In jet condenser the exhaust steam and water come in direct contact with
each other and temperature of the condensate is the same as that of cooling water leaving the
condenser. The cooling water is usually sprayed into the exhaust steam in a closed vessel to
cause rapid condensation.
In a power station the condensate is returned to the boiler and must be absolutely pure. If a jet
condenser were used the cooling water, which is mixed with the condensate would have to be
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equally pure. Because very large quantities of cooling water are required, this type of
condenser is not a practical proposition for power plant.
Jet condensers may be further classified as:
i. Low level jet condenser.

ii. High level jet condenser.
iii. Ejector condenser.
i. Low level jet condenser: - In this type of condenser the exhaust steam is entering the condenser
from the top and cold water is being sprayed on its way. The baffle plate provide in it ensures the
proper mixing of the steam and cooling water An extraction pump at the bottom discharges to the
hot well from where it may be fed to the boiler if the cooling water being used is free from
impurities. A separate dry pump may be incorporated to maintain proper vacuum.
Fig 2.1 Low level jet condenser

ii. High level jet condenser: - In this type of condenser the shell is placed at a height of about 10.363
metres above hot well and thus the necessity of providing an extraction pump can be avoided
However provision of own injection pump has to be made if water under pressure is not available.
Fig 2.2 High level jet condenser
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iii. Ejector condenser: -Here the exhaust steam and cooling water mix in hollow truncated
cones. Due to this decreased pressure exhaust steam along with associated air is drawn
through the truncated cones and finally lead to diverging cone. In the diverging cone, a
portion of kinetic energy gets converted into pressure energy which is more than the
atmospheric so that condensate consisting of condensed steam, cooling water and air is
discharged into the hot well. The exhaust steam inlet is provided with a non-return valve
which does not allow the water from hot well to rush back to the engine in case a failure
of cooling water supply to condenser.
Fig.2.3- Ejector condenser
c. Surface condensers: - In surface condensers, the exhaust steam and water do not come
into direct contact. The steam passes over the outer surface of the tubes thorough which a
supply of cooling water is maintained. This type of condenser is useful where water is
available in large quantities it is usually very impure, for example, sea water and river
water, but such impurities have little effect upon its cooling properties. . In this case the
purity of the cooling water does not matter because apart from any leakages which may
occur it is never in contact with the condensate.
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Types of surface condensers: -
i. Down-flow type.
ii. Central-flow type.
iii. Inverted –flow type.
iv. Regenerative-flow type.
v. Evaporative type.
i. Down-flow type: The cooling water enters the shell at the lower half section and after
traveling through the upper half section comes out through the outlet. The exhaust steam
entering shell from the top flows down over the tubes and gets condensed and is finally
removed by an extraction pump. Due to the fact that steam flows in a direction right angle
to the direction of flow of water, it is also called cross-surface condenser.
Fig 2.4: Down-flow type condenser
ii. Central flow type: In this type of condenser, the suction pipe of the air extraction pump
is located in the centre of the tubes which results in radial flow of the steam. The better
contact between the outer surface of the tubes and steam is ensured, due to large
passages the pressure drop of steam is reduced.
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Fig 2.5: Central-flow type condenser
iii. Inverted-flow type: This type of condenser has the air suction at the top, the steam
after entering at the bottom rises up and then again flows down to the bottom of the
condenser, by following a path near the outer surface of the condenser. The condensate
extraction pump is at the bottom.
iv. Regenerative type: This type is applied to condensers adopting a regenerative method
of heating of the condensate. After leaving the tube nest, the condensate is passed
through the entering exhaust steam from the steam engine or turbine thus raising the
temperature of the condensate, for use as feed water for the boiler.
v. Evaporative type: The principle of this condenser is that when a limited quantity of
water is available, its quantity needed to condense the steam can be reduced by causing
the circulating water to evaporate under a small partial pressure.
The exhaust steam enters at the top through gilled pipes. The water pump sprays water
on the pipes and descending water condenses the steam. The water which is not
evaporated falls into the open tank (cooling pond) under the condenser from which it
can be drawn by circulating water pump and used over again. The evaporative
condenser is placed in open air and finds its application in small size plants.
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Fig 2.6: Evaporative type condenser
2.According to the Positions or Arrangement of the condenser itself:
According to the position condenser are classified as :
i.Underslug Axial or Transverse condenser.
ii. Integral condenser
iii.Pannier or side mounted condenser.
i. Underslug -Axial or Transverse Condenser: In this condensers are mounted below the L.P.
Turbine. The condenser may be located axially w.r.t turbine shaft. In some machines
condenses are mounted under the turbine at right angles to the turbine shafts.
Fig. 2.7 Underslug -Axial or Transverse Condenser
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ii. Integral Condenser : In this condensers are arranged around the L.P. Turbine cylinders as
shown in fig. 2.8
Fig. 2.8 Integral condenser.
iii. Pannier Condenser: In this condenser are arranged at each side of the L.P. turbine
cylinder, known as Pannier condenser.
Fig. 2.9 Pannier or side Mounted condenser.
3.According to the flow path of the cooling water:-
According to the cooling water flow the condenser can be classified as
i. Single flow (Single Pass).

ii. Double flow (Double Pass).
iii. Three pass condenser.
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When the cooling water makes only one journey across, this is known as a single pass
condenser. If the cooling water makes two journeys then it is known as a double pass
condenser. In this case the water in the bottom half of the tubes will be flowing from front to
back and in the top half from back to front. Fig.2.10 (b) shows a method of venting for a 2
pass condenser. A 3" air vent is fitted to each shell from the highest point on the return water
box. The air is vented to the cooling water outlet main and prevents air bubbles in the second
pass. The inlet pass is protected by drilling say 4 one inch holes in the inlet water box divisional
wall between passes 'x'. More emphasis is given on single pass and double pass condenses in
the next chapter.
Similarly with a three pass condenser the water makes three journeys across. A single
pass design which gives a long narrow condenser, suits the large modern turbines and can be
mounted axially under the machine in line with the turbine shifts. The steam distribution is line
with the turbine shafts. The steam distribution is not as good in a single pass as in two pass
condenser.
Fig 2.10 Single and Double Pass Condenser.
20
2.2) CONSTRUCTION DETAIL OF CONDENSER-- 210 MW -UNIT-6/STAGE-
2/TPS-II
The condenser of 210 MW units 4 to 7/Stage-II/TPS-II is a rectangular shell of surface type.

The exhaust steam flow pattern in the condenser is down flow. The circulating water flow is of
double pass type and the lower tubes are in series with the upper tubes. The condenser is with
divided water boxes to have the tube nest in two parts in order to have 50% operation during
on load leak testing and maintenance. The circulating water system is of closed circuit type
with a cooling tower. The condenser primarily comprises of
 Condenser supports
 Hot well
 Condensing chamber
 Condenser neck
 End tube plates
 Tube nest
 Water boxes
 Air removal system
 Steam dumping device.
The condenser is rated to handle 442 t/hr. of exhaust steam at the parameters of 0.1033
ata and 46.1 deg. C
Fig 2.11 A typical 210 MW condenser
21
1. Condenser Supports
The condenser is supported on 24 springs in the two rows (2 x 12) in order to have flexible
connection with the turbine. It is rigidly connected to the base (Bottom half) of the LP cylinder of
the turbine. This kind of support for condenser ensures effective dampening of vibration and shock
and also gives provision for thermal expansion of the LP cylinder of the turbine, condenser neck
and condenser itself.
Since the condenser has been floated over the springs, empty weight of the condenser is taken
by the springs along with partial operating weight. The remaining operating weight is taken by
the turbine foundation. While conducting hydraulic test in the shell side of the condenser water
is to be filled up into steam space up to one meter above the top tube row. Prior to filling water
into condenser steam space for testing, jacking screws provided with spring support should be
used for ensuring water weight being passed on to them, to avoid over stressing of springs.
Prior to putting the system back in operation, condenser must be floated over springs to avoid
excessive upward thrust being passed on to the turbine foundation.
Fig. 2.12 Condenser supports
2. Hot-well:
The Hot well is in the lower part of the condenser to form a storage tank for main condensate.
It also collects the drains entering through flash boxes. It is a water reserve in the thermal cycle
along with deaerator and boiler drum. Hot well is divided in the middle through a partition.
The purpose is to separate the condensate condensed in each half of the condenser nest for
better identification of tube leaking zone. Conductivity measurements are to be done in each
22
condensate outlet from the hot well to give a warning of any leakage of circulating water into
the condenser.
Two lines from the bottom of the hot well will take the main condensate to the suction of the
condensate extraction pumps. The hot well is provided with 2 level columns having level
glasses, level switches and level transmitters. It is also provided with 3 no’s of drains at its
bottom. Normal water level in the hot well is 750mm and its capacity is designed to be for 3
minutes of pumping by a CEP.
3. Condensing Chamber
The condensing chamber is a shell where the exhaust steam of turbine comes into contact with
the tube nest and gets condensed. It is floated on spring supports and welded to the condenser
neck and it’s top. The end tube plates secured to the shell provide support for the tube nest.
4. Condenser Neck:
This is the part of the condenser to form an interconnection between the condensing chamber
and LP turbine. It is designed such that the exhaust steam of turbine reaches the condensing
chamber with a relatively low velocity and very low-pressure drop. The make-up water line
and LP bypass steam lines join the condenser at the neck.
5. End Tube Plates

The end tube plates are perforated plates, which separate the water boxes from the condensing
chamber. There are 4 end tube plates, two on each side of the condenser, to have divided water box
construction. The circulating water tubes have been roller expanded into end tube plates. These tube
plates ensure a perfect sealing so that the purity of the main condensate is not affected. They are also
designed for withstanding against the difference in pressure between the condensing chamber and the
water box. The end tubes are cladded with stainless steel plates on C.W side for corrosion protection.
6. Tube Nest:
1. The thickness of the tubes should be as small as possible to have high rate of heat transfer.
The tubes are of outer diameter 25.4 mm and thickness of 0.7112 mm.
2. 16418 Nos. of tubes are provided in the condensing zone and 1240 Nos. of tubes in air
cooling zone.
23
3. Method for making tube to end plate expansion joint on at both ends of the tube is by roller
expansion. Quality of expansion joints determine whether there is any seepage of cooling
water into steam space which has a bearing on the scaling of the water wall tubes of the
boiler, steam purity and silica deposition on last stage turbine blades. To ensure very high
quality of the expansion joints the expansion is carried out by torque controlled expander
tools. The holes should have good finish and minimum ovality. The expanders should be set
to achieve 7 to 10 % wall thinning
The intermediate tube plates at twelve places on each side provide the support for the tubes.
These intermediate support plates serve the following purposes:
 To support the weight of the tubes thereby preventing sagging of these tubes
 To provide increased strength to withstand the force of direct impingement of
the exhaust steam.
 To curb flow induced vibration.
4. The tubes are placed horizontally with an inclination of 0.5 degree towards the front water
box side for self-draining during circulating water pump tripping or plant shutdown.
5. The principal factors to be taken into consideration when determining the tube spacing are
low steam velocity between condenser tubes, uniform distribution of the steam over the
whole condensing surface and equal pressure at the top and bottom rows of tubes. A
computerized design is used to optimize tube spacing, tube cross section and condensing
surface of the condenser. The tube spacing is broken up to a large extent by the arrangement
of the condenser tubes in bundles. Wide lanes from top to bottom are left between the tube
bundles so that the steam can also reach the lower rows of the tubes without incurring
appreciable pressure loss. The steam then flows sideways from these lanes into the tubes
7. Water Boxes:
Since the condenser is constructed with divided water boxes, there are totally 4 water boxes.
Two front water boxes are divided horizontally to have 2 passes of the circulating water. The
water makes its entry at the bottom and leaves at the top of the front water box. The reversing
chamber at the rear acts as an interconnecting chamber for bottom and top passes. All the water
boxes are provided with vents and drains. The inlet and outlet circulating water pipes join the
front water boxes through expansion joints. Water box inside surfaces have been protected
against corrosion by application of protective coating over the surfaces in contact with the
24
circulating water. Water boxes incorporate hinge arrangement to facilitate the removal of cover
for enabling leak detection, re-tubing and cleaning of tubes etc.,
8. Air off Take System:
Although the condenser is theoretically expected to condense the entire quantity of exhaust
steam, practically a small quantity of steam will remain in the vapour state along with the air
ingresses into the system and non-condensing gases. This uncondensed vapour and the air will
have to be removed by means of ejectors in order to sustain the vacuum inside the condenser.
The system, which collects the uncondensed vapour and the air from the condenser, so as to
enable ejection is known as AIR OFF TAKE SYSTEM.
As explained earlier, the pattern of exhaust steam flow is ‘Down Flow’ and the exhaust steam
gets condensed before reaching the bottom. Hence the air and the uncondensed vapour will
reach the bottom space of the tube nest in each side.
At the bottom space of the tube nest of each side, a horizontal pipe with perforations at its
bottom surface only is provided for collecting the air and the uncondensed vapour. A zone
called as ‘air cooling zone’ is formed below these 2 pipes. The air and the uncondensed vapours
existing at the bottom space (above the hot well water level) gets sucked (through the air
cooling zone) into these horizontal pipes are in communication with the ejectors through two
vertical pipes, there is vacuum inside these pipes.
Since the air and uncondensed vapour flow over the surfaces of 1240 Nos. of circulating water
tubes separately provided in air cooling zone, the reduction in specific volume of the air and
the uncondensed vapour takes place (due to temperature reduction) resulting in reduction of
the volumetric load on the ejectors.
9. Steam Dumping Device:
Two numbers of Steam Dumping devices are provided for the condenser for dumping bypassed steam
(from LP bypass system) directly into the condenser during start-up, load throw-off etc., Each device
is provided with an orifice plate which reduces the bypassed steam pressure to approximately
condenser pressure. The pressure of bypassed steam has already been reduced partially due to
throttling in LP bypass control valve. Moreover, injection of main condensate into the bypassed steam
is done here to reduce the temperature.
25
100% steam dumping can be carried out in condenser for a maximum duration of 10 minutes,
and within this time, Unit operation is required to be brought down to 60% and then the Unit
may be operated continuously.
Fig. 2.13 Steam dumping (throw-off) device
2.3) TECHNICAL DATA OF 210 MW UNIT 6/STAGE -2/TPS-II

CONDENSER:-
Design Features:
1. Number of condenser per unit : One
2. Type: Rectangular down flow type surface condenser – Divided water box with two water
passes in each section
3. Overall length of the condenser : 14000 mm
4. Method of support for condenser : Floated over the springs
5. Number spring elements : 24 Nos. (In 2 rows)
6. Loading data
a. Dry weight of condenser : 361 Tonnes
b. Operating weight of Condenser : 555 Tonnes
c. Weight transferred to LP cylinder
from stability consideration : 190 Tonnes
d. Operating weight on springs : 365 Tonnes
e. Hydraulic Test weight : 693 Tonnes
f. Water to be filled in the
hot-well during spring adjustment : 4 Tonnes
26
7. Hot well Storage capacity : 3 minutes of pumping by CEP
8. Number of end tube plates : 4 (2 on each side)
9. Length between end tube plates : 10,000 mm
10. C.W.Tubes:
a. Length of the tube : 10, 1 0 mm
b. Tube OD and thickness : 25.4 x 0.7112 mm
c. Tube material : Stainless steel (SS TP 316)
d. Percentage tube thinning : 7.5 % (average)
e. Number of tubes:
i) Condensing zone : 16148 nos.
ii) Air cooling zone : 1240 nos.
TOTAL : 17658
f. Total heat transfer surface area : 14090 m2
11. Number of support tube plates : 2 x 12
12. Design Data: Water side Steam side
i) Condenser pressure : 5.0 ksc full vacuum
ii) Condenser temperature : 50 deg C 100 deg C
15. Circulating water Data
i) Design inlet temperature : 34 deg C.
ii) Temperature rise in tubes : 8.6 deg C.
iii) Flow quantity : 29000 m3 / hr.
iv) Pressure drop across the tubes : 5.5 mm W.C.
2. Thermal Cycle Data (at 100 % MCR ):

 Rate of steam flow from main turbine : 441.96 T/Hr.
 Enthalpy of steam from turbine : 579.5 Kcal / kg.
 Temperature of exhaust steam from turbine : 46.1 deg C
 Condenser pressure : 0.1033 ata.
27
CHAPTER-3
FACTORS AFFECTING CONDENSER PERFORMANCE AND

EFFICIENCY
3.1) EFFECT OF VARYING THE BACK PRESSURE
A large amount of the extra work is done by the steam, when the back pressure is reduced.
However, the trouble is that as the back pressure improves certain losses increase.
Those are mainly:
1) CW Pumping Power.
2) Leaving losses.
3) Reduced condensate Temperature.
4) Wetness of the steam.
1. Increased CW Pumping Power
Assuming that the CW inlet temperature is low enough, the back pressure can be reduced by
putting more and more CW through condenser tubes. However, this will require more CW
pumping power and the gain from improved back pressure must be offset against extra power
absorbed by the pumps. So the CW pumps should be run only when the cost of running the
pump is equal to, or less than the gain in output from the machine.
2. Increasing leaving loss
The steam leaves the last row at a velocity which depends upon the conditions prevailing at the
point. As this velocity is not utilized usefully, it is represents a loss of possible work known
as the leaving loss. So velocity steam through fixed annulus is must also double. But leaving
losses varies as square of the velocity. So it will increase four times.
Leaving Loss = mvo2 / 2
Where, m= Mass steam flow,
V0= Absolute velocity at the outlet of last row of blade
28
3. Reduced condensate temperature / increased bled steam
The condensate in the condenser is at saturation temperature corresponding to the back

pressure. It back pressure is reduced, saturation temperature will drop. When it enters first LP
heaters it will be cooler than before consequently more steam will automatically be bled to the
heater. The extra steam is no longer available to do work in the turbine will be deprived of
some work.
4. Increase wetness of the steam
The lower the back pressure, the greater the wetness of steam. The extra moisture could result
in damage to the moving blade. Also with increased wetness, volume of steam is reduced water
droplets being heavier than steam moves slowly. So the front edge of moving blades have to
push the droplets out of the way. This can cause damage to blades. Therefore, it is usual to fit
satellite erosion shields to the leading edge to reduce this damage. As a rough guide, it can be
assumed that every 1% wetness will reduce efficiency of associated stage by 1%.
The reduction in back pressure will result in net improvement in heat consumption until a point
is reached beyond which benefit due to improve back pressure is outweighed by the losses and
heat consumption increase.
3.2) EFFECT OF AIR ON BACK PRESSURE
The reason why air has such an adverse effect on vacuum is often misunderstood, so a few
words on the subject will not be out of place.
The 100 percent capacity of the air pumps is often of the order to 1/2000 of the weight of steam
entering the condenser per hour.
Now, it is frequently (but wrongly) assumed that the back pressure suffers because of the extra
partial pressure of the air. That this is not so can be easily shown by calculation. Maxing even
the maximum weight of the air, the air pumps can handle with the steam in the condenser would
do very little to increase the back pressure because of the partial pressure alone.
29
For example, if the back pressure is 34.474 mbar (vacuum) without any air presently would
only rise to 34.3485 mbar. The real trouble with air is that as the steam condenses on the
condenser on the condenser tubes the air (which is incondensable) is left behind. If the quantity
of air is mall the scouring action of the steam and condensate will sweep the air is small the
scouring action of the steam and condensate will sweep the air off the tubes. However, if the
air quantity is significant things are different. Air is such an excellent heat insulator that it only
requires a film a few molecules thick to seriously interfere with the heat transfer to the cooling
water from the steam. Accordingly the vacuum suffers.
Fortunately, it is easy to determine whether air is present in a condenser by merely measuring

the temperature of the contents of the air suction pipe to the air pumps. With no air present
this temperature is approximately the same as that of the saturated steam in the condenser.
When air is present this temperature falls-the more air present the lower is the temperature.
3.3) SCALE FORMATION
Scaling is the precipitation of hare and adherent salts of calcium and magnesium on metal
surface. These scales have very poor thermal conductivity and heat transfer in condenser is
affected very seriously. It is therefore essential to control the scale formation on one hand and
remove the deposited scale on the other hand for good condenser performance. Some of the
common scale are calcium and magnesium carbonates and sulphates, silicates and iron salts. Most
commonly encountered scale in normal cooling water system is calcium carbonate, which is
moderately soluble in water is present in almost all cooling waters and get decomposed into
calcium carbonate at higher temperature and ph.
Calcium carbonate is soluble in water and gets precipitated on the tubes. Calcium sulfate has
higher solubility and hence less precipitation scale. Magnesium salts have less scaling
potential, as they are more soluble than calcium salts and their concentration in water is usually
slow. Process of scale formation gets accelerated with increase in water temperature and pH
or alkalinity. Limiting cycle of concentration, using softening water for CW makeup, reducing
CW water pH to about 8.5, and using on-line tube cleaning system with sponge balls - these
are some of the measures that can be taken for controlling scale formation.
30
3.4) EFFECT ON VACUUM DUE TO VARIOUS PARAMETERS:-
1) Losses due to high CW temperature.
Provided that the cooling towers are performing satisfactorily this loss must be accepted to
some extent. It is possible, of course, to minimize the loss by having an abnormal quantity of
cooling water flowing through the condenser; this gives a smaller cooling water temperature
rise across the condenser then optimum. However, the gain which results from this is almost
cancelled out by the additional pumping power required. Therefore, the increased turbine
output caused by improving the vacuum must be greater than the increased circulating pump
hour by required to justify these means of reducing the loss.
2) Variation of CW temperature rise:
This is due to CW Flow. If the cooling water temperature rise across the condenser is less
then optimum, then the opening of the condenser cooling water outlet valve should be
reduced. This condition may also be shown up when the condensate temperature is lower
than the saturated steam temperature. If the cooling water temperature rise is hardly effected
by opening (even abnormally wide) of the cooling water valves then the condenser tube
plates are probably fouled-assuming that there is no shortage of cooling water.
3) Dirty tubes.
The effect of the dirty tubes on the heat transfer is to increase the TTD above optimum.
Operationally little can be done to eliminate the cause of this loss, as the tubes must normally
be cleaned when the unit is off - load. However, as soon as loss due to dirty tubes is determined,
it should be ascertained that chlorine injection to the affected condenser satisfactory.
The effect of this loss on vacuum can be minimized by increasing the flow of cooling water
through the condenser on account of increase pumping power. So that we have to observe that
this should be less than the gain in output from the machine.
4) Effect of air in condenser.
Practically all the air entering the condenser does so through leakages into the turbine spaces
which are under vacuum and can have one or more of the following ill effects on operation:-
31
a) Air entering to the outside to the condenser tubes adds considerable resistance
to the heat flow. To overcome this, in order to maintain the flow of heat the
exhaust temperature must rise. This is known as air blanketing.
b) The corresponding backpressure will rise as a result of increased exhaust
temperature.
c) The condensate temperature in relation to that of the exhaust temperature in a
similar manner to the pressure drop.
In the case of a) the increasing heat transfer resistance will increase the amount of heat that
must be transferred and as the steam consumption is increaser attempts to hold the turbine
output constant would further aggravate the situation.
Possible areas of air ingress:
 LP Turbine Glands.
 LP Turbine Diaphragms.
 LP Turbine Parting Plane.
 CEP Glands (Standby Pump)
 Hot well
 Valve Glands, Flange Joints etc.
5) Partial Pressure.
The reason for a) and b) are clear but some explanation is necessary for c). Here the reason lies
in a scientific law known as Dalton's law of partial pressure, which states that “if a mixture of
gases of vapour is contained in a closed vessel each gas exerts a pressure equal to that which it
would normally exert if alone in the vessel. In other words each exerts a partial pressure and
the total pressure in the vessel is the sum of the partial pressures.
Consider these laws in relation to the condenser. At the top, the weight of air present is very
small compared with the weight of steam and the air partial pressure can be neglected. The
total pressure can be regarded as that due to the steam alone. The steam temperature actually
corresponds to the partial steam pressure. At the top of the condenser, steam temperature will
therefore correspond to total pressure.
32
At the bottom of the condenser, however, most of the steam will have been condensed and
there is a much bigger ratio by weight of air to steam. So, now the air partial pressure is not
negligible, hence, at the bottom of the condenser the total pressure is greater than the steam
partial pressure by an amount equal to the partial pressure.
The condensate temperature corresponds to the steam partial pressure at the bottom of the
condenser. It will therefore, be lower than if calculated from the total pressure.
This is shown numerically in the following examples:
Pressure (mm of Hg ) Temperature (0C)

At the top of the condenser, due to
38 33
steam alone.
Pressure drop through condenser. Say 5 --
Total pressure at the bottom of the
condenser made up of partial 33 30.5
pressure of steam & air.
Partial air pressure at bottom Say 2.5
Partial steam pressure at bottom 30 29
Thus the total losses in temperature are now 70C and there are due to air in the example shown
is 20C. These emphases the importance of prevention of the air leaks and the removal of them
condenser.
Fig 3.1 Condenser conditioning graph
33
6) Velocity of steam.
The velocity of incoming steam is the main factor in the forcing the air towards the bottom of
the condenser. Because of these velocities, the steam sweeps over tubes and drives the air away
before it. In this way the tubes are kept free of air, which is kept. Moving towards the air outlet.
It must not be allowed to recalculate or find a stagnant corner. During this tine the steam has
been condensing so the air concentration increased towards the bottom of the condenser.
When the air and the any uncondensed steam mixed with it reach the bottom of the condenser
they come within the range of powerful effect of ejector draws this mixture under a baffle
which encloses a nest of the tubes in the lowest temperature cooling water zone. In fact the
water temperature at the outlet from this section might be only 50F higher than the water inlet
temperature.
In this air cooler section any steam remaining in the mixture is condensed and the air cooled.
The reason for cooling the air is to reduce the volume and enable the ejector, which operates
by volume, to remove a greater weight of air.
The actual take off from the air cooler is usually placed about three tubes drawn the top of the
air cooler section. This is to prevent air being reheated through contact with the baffle plate
which has relics much hotter steam on the side.
3..5) CONDENSER EFFICIENCY AND PERFORMANCE
The condenser efficiency may be defined as ''the ratio of the difference between the outlet and
inlet temperature of cooling water to the difference between the temperature corresponding to
the vacuum in the condenser and the inlet temperature of the cooling water."
Because of the considerable effect that condenser performance can have upon heat rate there is
a need to apply a strict control upon its operation. Though the main control parameter is the
back pressure measured at the turbine exhaust flange, since any deviation in this directly affects
the heat of the machine, the following parameter also have to be measured and recorded
periodically.
34
1) C. W. inlet temperature
2) C. W. outlet temperature
3) C. W. pump amperage and bus voltage
4) Loss of pressure across the condenser
5) Megawatt load on unit.
6) Main steam temperature and pressure.
7) Reheat heat temperature and pressure.
8) FW final temperature.
9) Whether all feed water heaters are in service, if not , which are not
10) Condenser exhaust temperature
11) Condensate temperature
Generally, condensers are designed to operate at 85% cleanliness factor. It is possible to

draw curves for different C.W. inlet temperature designed exhaust pressure at different
cleanliness factors at a different MW loads. The steam flows can be read out from heat balance
chart or in case of any basic departure (like a particular heater remaining out of service) a fresh
heat balance can be drawn. Once these curves are available, the performance of the condenser
can be easily estimated any time. The C.W. pump current and pressure drop across condenser
would give fair estimate of the quantity of C.W. flow to the condenser in practice checking of
condenser tubes can be apprehended by people, but loss due to scaling/deposition is not easily
seen and need shut down inspection.
35
CHAPTER – 4
CALCULATION ON FACTORS AFFECTING CONDENSER
PERFORMANCE
The following tabulation of various condenser parameters including values of both actual and
design are taken from UNIT No -6 (210 MW), NLC Thermal Power Station (TPS) – 2 Stage -
2, Neyveli on 16/01/2015during full load operation of the unit.
PARAMETERS UNITS ACTUAL DESIGN/OPTIMUM

Circulating water inlet ºC A – 32.38 A - 34
temperature (T1)
B - 32.06 B - 34
Circulating water outlet ºC A – 37.40 A – 42.1
temperature (T2)
B – 36.75 B – 42.1
Circulating water ºC A - 5.02 A - 8.6
temperature rise ( T =
B - 4.69 B - 8.6
T2 – T1)
Vacuum in condenser mm of 689.95 684
Hg
Saturation temperature ºC 41.5 46.1
(T3)
Terminal Temperature ºC A - 4.1 A - 3.5
Difference (Θ2= T3 – T2)
B - 4.75 B – 3.5
Initial Temperature ºC A – 9.12 A – 12.1
Difference (Θ1= T3 – T1)
B – 9.44 B – 12.1
LPT exhaust hood ºC 44.89 44
temperature
Air Temperature Main ºC A – 39.62 A – 45.7
Ejector B – 45.7 B – 45.7
LMTD ºC A – 6.26 A – 6.93
B – 6.83 B – 6.93
Θ1 - Θ2
Where, LMTD =
ln Θ1/ Θ2
36
4.1) Effect in condenser vacuum due of variation in circulating water inlet
temperature:-
The value of saturation temperature in condenser can be calculated by the following relation
Saturation temperature (TS) = Actual value circulating water inlet temperature (Avg.)(T1) +
Optimum/Design value of change in circulating water temperature rise ( T ) + Optimum
value Terminal Temperature Difference (T.T.D.) ………….(1)
From our actual and optimum/design data taken from Unit-6 of NLC TPS-2 (Stage -2) Neyveli,
we have
T1 (actual) = 32.22 ºC
T (optimum) = 8.6 ºC
T.T.D (optimum) = 3.5 ºC
By putting these values into the equation no.-1, we get
Saturation temperature (TS) = 32.22 ºC + 8.6 ºC + 3.5 ºC
= 44.32 ºC
So back pressure in the condenser corresponding to saturation temperature 44.32 ºC is (by using
steam table)
Pb = 0.0933 bar (abs.)
As optimum value of vacuum = 684 mm of Hg

= 684 x 0.00133322368 bar (1 mm of Hg=0.00133322368 bar)
= 0.9119 bar
Therefore its corresponding back pressure
= (1 - .09119) bar
= 0.0881 bar (abs.)
So, deviation in back pressure due variation in circulating water inlet temperature is
= Actual back pressure – Optimum back pressure
= (0.0933 – 0.0881) bar
= .0052 bar
= .0052 x 750.061 mm of Hg = 3.9 mm of Hg
This indicates that back pressure is increased due variation in circulating water inlet
temperature (i.e. loss in vacuum) = 3.9mm of Hg
So, actual value of vacuum = 684 + (-3.9) mm of Hg
Pv1 = 680.1 mm of Hg
37
4.2) Effect in condenser vacuum due to variation in circulating water flow:-
In this situation for calculating actual value condenser vacuum we have to take the effect of
circulating water flow variation also apart from the effect of variation in circulating water inlet
temperature.
As we know that the direct effect of change in circulating water flow is change in circulating
water temperature rise.
So our equation no.-1 becomes like this,
Actual value of change in circulating water temperature rise ( T ) + Optimum value Terminal
Temperature Difference (T.T.D.)
Data from our observations are as follows
T1 (actual) = 32.22 ºC,
T (actual) = 4.86 ºC
T.T.D (optimum) = 3.5 ºC
= 40.58 ºC
steam table)
Pb = 0.0758 bar (abs.)
= (0.0758 – 0.0881) bar
= -0.0123 bar
= -0.0123 750.061 mm of Hg
= - 9.22 mm of Hg
Here negative sign indicates that back pressure is decreased by 9.22 mm of Hg due to variation
in circulating water inlet temperature & circulating water temperature rise.
Therefore increase in vacuum = 9.22 mm of Hg
Actual value of vacuum
Pv2 = 684 + 9.22
= 693.22 mm of Hg
So rise in vacuum due to circulating water temperature rise due variation in circulating water
flow only is,
38
= Pv2 – Pv1
= (693.22 - 680.10) mm of Hg
= 13.12 mm of Hg.
4.3) Effect in condenser vacuum due to air ingress & dirty tubes:-
As the effect of air ingress and dirty tubes is hindrance to heat transfer process between steam
and circulating water by acting like an insulation layer between condenser tubes surface (both
inside and outside of the tubes) effecting heat transfer between steam and circulating water.
This effect of air ingress and dirty tubes will have a direct impact on terminal temperature
difference (T.T.D.)
So our equation no.-1 becomes like this,
Actual value of change in circulating water temperature rise ( T) + Actual value Terminal
Temperature Difference (T.T.D.)
Data from our observations are as follows
T1 (actual) = 32.22 ºC
T (actual) = 4.86 ºC
T.T.D (actual) = 4.43 ºC
= 41.51 ºC
steam table)
Pb = 0.0802 bar (abs.)
= (0.0802 – 0.0881) bar
= -0.0079 bar
= -0.0079 750.061 mm of Hg
= - 5.925 mm of Hg
Here negative sign indicates that back pressure is decreased by 5.925 mm of Hg due to air
ingress and dirty tubes.
Therefore increase in vacuum = 5.925mm of Hg
Actual value of vacuum
39
Pv3 = 684 + 5.925
= 689.925 mm of Hg
So vacuum fall due to terminal temperature difference rise due air ingress and dirty tubes only
is,
= Pv2 – Pv3
= (693.22 - 689.925) mm of Hg
= 3.295 mm of Hg
S.NO EFFECT VACUUM RISE OR

FALL
1. Drop in Circulating water inlet temperature only -3.9 mm of hg(Fall in vacuum)
2. Drop in circulating water temperature rise only +13.12 mm of Hg(Rise in

vacuum)
3. Air ingress and dirty tubes only -3.925 mm of Hg(Fall in
vacuum)
Total rise in vacuum +5.925 mm of Hg
Therefore the actual vacuum created in the condenser

= Optimum value of vacuum + deviation due to circulating water inlet temp only + deviation
due to circulating water temperature rise only + deviation due to air ingress and dirty tubes
only.
= [684 + (-3.9) + (13.12) + (-3.925)] mm of Hg
= 689.925 mm of Hg
So we can conclude that the vacuum of the condenser is increased by 5.295 mm of Hg due variation in
1. Circulating water inlet temperature
2. Circulating water flow
3. Air ingress/Dirty tubes.
40
CHAPTER -5
FAULT ANALYSIS IN CONDENSER
During normal operation of the condenser any fault can occur which will directly affect the
condenser working and its performance decreases drastically, so we have to find the fault,
observe its nature and cause of the of and how we can attend it so that the plant will operate
smoothly without any fault occur in the condenser.
The various faults occur in the condenser during its normal operation are as follows:-
S.No Fault Symptoms Cause Remedy

CW flow is less
a.) 't' is high Attend the
Performance of pump
one CWP is poor
b.) 't' is higher
Condenser tubes
corresponding to Clean the tubes
choked
turbine loading & 'P'
Locate and plug
1.)Excessive air
the points of air
ingress
Low ingress
vacuum in 2.) Poor
1 Attend the
the c.) tg& tg1 excessive performance of the
condenser ejectors
air ejectors
3.) Gland seal Correct seal
steam pressure steam supply
Low pressure
1.) Fault in hot
d.tg is high and tg1 is Attend the fault
well level control
normal and flooding
of condenser 2.) Poor
Attend the
performance of
pump
CEP
41
a.) C.W
supply,air Failure of Gland
Attend the fault in
venting & sealing steam
control system
CEP are and its control
normal
Rapid fall in
b.) C.W 1.) Severe air Locate and plug the
2 condenser
supply, gland ingress points of air ingress
Vacuum
seal system,
2.) Leakage in
air venting &
piping/valves Locate and plug the
condensate
connected to leakage points
pumping are
vacuum system
normal
a.) Ejector
Excessive air Locate and plug the
operation is
leakage leakage points
normal
b.) Turbine
gland seal Defective gland
Rectify the defect
steam pressure seal system
low
c.) No water Leakage through
Leak test supply to the valve glands Establish sealing water
3 reveals high glands of connected with supply
valves vacuum system
h/t
Leakage through
d.) Rate of
piping/equipment
vacuum drop
(connected to
is high at
turbine vacuum Locate and repair the
lower turbine
system) which leakage points
loads than at
remain under
higher turbine
pressure at high,
loads
normal load.
42
a.) t1, t
(corresponding
Air leakage into Plug the air leakage
to the power
vacuum system points
output &h
/t are higher
b.) t1, t, P Poor
Switch over to stand-
&h /t are performance of
by
normal Air ejector
Higher
c.) t1&h /t
tg& tg1 Condenser tubes
are normal. 't'
4 than at fouled on water Clean the tubes
and P are
reference side
high
Power
d.) t1&h /t
are normal. P Circulating water
Increase the CW flow
is low and 't' is flow is less
high
e.) t1,t,P &h
Failure of hot
/t are normal.
well Level Attend the defect
Hot-well level
Controller
is high
Hot well level
5 tg> tg1 " "
is high
6 Conductivity ---- Circulating water Locate the failed tube
of leakage into the and plug its ends
Condensate condenser
is high
7 Dissolved ---- 1.) Excessive air Locate and plug the
oxygen in ingress leaking points
condensate
is high
2.) Excessive Improve the system
make-up water tightness to reduce
make-up
43
Symbols used:
P : Reference Power output
t1 : Circulating water inlet temperature
t2 : Circulating water outlet temperature
t : t2-t1
P : Circulating water pressure drop across condenser tubes
t3 : Hot well (Main condensate) temperature

t4 : Exhaust steam temperature
h/t : Rate of Vacuum drop in condenser
h : Vacuum drop in mmHg
t : Time in minutes
tg : Terminal Temperature Difference (TTD) Steam/C.W
tg : t4 – t2
tg1 : Terminal Temperature Difference (TTD) Condensate/C.W

: t3 – t2
44
CHAPTER – 6
INTRODUCTION TO COOLING TOWER
6.1) COOLING TOWERS IN POWER PLANTS

Cooled water is needed for, for example, air conditioners, manufacturing processes or power
generation. A cooling tower is an equipment used to reduce the temperature of a water stream by
extracting heat from water and emitting it to the atmosphere. Cooling towers make use of
evaporation whereby some of the water is evaporated into a moving air stream and
subsequently discharged into the atmosphere. As a result, the remainder of the water is cooled
down significantly. Cooling towers are able to lower the water temperatures more than devices
that use only air to reject heat, like the radiator in a car, and are therefore more cost-effective
and energy efficient.
Fig 6.1 Schematic diagram of cooling tower
6.2) COMPONENTS IN COOLING TOWER: -

The basic components of a cooling tower include the frame and casing, fill, cold-water basin,
drift eliminators, air inlet, louvers, nozzles and fans. These are described below.
1. Frame and casing: -Most towers have structural frames that support the exterior enclosures
(casings), motors, fans, and other components. With some smaller designs, such as some
45
glass fibre units, the casing may essentially be the frame.
2. Fill: - Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to facilitate heat transfer
by maximizing water and air contact. There are two types of fill:
a) Splash fill: water falls over successive layers of horizontal splash bars, continuously
breaking into smaller droplets, while also wetting the fill surface. Plastic splash fills
promote better heat transfer than wood splash fills.
b) Film fill: consists of thin, closely spaced plastic surfaces over which the water spreads,
forming a thin film in contact with the air. These surfaces may be flat, corrugated,
honeycombed, or other patterns. The film type of fill is the more efficient and provides
same heat transfer in a smaller volume than the splash fill.
3. Cold-water basin: - The cold-water basin is located at or near the bottom of the tower, and
it receives the cooled water that flows down through the tower and fill. The basin usually has
a sump or low point for the cold-water discharge connection. In many tower designs, the
cold-water basin is beneath the entire fill. In some forced draft counter flow design,
however, the water at the bottom of the fill is channelled to a perimeter trough that function
as the cold-water basin. Propeller fans are mounted beneath the fill to blow the air up through
the tower. With this design, the tower is mounted on legs, providing easy access to the fans
and their motors.
4. Drift eliminators: - These capture water droplets entrapped in the air stream that otherwise
would be lost to the atmosphere.
5. Air inlet: - This is the point of entry for the air entering a tower. The inlet may take up
an entire side of a tower (cross-flow design) or be located low on the side or the bottom of
the tower (counter-flow design).
6. Louvers: - Generally, cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The purpose of louvers is
to equalize air flow into the fill and retain the water within the tower. Many counter flow
tower designs do not require louvers.
7. Nozzles: - These spray water to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution at the top of the fill
is essential to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface. Nozzles can either be fixed
46
and spray in a round or square patterns, or they can be part of a rotating assembly as
found in some circular cross-section towers.
8. Fans: -Both axial (propeller type) and centrifugal fans are used in towers. Generally,
propeller fans are used in induced draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal fans
are found in forced draft towers. Depending upon their size, the type of propeller fans
used is either fixed or variable pitch. A fan with non-automatic adjustable pitch blades
can be used over a wide kW range because the fan can be adjusted to deliver the desired
air flow at the lowest power consumption. Automatic variable pitch blades can vary air
flow in response to changing load conditions.
9. Nozzles: - These spray water to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution at the top of the fill
is essential to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface. Nozzles can either be fixed
and spray in a round or square patterns, or they can be part of a rotating assembly as
found in some circular cross-section towers.
6.3 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION: -
Cooling water is pumped from the turbine condenser by the tower pump to the cooling tower.
Inside the tower the water passes through sprinklers, and sprays out in find drops. The water
then falls as droplets, passing over pickings where it is made to present a greater surface area
to the cooling air. The water then falls into the cooling tower pond.
Air is drawn in near the bottom of the tower, either by natural draught or by a fan. The air
passes up the tower and cools the water is it does so. Any water droplets which have been
carried up by the air are removed by the water droplet eliminator screen.
The theory of cooling: - As a water droplet falls through the tower, air flows past it and cooling takes
place in three ways:
(a) A small proportion of heat is lost from the droplet by radiation of heat from its surface.
(b) Approximately a quarter to one-third of the heat transferred is by conduction and convection
between the water and the air the amount of heat transferred depends on the temperature of
water and air.
47
Fig. 6.3: Cooling Tower Operation.
(c) The remainder of the heat transfer is by evaporation. As the air evaporates some of the water
into water vapour, the vapour takes with it the latent heat of evaporation. The remaining water
therefore has a lower heat content than it had originally, and is also at a lower temperature.
The amount of evaporation which takes place depends on a number of factors; these include
the total surface area the water presents to the air (the reason the packing design is so important),
and the amount of air flowing. The greater the air flow, the greater the cooling achieved.
6.4) TYPES OF COOLING TOWERS
This section describes the two main types of cooling towers: the natural draft and mechanical
draft cooling towers.
1. Natural draft cooling tower:-The natural draft or hyperbolic cooling tower makes use of
the difference in temperature between the ambient air and the hotter air inside the tower. As
hot air moves upwards through the tower (because hot air rises), fresh cool air is drawn into
the tower through an air inlet at the bottom. Due to the layout of the tower, no fan is
required and there is almost no circulation of hot air that could affect the performance.
Concrete is used for the tower shell with a height of up to 200 m. These cooling towers are
mostly only for large heat duties because large concrete structures are expensive.
48
Fig6.4 a) Cross flow natural draft cooling tower b) Counter flow natural draft cooling tower
There are two main types of natural draft towers:
a. Cross flow tower: - Air is drawn across the falling water and the fill is located
outside the tower
b. Counter flow tower: - Air is drawn up through the falling water and the fill is
therefore located inside the tower, although design depends on specific site conditions
2. Mechanical draft cooling tower:-Mechanical draft towers have large fans to force or draw
air through circulated water. The water falls downwards over fill surfaces, which help
increase the contact time between the water and the air - this helps maximize heat transfer
between the two. Cooling rates of mechanical draft towers depend upon various parameters
such as fan diameter and speed of operation, fills for system resistance etc.
Mechanical draft towers are available in the following airflow arrangements:

a. Counter flows induced draft.
b. Counter flow forced draft.
c. Cross flow induced draft.
In the counter flow induced draft design, hot water enters at the top, while the air is introduced
at the bottom and exits at the top. Both forced and induced draft fans are used.
In cross flow induced draft towers, the water enters at the top and passes over the fill. The air,
however, is introduced at the side either on one side (single-flow tower) or opposite sides
(Double-flow tower).
49
Fig 6.4 Types of mechanical cooling tower
6.5) TERMINOLOGIES:-
The following basic terms are used in cooling towers:-
1. Dry Air: - The international joint committee on Psychrometrics Data has adopted the
following exact composition of air N2= 78.084%, O2=20.947%, Argon=.934%, CO2=.033%
(% by volume). Dry air is never found in practice. Air always contains some moisture. Hence
the common designation “air” means moist air. The term “dry air” is used to indicate the water
free contents of air having any degree of moisture.
2. Saturated air: - Air that contains the maximum amount of water vapour it can hold at its
saturation temperature and pressure. For a given temperature, a given quantity of air can be
saturated with a fixed quantity of moisture. At higher temperature, it requires a larger quantity
of moisture to saturate it.
3. Dry-bulb temperature: - It is the temperature of air measured by an ordinary thermometer

is called dry bulb temperature (tdb), commonly referred as DBT. When ordinary thermometer
50
is exposed to atmosphere, it indicates the dry bulb temperature, which is nothing but
atmospheric temperature.
4. Wet-bulb temperature: - It is the temperature measured by the thermometer when the bulb
of the thermometer is covered by a wetted cloth and is exposed to a current of rapidly moving
air (twb), commonly referred as WBT. When the air comes in contact with the wet cloth it
absorbs some moisture and gives up some heat, sue to which the temperature of the air reduces.
This reduced temperature measured by the thermometer is called the wet bulb temperature.
If the moisture content of the air is very low, it will give up more heat to the cloth and wet bulb
temperature of air will also be comparatively low. On the other hand, if the moisture content
of air is high it will lose lesser heat to the air and the wet bulb temperature will be higher. Thus
the wet bulb temperature indirectly indicates the moisture content present in the air.
The wet bulb temperature of the air is always less than the dry bulb temperature of the air,
i.e., twb< tdb
5. Wet bulb depression: - It is the difference between dry-bulb and wet bulb temperatures
(tdb-twb).
6. Relative humidity (RH): - The amount of water vapour in the air at any given time is usually
less than that required to saturate the air. The relative humidity is the percentage of saturation
humidity, generally calculated in relation to saturated vapour density.
Mass of water vapour in a given volume
RH (Φ) = Mass of water vapour in the same volume if saturated at the same temperature
6.6) DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE: -

Dalton’s law of partial pressure state that
“In a container in which gas and a vapour are enclosed, the total pressure exerted is the sum of
partial pressure of the gas and partial pressure of the vapour at the common temperature”.
Let t = Temperature of mixture of air and water vapour in the container in oC
pa= Partial pressure of air at temperature t,
ps = Saturation pressure of water vapour at temperature t
p = Total pressure in the container.
Therefore, p =pa + ps
51
CHAPTER -7
COOLING TOWER PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
7.1) COOLING TOWER PERFORMANCE

The important parameters, from the point of determining the performance of cooling towers,
are:
1. Cooling range: The extent by which the hot water is cooled in the tower is known as cooling
range
2. Approach: The difference between the cold water leaving the tower and the wet bulb temperature
of air entering is called ‘Approach’. Presumably the wet bulb temperature is the ambient minimum
temperature.
3. Heat Load: It is the amount of heat exchanged in a cooling tower between the hot water and
the cold air in calories/minute.
4. Drift: The windage loss or carry over is otherwise known as drift and this indicates the
amount of water that is carried from cooling towers in the form of fine droplets entrained in
the circulation air.
5. Evaporation Rate: The rate at which the water is being evaporated to cool the hot water is
called evaporation rate and circulating air carries this evaporated water vapour away.
6. Capacity: The average volume of circulating water that is cooled in the tower at any time is
the capacity of the tower.
7. Sprinkling density: The rate at which the water is falling through unit fill area of the tower
is known as sprinkling density
8. Draught factor = P / 1.64(10-8 h).
Where P is the density difference in air at inlet and exit of the tower in kg/m3 and
‘h’ is the total enthalpy difference of air at inlet and exit of the tower KJ/kg
9. Performance Coefficient ‘C’ = L X / (L/GN 1/3)
Where ‘L’ is the cooling water flow or sprinkling density
‘X’ is Markel’s factor
‘N’ is the resistance of tower to air flow through it in velocity head
‘G’ is the Dry airflow
10. Duty coefficient ‘D’ = AH/C .C1/2
A is the Pond area at sill level
H is the height of tower above sill
52
11. Cycles of concentration (C.O.C) is the ratio of dissolved solids in circulating water to the
dissolved solids in make-up water.
12. Blow down losses: Blow down depend upon cycles of concentration and the evaporation
losses and is given by relation:
Blow Down = Evaporation Loss / (C.O.C. – 1)
13. Liquid/Gas (L/G) ratio: L/G of a cooling tower is the ratio between the water and the air
mass flow rates. Against design values, seasonal variations require adjustment and tuning of
water and air flow rates to get the best cooling tower effectiveness through measures like water
box loading changes, blade angle adjustments.
Thermodynamics also dictate that the heat removed from the water must be equal to the heat
absorbed by the surrounding air:
Let, L/G = liquid to gas mass flow ratio (kg/kg)
T1 = hot water temperature (°C)
T2 = cold water temperature (°C)
h2 = enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at exhaust wet-bulb temperature (KJ/kg)
h1 = enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at inlet wet-bulb temperature (KJ/kg)
L (T1 –T2) = G (h2 – h1)
L h2 - h1
G = T1 - T2
FACTOR AFFECTING COOLING TOWER PERFORMANCE
1. Capacity:-
Heat dissipation (in KJ/hr.) and circulated flow rate (m3/hr) are not sufficient to understand
cooling tower performance. Other factors, which we will see, must be stated along with flow
rate m3/hr. For example, a cooling tower sized to cool 33000 m3/hr through a 6°C range might
be larger than a cooling tower to cool 33000 m3/hr through 6°C range.
2. Range: -
Range is determined not by the cooling tower, but by the process it is serving. The range at the
exchanger is determined entirely by the heat load and the water circulation rate through the
exchanger and on to the cooling water.
Heat Load in KJ/hour
Range °C = Water Circulation Rate in LPH
53
L (T1 –T2) = G (h2 – h1)
h2 - h1
L=T -T XG
1 2
Thus, Range is a function of the heat load and the flow circulated through the system.
Fig7.1 Performance of cooling tower
3. Cooling Tower: -
Cooling towers are usually specified to cool a certain flow rate from one temperature to another
temperature at a certain wet bulb temperature. For example, the cooling tower for UNIT–
6/TPS-2 be specified to cool 33000 m3/hr from 38.1°C to 32.1°C at 25.5°C wet bulb
temperature.
Cold Water Temperature 32.1°C – Wet Bulb Temperature (25.5 °C) = Approach (6.6°C)
As a generalization, the closer the approach to the wet bulb, the more expensive the cooling
tower due to increased size. Usually a 2.8°C approach to the design wet bulb is the coldest
water temperature that cooling tower manufacturers will guarantee. If flow rate, range,
approach and wet bulb had to be ranked in the order of their importance in sizing a tower,
approach would be first with flow rate closely following the range and wet bulb would be of
lesser importance.
A. Heat Load: -The heat load imposed on a cooling tower is determined by the process being
served. The degree of cooling required is controlled by the desired operating temperature level
54
of the process. In most cases, a low operating temperature is desirable to increase process
efficiency or to improve the quality or quantity of the product. In some applications (e.g.
internal combustion engines), however, high operating temperatures are desirable. The size and
cost of the cooling tower is proportional to the heat load. If heat load calculations are low
undersized equipment will be purchased. If the calculated load is high, oversize and more
costly, equipment will result.
Process heat loads may vary considerably depending upon the process involved.
Determination of accurate process heat loads can become very complex but proper
consideration can produce satisfactory results. On the other hand, air conditioning and
refrigeration heat loads can be determined with greater accuracy.
B. Wet Bulb Temperature: -Wet bulb temperature is an important factor in performance of
evaporative water cooling equipment. It is a controlling factor from the aspect of minimum
cold water temperature to which water can be cooled by the evaporative method. Thus, the wet
bulb temperature of the air entering the cooling tower determines operating temperature levels
throughout the plant, process, or system. Theoretically, a cooling tower will cool water to the
entering wet bulb temperature, when operating without a heat load. However, a thermal
potential is required to reject heat, so it is not possible to cool water to the entering air wet bulb
temperature, when a heat load is applied. The approach obtained is a function of thermal
conditions and tower capability.
Initial selection of towers with respect to design wet bulb temperature must be made on the
basis of conditions existing at the tower site. The temperature selected is generally close to the
average maximum wet bulb for the summer months. An important aspect of wet bulb selection
is, whether it is specified as ambient or inlet. The ambient wet bulb is the temperature, which
exists generally in the cooling tower area, whereas inlet wet bulb is the wet bulb temperature
of the air entering the tower. The later can be, and often is, affected by discharge vapours being
recirculated into the tower. Recirculation raises the effective wet bulb temperature of the air
entering the tower with corresponding increase in the cold water temperature. Since there is no
initial knowledge or control over the recirculation factor, the ambient wet bulb should be
specified.
The cooling tower supplier is required to furnish a tower of sufficient capability to absorb the
effects of the increased wet bulb temperature peculiar to his own equipment. It is very important
to have the cold water temperature low enough to exchange heat or to condense vapours at the
optimum temperature level. By evaluating the cost and size of heat exchangers versus the cost
55
and size of the cooling tower, the quantity and temperature of the cooling tower water can be
selected to get the maximum economy for the particular process.
4. Range, Flow and Heat Load: -

Range is a direct function of the quantity of water circulated and the heat load. Increasing the
range as a result of added heat load does require an increase in the tower size. If the cold water
temperature is not changed and the range is increased with higher hot water temperature, the
driving force between the wet bulb temperature of the air entering the tower and the hot water
temperature is increased, the higher level heat is economical to dissipate.
If the hot water temperature is left constant and the range is increased by specifying a lower
cold water temperature, the tower size would have to be increased considerably. Not only
would the range be increased, but the lower cold water temperature would lower the
approach. The resulting change in both range and approach would require a much larger
cooling tower.
5. Approach & Wet Bulb Temperature:-

The design wet bulb temperature is determined by the geographical location. Usually the
design wet bulb temperature selected is not exceeded over 5 percent of the time in that area.
Wet bulb temperature is a factor in cooling tower selection; the higher the wet bulb
temperature, the smaller the tower required to give a specified approach to the wet bulb at a
constant range and flow rate.
6. Fill Media Effects: -

In a cooling tower, hot water is distributed above fill media which flows down and is cooled
due to evaporation with the intermixing air. Air draft is achieved with use of fans. Thus some
power is consumed in pumping the water to a height above the fill and also by fans creating
the draft.
An energy efficient or low power consuming cooling tower is to have efficient designs of fill
media with appropriate water distribution, drift eliminator, fan, gearbox and motor. Power
savings in a cooling tower, with use of efficient fill design, is directly reflected as savings in
fan power consumption and pumping head requirement.
56
7.3) PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF COOLING TOWERS
In operational performance assessment, the typical measurements and observations involved
are:
a) In operational performance assessment, the typical measurements and observations
involved are:
b) Cooling tower design data and curves to be referred to as the basis.
c) Intake air WBT and DBT at each cell at ground level using a whirling psychrometer.
d) Exhaust air WBT and DBT at each cell using a whirling psychrometer.
e) CW inlet temperature at risers or top of tower, using accurate mercury in glass or a
digital thermometer.
f) CW outlet temperature at full bottom, using accurate mercury in glass or a digital
thermometer.
g) Process data on heat exchangers, loads on line or power plant control room readings,
as relevant.
h) CW flow measurements, either direct or inferred from pump motor kW and pump head
and flow characteristics.
i) CT fan motor amps, volts, kW and blade angle settings
j) TDS of cooling water..
7.4) DESCRIPTION OF NATURAL DRAFT COOLING TOWERS OF

STAGE-2 /TPS -2/NLC, NEYVELI:-
Thermal Power Station – II
The entire shell of the hyperbolic cooling tower is supported by 72 diagonal columns on a
foundation rim beam. Precast columns and beams support the internal fill. The diameter of the
tower is progressively reduced from 94.42 metres at sill level to 53.9 metres at neck (Elevation
89.0 metre). Then it is increased progressively to 59.4 meters at top (Elevation 124.0 meters).
1. Hot Water Distribution Arrangement: The hot circulating water leaving from both water
boxes of the condenser flows in a single pipe (called hot water tunnel) towards cooling tower.
From the hot water pipe, the hot water flows up to middle of the basin through two hot water
ducts, (R.C.C.). From basin floor, the hot water rises through risers (R.C.C.) and the hot water
57
enters the distribution network at 10 metre elevation. The hot water from each riser is
distributed with a R.C. main distribution duct and a branch R.C.duct. From these ducts, the
water is distributed through A.C pipes which are fitted with nozzles and sprayers (Poly
Urethane).
2. Internal fill: The internal fill is of precast pre-stressed concrete splash bar (Laths). They are
arranged in 18 layers. The vertical spacing of layers is 300 mm and horizontal spacing is 150
mm to 200 mm.
3. Basin: R.C. Basin of the tower has a partition wall for independent operation. The cold water
collected at each half of the basin is led through C.I Screen to a common channel. This channel
takes the cold water to fore bay of circulating water pump house. The basin can be isolated
from the channel by wooden stop logs and intermediate clay filling arrangement.
Wind baffles are provided to avoid a break-through of air during strong wings, the wind baffles
are form the top of the basin to the bottom of the fill. The length of the wind baffle is equal to
the half of the radius from the outer end of basin, due to this arrangement, carryover of water
by wind is reduced,
Operation Data:
a. Design capacity of the tower : 30,000 m3/hr
b. Design cold water temperature : 33.19 deg C
c. Hot water inlet temperature : 42.73 deg C
d. Design approach : 5.19 deg C
e. Design atm. Wet bulb temperature : 28 deg C
f. Wind velocity for performance : calm
g. Design atm relative humidity : 50 %
h. Pumping head at the entry of the tower : 12 M of water column
58
Design Parameters:
1. Sprinkling density (L) or cooling
Water flow in Kg/Hr M2 fill area : 5364 Kg/M2/Hr.
2. Dry air flow (G) Kg/M2/Hr. : 2823.7 kg/m3/hr
3. Effective fill volume (inclusive of air gap) : 31,700 m3.
4. Ratio of water to air weight (L/G) : 1.8998.
5. Temperature of leaving air
(i). Dry bulb temperature : 40.04 deg C.
(ii). Wet bulb temperature : 39.91 deg C.
6. Total dry air flow per tower : 17,370 X 103 kg/hr.
7. Inlet air enthalpy above 0 deg C : 21.18608 kcal/kg.
8. Total wet air flow per tower : 17,719 X 103 kg/hr.
9. Sensible heat gain by dry air thro’ tower : 0.73264 kcal/kg
10. Latent heat gain by dry air : 17.3686 kcal/kg
11. Exit air enthalpy above 0 C : 39.28732 kcal/kg
12. Total heat exchanged per Kg of inlet air : 18.10124 kcal/kg
13. Total heat exchanged per hour : 314.82 X 106 kcal
14. Evaporation loss (maximum) : 519.36 m3/hr
15. Drift loss (maximum) : 9.9 m3/hr.
7.5) COOLING TOWER SAMPLE PERFORMANCE CALCULATION: -
The reading for our calculation is taken from cooling tower of UNIT-6/STAGE–2/TPS-2/NLC,
NEYVELI.
Circulating cooling water at the inlet of cooling tower ti= 38.1ºC

Circulating cooling water at the outlet of cooling tower to = 32.1 ºC
Wet bulb temperature (WBT) twb= 25.5 ºC
59
i. So, Range = Circulating water inlet temperature at cooling tower inlet - Circulating
cooling water at the outlet of cooling tower.
Range = ti - to
= (38.1 – 32.1) ºC
= 6 ºC
Now, Approach = Circulating cooling water at the inlet of cooling tower - Wet bulb
temperature
Approach = ti - twb
= (38.1 - 25.5) ºC
= 6.6 ºC
ii. Effectiveness of cooling tower
Range
= Range + Approach X 100 %
R
Effectiveness = R + A X 100 %
6
= 6.6 + 6 X 100 %
= 47.6 %
iii. Evaporation loss = 0.0085 x 1.8 x circulating time x (ti - to) in m3/hr.
= 0.0085 x 1.8 x 33000 x 6
= 302.94 m3/hr.
iv. Heat load = mass of circulating water x specific heat of water x (ti - to)
= 33000 x 103 x 1 x6 (Sp. Heat of water = 1 kcal/kg K)
= 198 x 106 kcal/ hr.

So, 198 x 106 kcal/hr of heat is being rejected into the atmosphere through the cooling tower.
60
BIBILOGRAPHY
1. NATIONAL POWER TRANING INSTITUTE EFFCIENCY AND PERFORMANCE
MANUAL.
2. NTPC MANUALS.
3. CONDENSER AND CIRCULATING WATER SYSTEM BY G.V.HARSHE, NPTI
NAGPUR.
4. NLC TPS -2 MANUALS ON CONDENSER AND COOLING TOWER.
5. THERMAL ENGINEERING BY R.K RAJPUT.
6. STUDY ON COOLING TOWER FROM BUREAU OF ENERGY EFFICEINCY
(GOVT. OF INDIA).
61

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A STUDY ON ROLE OF CONDENSER AND COOLING

TOWER ON THE PERFORMANCE OF THERMAL POWER

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE

POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA COURSE

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

NATIONAL POWER TRAINING INSTITUTE (SR)

GUIDED BY AND COURSE COORDINATOR

We are thankful to Shri S.Viswanathan, NPTI (SR), Neyveli, for extending

We bring out profound and overwhelming gratitude to our Project Guide

We take this opportunity to thank NEYVELI LIGNITE CORPORATION

S.NO TITLE OF CHAPTER PAGE NO

3. FACOTRS AFFECTING CONDENSER PERFORMANCE 28-35

3.1 EFFECT OF VARYING THE BACK PRESSURE 28

4. CALCULATIONS ON THE FACTORS AFFECTING 36-40

4.1 EFFECT IN CONDENSER VACUUM DUE TO CIRCULATING 37

5 FAULT ANALYSIS IN CONDENSER 41-44

6 INTRODUCTION TO COOLING TOWERS 45-51

6.1 COOLING TOWER IN POWER PLANTS 45

7 COOLING TOWER PERFORMANCE ASSESMENT 52-59

7.1 COOLING TOWER PERFORMANCE 52

Fig 1.1 Thermal Power Plant Cycle 1

Fig 1.2 Rankine Cycle With Reheat 2

Fig 1.3 Rankine Cycle With Regeneration 3

Fig 1.4 Modified Rankine Cycle 4

Fig 1.5 Heat Increases Pressure 6

Fig 1.6 Cooling Decreases Pressure 6

Fig 1.7 Pressure Diagram 9

Fig 1.8 Terminal Temperature Difference 10

Fig 2.1 Low Level Jet Condenser 14

Fig 2.2 High Level Jet Condenser 15

Fig 2.3 Ejector Condenser 15

Fig 2.4 Double Flow Type Condenser 17

Fig 2.5 Central Flow Type Condenser 17

Fig 2.6 Evaporative Type Condenser 18

Fig 2.7 Underslug-Axial or Transverse Condenser 18

Fig 2.8 Internal Condenser 19

Fig 2.9 Pennier or Side Mounted Condenser 20

Fig 2.10 Single And Double Pass Condenser 20

Fig 2.11 A Typical 210 MW Condenser 21

Fig 2.12 Condenser Supports 22

Fig 2.13 Steam- Dumping (Throw Off) Device 26

Fig 3.1 Condenser Conditioning Graph 33

Fig 6.1 Schematic Diagram of Cooling Tower 45

Fig 6.2 Cooling Tower Operation 48

(B) Counter Flow Natural Draft Cooling Tower 49

Fig 6.4 Types of Mechanical Cooling Tower 50

Fig 7.1 Performance of Cooling Tower 54

1.1) THERMAL POWER PLANT CYCLE

Fig 1.1 Thermal Power plant Cycle

1. Rankine cycle with reheat

FIG. 1.2: - RANKINE CYCLE WITH REHEAT

FIG. 1.3: - RANKINE CYCLE WITH REGENERATION

FIG. 1.4: - MODIFIED RANKINE CYCLE

1.3) PRINCIPLE OF A CONDENSER

1.4) ADVANTAGES OF CONDENSER: -

1. Improvement of thermal cycle efficiency:

3. Hot-well is a water reserve and hence provides flexibility in operation:

5. Thermal cycle water losses are advantageously made up at the Hot-well:

1.5) PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT:-

Mathematically, pressure may be expressed as:

Where: p is the pressure, F is the force and A is the area.

 Absolute pressure is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, so it is equal to gauge

Fig 1.7 Pressure Diagram