Tentative Grammar

Description
for the Mekeo [mek] Language

spoken in Central Province

Written by Arthur Amala, Alphonse Magaiva

and Leanie van Deelen

November 2015
Table of contents
1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................8
2. WRITING SYSTEM AND SOUNDS........................................................................................................9
3. NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES..........................................................................................................10
3.1. Pronouns and Possessive Suffixes.............................................................................................10
3.1.1. Pronouns............................................................................................................................10
3.1.2. Possessive Pronouns..........................................................................................................11
3.1.3. Possessive Suffixes.............................................................................................................12
3.1.4. Reflexive Pronouns.............................................................................................................13
3.1.5. Translation Issues for Pronouns.........................................................................................14
3.2. Nouns.......................................................................................................................................14
3.2.1. Singular and Plural Nouns..................................................................................................14
3.2.2. Translation Issues for Singular and Plural Nouns...............................................................15
3.3. Adjectives.................................................................................................................................15
3.3.1. Adjectives in general..........................................................................................................15
3.3.2. Comparatives.....................................................................................................................17
3.3.3. Translation Issues for Adjectives........................................................................................17
3.4. Numerals and Number-Marking...............................................................................................18
3.4.1. Traditional Counting System..............................................................................................18
3.4.2. Other Quantity Words........................................................................................................19
3.4.3. Ordinal Numbers................................................................................................................20
3.4.4. Other Number-related things............................................................................................20
3.4.5. Translation Issues for Numerals and Number Marking......................................................21
3.5. Demonstratives and Articles.....................................................................................................21
3.5.1. Articles...............................................................................................................................21
3.5.2. Demonstratives..................................................................................................................21
3.5.3. Translation Issues for Articles and Demonstrative.............................................................22
3.6. Basic Noun Phrase Structure.....................................................................................................22
3.6.1. Noun Phrase Examples......................................................................................................22
3.6.2. Translation Issues for Noun Phrases..................................................................................23
3.7. Possession.................................................................................................................................23
3.7.1. Direct (Inalienable)............................................................................................................23
3.7.2. Indirect (Alienable)............................................................................................................23
3.7.3. Translation Issues for Possession.......................................................................................24

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4. POSTPOSITIONS...............................................................................................................................24
4.1. Examples...................................................................................................................................24
4.2. Translation Issues for Postpositions..........................................................................................25
5. VERBS..............................................................................................................................................26
5.1. Person and Number Marking....................................................................................................26
5.1.1. Subject Marking.................................................................................................................26
5.1.2. Object Marking..................................................................................................................27
5.1.3. Recipient Marking..............................................................................................................27
5.1.4. Translation Issues for Subject, Object and Recipient markers............................................28
5.2. Tense.........................................................................................................................................28
5.2.1. Examples............................................................................................................................28
5.2.2. Translation Issues Related to Tense....................................................................................28
5.3. Aspect.......................................................................................................................................29
5.3.1. Continuous.........................................................................................................................29
5.3.2. Habitual.............................................................................................................................29
5.3.3. Repeated............................................................................................................................30
5.3.4. Beginning...........................................................................................................................30
5.3.5. Completed.........................................................................................................................31
5.3.6. Translation Issues Related to Aspect..................................................................................31
5.4. Realis and Irrealis Status...........................................................................................................31
5.4.1. Examples............................................................................................................................31
5.4.2. Translation Issues for Realis and Irrealis............................................................................33
5.5. Serial Verbs...............................................................................................................................34
5.5.1. Examples............................................................................................................................34
5.5.2. Translation Issues for Serial Verbs......................................................................................35
5.6. Medial Verbs.............................................................................................................................35
6. CLAUSES...........................................................................................................................................36
6.1. Transitive clauses......................................................................................................................36
6.1.1. Examples............................................................................................................................36
6.1.2. Translation Issues for Transitive Clauses............................................................................36
6.2. Intransitive clauses...................................................................................................................37
6.2.1. Examples............................................................................................................................37
6.2.2. Translation Issues for Intransitive Clauses.........................................................................38
6.3. Di-transitive clauses..................................................................................................................38

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 6.3.1. Examples............................................................................................................................38
6.3.2. Translation Issues for Di-transitive Clauses........................................................................39
6.4. Semantic roles (noun roles)......................................................................................................39
6.4.1. Agent.................................................................................................................................39
6.4.2. Force..................................................................................................................................39
6.4.3. Experiencer........................................................................................................................39
6.4.4. Stimulus.............................................................................................................................40
6.4.5. Possessor...........................................................................................................................40
6.4.6. Location.............................................................................................................................40
6.4.7. Source / Destination..........................................................................................................41
6.4.8. Instrument.........................................................................................................................41
6.4.9. Accompaniment.................................................................................................................42
6.4.10. Recipient..........................................................................................................................42
6.4.11. Beneficiary.......................................................................................................................42
6.4.12. Patient.............................................................................................................................43
6.4.13. Translation Issues for Noun Roles....................................................................................43
6.5. Adverbs.....................................................................................................................................43
6.5.1. Adverbs of place................................................................................................................43
6.5.2. Adverbs of manner............................................................................................................44
6.5.3. Adverbs of degree..............................................................................................................45
6.5.4. Adverbs of time..................................................................................................................45
6.5.5. Sentence adverbs...............................................................................................................46
6.6. Negative Clauses and Negation................................................................................................47
6.6.1. Examples............................................................................................................................47
6.6.2. Translation Issues for Negative Clauses.............................................................................49
7. SENTENCES......................................................................................................................................49
7.1. Conjunctions.............................................................................................................................49
7.1.1. Examples............................................................................................................................49
7.1.2. Translation Issues Related to Conjunctions........................................................................51
7.2. Commands (Imperative Sentences)..........................................................................................51
7.2.1. Examples............................................................................................................................51
7.2.2. Translation Issues Related to Commands...........................................................................53
8. Questions.........................................................................................................................................53
8.1. Questions (Interrogative Sentences).........................................................................................53

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 8.1.1. Yes-No Questions...............................................................................................................53
8.1.2. WH Questions....................................................................................................................54
8.1.3. Translation Issues for Questions........................................................................................55
9. Reason, Result, Purpose...................................................................................................................55
9.1. Reason and Result....................................................................................................................55
9.1.1. Translation Issues for Reason and Result...........................................................................56
9.2. Purpose and Result...................................................................................................................56
9.2.1. Translation Issues for Purpose and Result..........................................................................57
10. Appendix........................................................................................................................................57

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License
We are doing this work freely, to help our language community and others
like it. We want to make sure that our community and others can benefit from our work. We
give this permission for anyone to use this work, but only if they follow the rules of the
“Creative Commons Non-Commercial Share Alike License”. In simple English, those rules are 1)
My name must appear on any copies of this work, so people know I was the one who did it. 2)
No one may use this work for making money in business, without my permission. 3) Anyone
may build upon this work, but they must then share the resulting work the same way I am
sharing.

Copyright
All our contributions to materials listed below are Copyright “Arthur Amala'', ''Alphonse
Magaiva'', ''Leanie van Deelen''. That means if someone wants permission to do something
different from what it says above, they must ask these copyright holders.
Signed by:
Name: Arthur Amala Language: Mekeo Province: Central, PNG
Name: Alphonse Magaiva Language: Mekeo Province: Central, PNG
Name: Leanie van Deelen Language: Dutch / English Province: The Netherlands

The following works are covered by this form:

Description Contribution Signatures Date

Tentative Grammar authors Arthur Amala, Alphonse 30 October

Description Magaiva, Leanie van 2015
Deelen
Text collection - written authors Arthur Amala, Alphonse 30 October
Magaiva 2015
Text collection - audio authors Arthur Amala, Alphonse 30 October
Magaiva 2015

Page 6
Preface
This grammar is very tentative. It has been written during the four-week long Discover Your
Language Course at the PILAT Training Centre at Ukarumpa, EHP. At that course the two Mekeo
language speakers, Arthur Amala and Alphonse Magaiva, were participants and Leanie van
Deelen was their mentor. The data for this grammar was collected and written up very quickly
and does not deal with all aspects of Mekeo grammar. This tentative analysis is based on nine
natural texts recorded and written by Arthur Amala and Alphonse Magaiva, and a selection of
elicited sentences. There may well be errors due to the time pressure in producing this
document, and some inconsistencies within the analysis. We are thankful to our mentor Leanie
van Deelen who assisted us in writing this paper. Despite its tentative nature, we hope this
grammar will be helpful to speakers of the Mekeo language, and to others who want to learn
more about the language. Hopefully, it provides a foundation for others to build upon in the
future.

Abbreviations and Symbols

1 first person(s), English: I, me, we

2 second person, English: you, Tok Pisin: yu, yupela
ADJ adjective
EXC exclusive, excluding the hearer
SG singular
DU dual
IRR irrealis
QUEST question mark

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1. INTRODUCTION

Language name: Mekeo [mek]

Classification:
Location of Language Group:
Dialect(s) represented in this description:
Austronesian
Kairuku, Central Province, Papua New Guinea
The Mekeo used in the description is from the villages
of Aipeana and Veifa'a and the surrounding west Mekeo
area.

Name(s) of contributor(s): Arthur Amala, Alphonse Magaiva, Leanie van Deelen

Period during which this information was 7 October 2015 – 4 November 2015
collected:
Location where most data has been collected: PILAT, Ukarumpa, EHP, Papua New Guinea

The information in this paper is based on texts and examples collected during the Discover Your
Language workshop. Several texts were recorded and then typed up. Two examples are at the
end of this paper.

Mekeo Language
Area

Page 8
2. WRITING SYSTEM AND SOUNDS
Mekeo uses 14 letters in their language.

Mekeo has the following vowels:

a - sounds as the a in 'father'
e - sounds as the e in 'red'
i - sounds as the ee in 'seen'
o - sounds as the o in 'often'
u - sounds as the oo in 'moon', but then a bit shorter.

Mekeo has the following consonants:

f - sounds as the v in 'ever'
g - sounds as the ng 'running'
k - sounds as the c in 'cat'
l - sounds as the l in 'light'
m - sounds as the m in 'moon'
n - sounds as the n in 'moon'
p - sounds as the p in 'plane'
s - sounds as the s in 'sun'
t - sounds as the t in 'time'
sounds as ts in 'boats' in combination with 'i'

The letters b, c, d, h, j, q, r, v, w, x, y, z originally did not exist in Mekeo. However, today we

use them for introduced words, like names for places and people or other modern everyday
words. They get the English pronunciation. The letter 'g' also gets the English pronunciation in
these names (e.g. George, Gabrielle).

The glottal stop is shown by an apostrophe ('). This functions as a consonant.

When a vowel is doubled, it is called a long vowel. This means that the same sound is held
longer than a single vowel.

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3. NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES

3.1. Pronouns and Possessive Suffixes

Our pronouns and possessive suffixes are shown in the tables in each section below.

3.1.1. Pronouns
Pronouns are words like I, you and they in English, which stand in place of other noun phrases.
We call these “free pronouns” because they are words in their own right, and are not parts of
other words.
1st person (1) = the speaker, English I, me, we
2nd person (2) = the listener, English you
3rd person (3) = neither the speaker nor the listener, English he/she/it/him/her/them/they
Singular (SG) = just one person/thing, English I/he/she/it/him/her
Dual (DU) = two people/things, Tok Pisin mitupela/yutupela/tupela
Plural (PL) = more than one, English we/they/them
1st person exclusive (1 EXC) = the speaker and some other people, but not the listener, Tok
Pisin mipela
1st person inclusive (1 INC) = the speaker and the listener (and maybe other people too),
Tok Pisin yumi

Table 3.1.1.1: Free Pronouns

Pronoun English / Tok Pisin equivalent
SG 1st person lau I
2nd person oi you
3rd person isa he, she, it
PL 1st person
i'a we / yumi
inclusive
1st person
lai we / mipela
exclusive
2nd person oi you / yupela
3rd person isa they

Here are some examples of pronouns in the Mekeo language:

Example 3.1.1.1: Free Pronouns
A) Word Lau e'a lalao.
Gloss I house I go

I am going to the house.

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B) Word Oi ala lolao?
Gloss you where you go

Where are you going?

C) Word Isa keaniani.

Gloss they they eat

They are eating.

Rule: our language does not have different pronouns for subjects and objects.

3.1.2. Possessive Pronouns

Table 3.1.2.1: Possessive pronouns
Possessive English / Tok Pisin
pronoun equivalent
SG 1st person e'u my
2nd person emu your
3rd person ega his,her,its
PL 1st person e'a our / bilong yumi
inclusive
1st person emai our / bilong mipela
exclusive
2nd person emi your / bilong yupela
3rd person e'i their

Example 3.1.2.1: Possessive pronouns

A) Word e'u fe'a
Gloss my bilum

My bilum

B) Word emi e'a

Gloss your house

Your house

Summary: Usually the possessive pronoun comes before the noun itself.

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3.1.3. Possessive Suffixes
A possessive suffix is a part at the end of a word showing whose it is. These are often used with
words for family relationships or body parts (such as ear, eye, brother or father), rather than
using a separate word.

Table 3.1.3.1: Possessive suffixes

Possessive suffix Word with possessive English equivalent
suffix
st
SG 1 person -u akiu my little brother
nd
2 person -mu akimu your little brother
rd
3 person -na/-ga akina his/her little brother
st
PL 1 person -'a aki'a our little brother
inclusive
st
1 person -mai akimai our little brother
exclusive
nd
2 person -mi akimi your little brother
rd
3 person -'i aki'i their little brother

In our language, possessive suffixes are used to express a variety of things like body parts,
all family relationships, feelings and positions relative to a person.

Example 3.1.3.2: Possessive Suffixes

maa-u my eye
ina-mu your mother
ake his mouth
maa-'i their eyes
apepe-ga his weeping
papa-mu under you

An interesting feature of possessive suffixes is that when they are used with words that refer to
emotions, they refer to the emotion of the speaker (first person) towards the second or third
person. For example:

apepe-mu 'my crying for you (2s)'

apepe-ga 'my crying for him/her/it'

opopo-mu 'my worry for you (2s)'

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The following example shows how we use direct possession (inalienable) nouns with proper
nouns.
A) Word Leanie ina
Gloss Leanie mother

Leanie's mother.

3.1.4. Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns are words like myself and himself. They are used when the actor and patient
refer to the same person.

Table 3.1.4.1: Reflexive pronouns

Reflexive pronoun English / Tok Pisin
equivalent
st
SG 1 person ifou myself / mi yet
nd
2 person ifomu yourself / yu yet
rd
3 person ifo himself, herself ,itself
st
PL 1 person ifo'a ourselves / yumi yet
inclusive
st
1 person ifomai ourselves / mipela yet
exclusive
nd
2 person ifomi yourselves / yupela yet
rd
3 person ifo'i themselves / ol yet

Example 3.1.4.1: Reflexive pronouns

A) Word ifo epakafo'onia
Gloss himself he fooled

He fooled himself.

B) Word Ifo'i kepameagain'i

Gloss themselves they shamed

They shamed themselves.

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3.1.5. Translation Issues for Pronouns

Rule about translating pronouns: in Mekeo pronouns are always in the verb, so usually
pronouns do not appear on their own.

3.2. Nouns

3.2.1. Singular and Plural Nouns

Table 3.2.1.1: Markers used to show singular/plural on nouns

What kind of
“Job” of the Example on/with words use the Equivalent in English / Tok
Marker marker a word marker? Pisin
The suffix ' Changes a panina (wing) becomes nouns The suffix 's'
'i ' on the singular pani'i (wings)
noun noun into a
plural noun
The suffix ' Changes a Au aifa keafi'i (the men verbs -
'i ' on the singular took the knives)
verb noun into a
plural noun
or confirms
plurality of
the noun
The suffix ' Changes a Aupu gagau'i ageage'i adjectives -
'i ' on the singular (the green leaves)
adjective noun into a
plural noun
or confirms
plurality of
the noun
Numerals Confirm Aupu gagau'i oiso (three numerals A numeral before the noun
after a noun that a noun leaves)
is singular
or plural
Quantifiers Change a Aupu gagauga ma'o quantifiers A quantifier before the noun
singular (many leaves)
noun into a
plural noun

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Example 3.2.1.1: Singular nouns

word gloss

ifi kina Sunday

gapi night

maaga eye

afuga place

Example 3.2.1.2: Plural nouns

word gloss

ifi kina'i Sundays

gapi'i nights

maa'i eyes

afu'i places

Rule for plural on nouns: to make a singular noun plural, a suffix ' 'i ' is added, but it can also
be shown in many other ways.

3.2.2. Translation Issues for Singular and Plural Nouns

Think about when translating nouns: there are many nouns that do not follow the main rule
(adding ' 'i ' to the noun). They would need another kind of word (quantifiers or a numeral) to
make them plural, while they remain in the original, singular form.

3.3. Adjectives

3.3.1. Adjectives in general

Adjectives are words which describe a noun. Adjectives might describe the size, shape and
colour of something, the age or feelings of a person, or the appearance of a place. In Mekeo
language, adjectives describe nouns and usually come after the noun.

Example 3.3.1.1: Adjectives in noun phrases

A) Word Fei e'isapu alogaina.
Gloss water it is hot very

The water is very hot.

Fei e'isapu alogaina.

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B) Word Lau Sipi I'ima felo au.
Gloss I Shepherd good man

I am the good Shepherd.

Lau Sipi I'ima felo au.

Adjective Summary Statement 1: In our language there are many adjectives.

Adjective Summary Statement 2: In our language adjectives come after the noun.

Adjective Summary Statement 3: It is easy to use more than one adjective to describe a
noun in my language.

Example 3.3.1.2: More than one adjective in a noun phrase

A) Word Aupu gagau'i pito'i, e'ele'i oiso fe'a maagai kekae.
Gloss leaves red small three bilum in front they are
of

There are three small, red leaves in front of the bilum.

Aupu gagau'i pito'i e'ele'i oiso fe'a maagai kekae.

In our language, certain words can go with an adjective: 'ipauma', 'afa'agamo' and 'alogaina'.

Example 3.3.1.3: Words or markers that make adjectives stronger and less strong
A) Word Fe'a e'ele ipauma ekaunia
Gloss bilum small very she made it

She made a very small bilum

Fe'a e'ele ipauma ekaunia.

B) Word Fe'a afa'agamo akaikia ekaunia

Gloss bilum a bit big she made it

She made a slightly bigger bilum.

Fe'a afa'agamo akaika ekaunia.

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C) Word fe'a aeakaikia alogaina
Gloss bilum not big very

The bilum (is) not very big.

Fe'a aeakaikia alogaina.

3.3.2. Comparatives

Example 3.3.2.1: How we compare things in our language

A) Word E'u fe'a emu fe'a eka'egaina
Gloss my bilum your bilum it beats yours

My bilum is better than your bilum. (Lit.: 'my bilum beats your bilum')

Rule/Summary Statement1: 'eka'egaina' means that something beats something when you
compare them with each other. Example: bigger, better, more colourful etc.

Example 3.3.2.2: How to say something is the best of all, or antap tru
A) Word Fe'a eakaiki'a alogaina
Gloss bilum big very/most

The biggest bilum

B) Word Au akaiki'a ipauma.

Gloss tree big very/most

The biggest tree.

3.3.3. Translation Issues for Adjectives

Rules about translating adjectives: adjectives always come after the noun. There are many
adjectives in our language.

Rules about translating comparatives: in our language we have a general word that we use
when we compare two or more objects.

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3.4. Numerals and Number-Marking

3.4.1. Traditional Counting System

Table 3.4.1.1: Traditional counting system

Number Tok Ples English meaning (if there is one)
1 aga'o
2 gua
3 oiso
4 pani
5 ima hand
6 imagea hand-bearer(bridge)
7 imagea gua hand-two bearers
8 imagea oiso hand-three bearers
9 imagea pani hand-four bearers
10 ou'aga opposing ends meeting where they
branch in.
11 ou'aga kuagai aga'o one at the tip(nose) of where
opposing ends branch in.
12 ou'aga kuagai gua two at the tip(nose) of where
opposing ends branch in.-
13 ou'aga kuagai oiso three at the tip(nose) of where
opposing ends branch in.
14 ou'aga kuagai pani four at the tip(nose) of where
opposing ends branch in.
15 ou'aga kuagai ima five(hand)at the tip(nose) of where
opposing ends branch in.
16 ou'aga kuagai imagea six(hand-bearer) at the tip(nose) of
where opposng ends branch in.
17 ou'aga kuagai imagea seven(hand-two bearers) at the tip
gua of where opposing ends branch in.
18 ou'aga kuagai imagea eight(hand-three bearers) at the tip
oiso of where opposing ends branch in.
19 ou'aga kuagai imagea nine(hand-four bearers) at the
pani tip(nose) of where opposing ends
branch in.
20 ou'aga gua two sets of opposing ends
branching in.
30 ou'aga oiso three sets of opposing ends
branching in.
40 ou'aga pani four sets of opposing ends
branching in.
50 ou'aga ima hand sets of opposing ends
branching in.

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 60 ou'aga imagea hand-bearer sets of opposing ends
branching in.
70 ou'aga imagea gua hand-two bearers sets of opposing
ends branching in.
80 ou'aga imagea oiso hand-three bearers sets of opposing
ends branching in.
90 ou'aga imagea pani hand-four bearers sets of opposing
ends branching in.
100 sinafu hundred.

Number Rule 1: We usually use our traditional numbers for the following numbers: <1-10>
For other numbers we use English.

Number Rule 2: Numbers always come after the main noun.

3.4.2. Other Quantity Words

Quantifiers are words like some, many, all, or a few in English, which do not tell us a specific
number, but rather a general quantity.

Example 3.4.2.1: Quantifiers

quantifiers in Mekeo equivalent in English example English meaning

oisomo few/not much papiau oisomo a few people

afa'agamo a bit/some kikimalu afa'agamo a bit of salt

epapikamo only a few papiau epapikamo only a few people

po'aina much fo'ama po'aina much food

ma'oaimo all ma'oaimo kelao they all went

ma'o many/plenty papiau ma'o kemai many people came

afa some afa foafia you should take some

isaa some papiau isaa kemai some people came

ealogai so much/so many papiau ealogai so many people

pikamo just a few pikamo moulaisa gamai send me just a few

A) Word Papiau oisomo megamega kemai.

Gloss people few prayer they came

Only a few people came to service.

B) Word Kikimalu afa'agamo fo'amai foge.

Gloss salt a bit in the food you must put

You must put a bit of salt in the food.

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C) Word Ma'oaimo Kainantu kelao.
Gloss all Kainantu they went

They all went to Kainantu.

D) Word Papiau ealogai puo fo'ama efua.

Gloss people so many so food it finished

There were so many people that the food ran out.

3.4.3. Ordinal Numbers

Ordinal numbers are used to show the order in a group of items, like first, second, third in
English.
Example 3.4.3.1: Ordinal numbers

We have ordinal numbers for first, second and last. For the others we use cardinal numbers.
eufai – 'first', used for going first, arriving first
kakaua – 'first', used as an adverb, do something first
muninai – 'second'
fua ipauma – 'last'

This is how we would translate some ordinal numbers into our language:

Rev. 9:13 ‘The sixth angel blew his trumpet’

Agelo imagea auga, ega fi'i eipinia.

Mark 14:41 ‘He came the third time’

Isa emue emai oiso epamia.

3.4.4. Other Number-related things

Example 3.4.4.1: Other numbers

auni'i is another word for 'two' and is used extensively in everyday language together with
gua. However, gua is delegated to numerals and counting.

A) Word Au auni'i kai'alao keagu.

Gloss man two together they sit

Two men are sitting together.

B) Word Au auni'i gugu gua keafi'i

Gloss man two arrow two they take
them

Two men are holding two arrows.

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3.4.5. Translation Issues for Numerals and Number Marking

Rules for translating numbers: in our language, we do not have ordinal numbers, except for
the first, the second and the last. For the others we use our cardinals.

3.5. Demonstratives and Articles

In English, an indefinite article tells us that an item is one of a set of things (for example, a
car). A definite article tells us that we are supposed to know which member of the set it is (the
car) or that it is the only one of its kind (the sun). Many PNG languages do not have articles, but
some do.
A demonstrative (often called a “pointing” word) points you towards the place where the
people or things are. They might be near the person speaking (for example this dog), or
somewhere away from the person who is speaking (for example that man), or in some other
direction or place.

3.5.1. Articles
We have not found an article in our language.

3.5.2. Demonstratives

Table 3.5.2.1: Demonstratives

Demonstratives in Mekeo Equivalent in English Example in Mekeo Translation in English
i'ina/ina'ina this fe'a i'ina/ina'ina this bilum
i'ina/ina'ina these i'ina/ina'ina fe'a'i these bilums
ega'ina that fe'a ega'ina that bilum
ega'ina those ega'ina fe'a'i those bilums

When we use demonstratives in singular form, the order of the words is: demonstrative – noun.
When we use demonstratives in plural form, the order of the words is: noun – demonstrative.

Another interesting fact: usually, i'ina is used to stress the noun it is referring to. We find this for
example in Matthew 22:38 where it says: I'ina iifaga, which means 'this word'. Another example
is found in Acts 16:20: I'ina au'i, which means 'these men'. In both instances the noun is stressed,
because the spoken words are important.
Another demonstrative Iina is used to indicate how to do something. For example Iina
fokapaoma, which means: 'do it (exactly) like this '. Ega fokapaoma means 'do it like that'.

Example 3.5.2.1: Sentences with demonstratives

A) Word Lau fe'a ina'ina fouga laifania.
Gloss I bilum this story I said it

I was talking about this bilum.

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B) Word Ega'ina fe'a'i, afa'i akaiki'a.
Gloss those bilums their price big

Those bilums are really expensive.

3.5.3. Translation Issues for Articles and Demonstrative

Rule about translating Articles and Demonstratives: Although we found demonstratives in

our language, we did not come across any examples of articles in Mekeo.

3.6. Basic Noun Phrase Structure

A noun phrase is a group of words that together describe a particular object, such as ‘those two
big noisy dogs’ in English. Usually there is a common order for the different parts of speech in a
noun phrase.

3.6.1. Noun Phrase Examples

Example 3.6.1.1: Noun Phrases, normal word order
A) Word Aupu gagau'i ageage'i auni'i
Gloss leaves green two

Two green leaves

B) Word Aupu gagau'i ageage'i e'ele'i auni'i

Gloss leaves green small two

Two small green leaves

C) Word Ega'ina fe'a pito'i akaiki'a'i auni'i

Gloss those bilums red big two

Those two big, red bilums.

D) Word Lau e'u fe'a pito'i akaiki'a'i auni'i

Gloss me mine bilums red big two

My two big, red bilums.

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Rule for ‘normal’ word order in Noun Phrases: Demonstrative/Possessive - Noun –
Adjectives – Number /Quantifiers. In some cases, the order can change.

3.6.2. Translation Issues for Noun Phrases

During our four-week course we did not find any translation issues for Noun Phrases
Perhaps further research might come up with translation issues in relation to Noun Phrases.

3.7. Possession

3.7.1. Direct (Inalienable)

Direct possession is when a possessed noun has part of the word itself telling you who it belongs
to, usually as a possessive suffix. For example, tew ‘my little brother’ in Awad Bing has the
possessed noun te with a first person singular possessive suffix –w. Direct possession is usually
used for nouns which have to belong to someone, such as body parts and family members. These
kind of nouns are said to be inalienable. Examples of direct possession are given in section
3.1.3.

Direct possession in my language is used when the noun is referring to a variety of things
like body parts, all family relationships, feelings and positions relative to a person.

3.7.2. Indirect (Alienable)

Indirect possession is when you have one or more words that go with a possessed noun to show
you who it belongs to, as in nanew aab ‘my house’ in Awad Bing. Often indirect possession is
used for alienable nouns, which do not have to belong to someone (like house or car).
Example 3.7.2.1: Noun Phrases - Indirect (alienable) possession
A) Word Isa ega kiita.
Gloss he his guitar

His guitar.

B) Word Isa e'i pilo.

Gloss they their pillow

Their pillow.

C) Word Arthur ega kiita

Gloss Arthur POSS. guitar

Arthur's guitar.

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3.7.3. Translation Issues for Possession

Rule for translating Possessives: in the Mekeo language we use separate possessive words
for alienable nouns and possessive suffixes for inalienable nouns.

4. POSTPOSITIONS
Mekeo uses postpositions which are similar to prepositions in English. They show location,
direction, etc. They are called postpositions because they come after the noun in the phrase.
(Prepositions in English come before the noun in the prepositional phrase.)

4.1. Examples
In our language, postpositions are usually formed by adding (g)(a)i to a noun. These are some
examples of postpositions in our language:

Example 4.1.1: Postpositions

Postpositions in Mekeo English meaning

alogai in, inside, during, through

papagai under

afegai outside

kuagai at the tip

eegai beside

agogai in front of

laagai on top/above/over

ugugai at the back

muninai behind

apiegai on the other side

guagai above, facing down (used to describe the sky,

etc.)

maagai in front of

mapegai at the side

kiugai at the corner

fuagai at the end

ipuainagai In the middle

ofagai on the back (of a person)

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fagogai on the shoulder (of a person)

aisogai on the neck (of a person)

A) Word E'a alogai eague.

Gloss house in she sits

He/she is (sitting) in the house.

B) Word Papiau Ifi e'a agogai kela'afou.

Gloss people church in front of they gather

The people gathered in front of the church.

C) Word Isa agapuge apiegai uma ekapaisa.

Gloss she river across garden she made it

She made a garden on the other side of the river.

4.2. Translation Issues for Postpositions

When translating postpositions we should remember that its suffix -(g)(a)i added to a noun
means: from, at, on, in, etc.

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5. VERBS

5.1. Person and Number Marking

5.1.1. Subject Marking

Many languages have markers on the verb to show who or what the subject is. The following
table shows the subject markers in our language:

Table 5.1.1.1: Verbs – Subject markers

Subject marker Example of a verb with English / Tok Pisin
subject marker translation
st
SG 1 person la- lafeu I sleep/slept
nd
2 person lo- lofeu you sleep/slept
rd
3 person e- efeu he/she/it sleep/slept
st
PL 1 person a- afeu we sleep/slept / yumi
inclusive
slip
st
1 person a- afeu we sleep/slept /
exclusive
mipela slip
nd
2 person o- ofeu you sleep/slept
rd
3 person ke- kefeu they sleep/slept

A) Word Ao eisa.
Gloss cuscus He saw

He saw the cuscus.

Ao eisa.

B) Word Uma alao.

Gloss garden We went

We went to the garden.

Uma alao.

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5.1.2. Object Marking
Many languages also have markers on the verb to show who or what the object is. The
following table shows the object markers in our language:

Table 5.1.2.1: Verbs – Object markers

Object marker Example of a verb with English / Tok Pisin
object marker translation
st
SG 1 person -au eauniau he/she hit me
nd
2 person -o eaunio he/she hit you
rd
3 person -a eaunia he/she hit him/her
st
PL 1 person -'a eauni'a he/she hit us / em
inclusive
paitim yumi
st
1 person -mai eaunimai he/she hit us / em
exclusive
paitim mipela
nd
2 person -mi eaunimi he/she hit you
rd
3 person -'i eauni'i he/she hit them

A) Word La'afalaisa
Gloss I sold it

I sold it.
La'afalaisa.

5.1.3. Recipient Marking

Some languages have markers on the verb to show who or what the recipient is, for verbs
where something is given to someone. The following table show the recipient markers in our
language.

Table 5.1.3.1: Verbs – Recipient markers

recipient marker Example of a verb with English / Tok Pisin
recipient marker translation
st
SG 1 person -au epeniau he/she gave me
nd
2 person -o epenio he/she gave you
rd
3 person -a epenia he/she gave him/her
st
PL 1 person -'a epeni'a he/she gave us / yumi
inclusive
st
1 person -mai epenimai he/she gave us /
exclusive
mipela
nd
2 person -mi epenimi he/she gave you
rd
3 person -'i epeni'i he/she gave them

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The object markers are the same as the recipient markers.

5.1.4. Translation Issues for Subject, Object and Recipient markers

When translating markers related to people/things involved in an action we should remember

that only the markers change with the singularity and the plurality of the subject, object and
the recipient.

5.2. Tense

5.2.1. Examples
Example 5.2.1.1: Present
A) Word Lau Kainantu lalao
Gloss I Kainantu I go

I am going to Kainantu.

Example 5.2.1.2: Past

A) Word Faai Kainantu lalao
Gloss yesterday Kainantu I went

Yesterday I went to Kainantu.

We are not able to tell the difference between the past and the present form of the verb in
the written form. Therefore, it seems we don't have tenses. However, we discovered that
when spoken, some verbs accents are used to tell the difference between the tenses.

5.2.2. Translation Issues Related to Tense

In this course we discovered that tense does not exist in the verb forms of our language. The
verb forms do not change whether we talk about the past or the present. Nevertheless, it can
be taken into account that sometimes the stress moves from one syllable to another to
indicate the tense. (E.g. lalao (I go) and lalao (I went))

When translating tenses it must be remembered that the reader can easily be misled into
thinking that a verb contains a tense, when it is actually a realis or irrealis form, which is
explained in section 5.4.

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5.3. Aspect
Aspect has to do with the timing of an action or event itself, for example if it is continuing,
completed, repeated, and so on.

5.3.1. Continuous
Continuous aspect ( ) describes an action or event that is viewed as carrying on at
some point in time. For example, in Tok Pisin, mi ritim buk i stap or mi wok long ritim buk.

Example 5.3.1.1: Continuous

A) Word lofiufiuga efua afegai o'olo aoina oiso alogai alopiuka

Gloss you keep finish after chicken egg three into you toss
mixing it in

You keep mixing, then you toss in three eggs.

B) Word kepinapinauga laolao kai kina e'isapu

Gloss They kept working kept going until sun it became
hot

They kept working until the sun grew hot.

In our language the continuous aspect is marked by a doubled stem.

5.3.2. Habitual
Habitual aspect ( ) describes an action or event that happens several times, whether in
the past or the present. For example, in Tok Pisin, em i save ritim buk, or in English ‘he used to
read books’ or ‘he often reads books’.

Example 5.3.2.1: Habitual

A) Word John palafa isanina emagakalaina
Gloss John bread to eat he is used to do it

John is used to eating bread.

B) Word fe'a ekau magakania

Gloss bilum she makes she is used to it

She is used to making bilum.

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C) Word Puka fekuapina paisa.
Gloss book he would read usually

He would usually read a book.

5.3.3. Repeated
Repeated aspect ( ) describes an action or event that happens repeatedly over a short
time. For example, in Tok Pisin, em i singaut singaut.

Example 5.3.3.1: Repeated

A) Word eaunia ke eaunia ke epamue eaunia pugu.
Gloss he hit and he hit and he did it he hit again
him him again him

He kept on hitting him.

B) Word ikoko eauauga eauauga kai eaukoko

Gloss nail he hit he hit until he hit it in

He kept hammering the nail until he drove it in.

We discovered that in our language we repeat verbs to signify the repeated aspect of a verb,
as shown in the examples above.

5.3.4. Beginning
Beginning aspect ( ) describes an action or event that is viewed as just beginning. For
example, in Tok Pisin, em i stat long wok.

Example 5.3.4.1: Beginning aspect

A) Word E'ina e'a epaapa
Gloss he started house he build

He started to build the house.

B) Word E'ina eifi

Gloss she started she sings

She started to sing.

E'ina marks the beginning aspect of the verb and appears at the beginning of a clause.

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5.3.5. Completed
Completed aspect ( ) describes an action or event that is viewed as having finished.
For example, in Tok Pisin, em i ritim buk pinis, or in English ‘he read a book’.

Example 5.3.5.1: Completed aspect

A) Word Kina emai efua.
Gloss day it came it finished

The day has arrived.

A) Word Kina elao efua.

Gloss day It goes It finished

The day has ended.

Efua marks the completed aspect of a verb and it appears at the end of a clause.

5.3.6. Translation Issues Related to Aspect

When translating aspect we need to remember that sometimes aspect appears in the verb
itself and other times aspect is marked by adding a word.

5.4. Realis and Irrealis Status

PNG languages often have a difference between realis and irrealis status. Realis refers to the
more real and certain events, while irrealis refers to possible or doubtful events. In Mekeo the
realis forms are found in the present and the past tenses. We use irrealis for many purposes, as
shown in the examples below.

5.4.1. Examples

Example 5.4.1.1: Realis and Irrealis

1. Negation

A) Word lau a- -la- -piti- -na

Gloss I IRR (not) I shoot it

I did not shoot it.

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B) Word Lau a- -la- -lao.
Gloss I IRR (did not) I go

I did not go.

2. Future
C) Word Lau a la lao
Gloss I IRR (will) I go

I will go.

D) Word lau a- -la- -piti- -na

Gloss I IRR (will) I shoot it

I will shoot it.

3. Negation (future)
E) Word
afa- -ke- -aniani
Gloss IRR. (will not) they eat

They will not eat

F) Word
afa- -la- inu
Gloss IRR. (will not) I drink

I will not drink.

4. Should
G) Word
fa'- -agau
Gloss IRR. (I should) climb

I should climb.

H) Word Fa- -gefa

Gloss IRR. (I should) dance

I should dance.

5. Should not
I) Word fala'- -agau
Gloss IRR. (I should not) climb

I should not climb.

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6. Want to

J) Word ma- -feu

Gloss IRR. (I want) sleep

I want to sleep.

7. Command
K) Word mo- lao!
Gloss IRR. (command) go

Go!

REALIS IRREALIS

go did not will go will not should should want to go! don't
go go go not go go (comm go!
and)

1SG - I lalao alalao alalao afalalao falao falalao malao

2SG - you lolao alolao alolao afololao folao fololao molao molao fololao
3SG – elao aelao agelao afaelao felao faelao galao *galao *faelao
he/she/it

1PL - we alao alalao agalao afalalao falao falalao alao

2PL - you olao alolao agolao afololao folao fololao olao olao fololao
3PL - kelao akelao akelao afakelao fekelao fakelao kegalao *kelao *fakelao
they

*In these examples the commands are relayed through the second person to the third

person.

5.4.2. Translation Issues for Realis and Irrealis

When translating realis and irrealis you need to remember that the past and the present are
always in the realis forms, except when they are negated. With verbs that are negated or
express possibility or doubt, irrealis forms are used.

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5.5. Serial Verbs
Serial verbs mean two or more verbs that go together and that show closely related actions.
Often both (or all) the verbs keep at least some of their basic meaning. The whole group of
verbs acts as one unit and often the verbs in the group all have the same subject (and object).
For example, the meaning of the English verb bring is expressed in many PNG languages with a
serial verb meaning ‘(go) get come’. Another example is Tok Pisin, 'Kisim kam'.

5.5.1. Examples
Here are some examples of serial verbs in our language:
Example 5.5.1.1:
A) Word e- -au- pe- a
Gloss he/she/it hit open it

He broke it open.

B) Word e- -au- -pugu- -a

Gloss he/she/it hit kill he/she/it

He killed it (by hitting).

C) Word e- -ufai- e- -piau- -niniu

Gloss he/she/it go first he/she/it run lose sight

He is so far ahead.

D) Word Laufai lapea.

Gloss I lead I walk

I was the first one walking.

E) Word Agamue agamai.

Gloss we will return we will come

We will come back.

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When we have serial verbs, all the verbs usually have subject and object markers.
Sometimes when the serial verbs appear in one word, there are no markers, they appear in
the verb root.

If the serial verb has an object, it will usually go before the whole group of verbs.
A) Word Kooga la'agaukae lalao.
Gloss coconut I climbed I went

I climbed up the coconut tree.

If a negative word goes with a serial verb, it is in the middle of the verb. It makes all the
verbs in the group negative.

A) Word Afalamue afalamai.

Gloss We will not return We will not come

We will not come back.

5.5.2. Translation Issues for Serial Verbs

During our four-week course we did not find any translation issues for Serial Verbs. Perhaps
further research might come up with translation issues in relation to Serial Verbs later on.

5.6. Medial Verbs

Many PNG languages with Actor, Patient, Verb (APV) (also known as subject, object, verb
(SOV)) word order have two kinds of verbs. Final verbs almost always come at the end of a
sentence and have their own set of markers for person, tense etc. Medial verbs are used earlier
in the sentence and have their own markers that do not come on the final verbs. In this section
we will discuss medial verbs.
Our language does not make a difference between medial and final verbs. Medial verbs are not
applicable in our language.

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6. CLAUSES

6.1. Transitive clauses

Transitive clauses include a subject, a verb and an object.

6.1.1. Examples

Our usual word order for a transitive clause is SOV.

Here are some examples:
Example 6.1.1.1: Word order in transitive clauses
A) Word Au ao aga'o keisa
Gloss man cuscus one they saw

The men saw a cuscus.

B) Word Au aga'o auai e'agaukae

Gloss man one the tree he climbed

A man climbed the tree

A) Word Au John akafa keisa

Gloss Man John wife they saw

The men saw John's wife.

6.1.2. Translation Issues for Transitive Clauses

When translating transitive clauses we need to remember that the subject is repeated in the
verb and the singularity and plurality are determined in the prefix of the verb.

We also have to remember that the singularity and the plurality of the object is determined in
the suffix of the verb.

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6.2. Intransitive clauses
Intransitive clauses contain a verb that usually cannot take an object. For example, he walked,
he laughed, he jumped in English.

6.2.1. Examples
Here are some examples of intransitive clauses:

Example 6.2.1.1: Intransitive clauses

A) Word Au kepinauga
Gloss man they work

The men work.

B) Word Amu'e eagu

Gloss dog it sat

The dog sat.

C) Word elao
Gloss he went

He went.

In Mekeo there are many examples where the subject is included in the prefix of the verb.

Here are some examples of intransitive clauses with verbs of movement:

Example 6.2.1.2: Movement verbs
A) Word Ifiao egefa.
Gloss girl she danced

The girl danced.

B) Word Imoi egau

Gloss child it swims

The child swims.

In Mekeo verbs of movement are intransitive.

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Example 6.2.1.3: Voluntary and involuntary actions
A) Word lapiau
Gloss I run

I run.
B) Word lapapiauga
Gloss I run it

I run it.

The morpheme -pa- on its own signifies that someone causes someone to do something.
We have a special rule related to this for intransitive verbs. In our last example, we added
-pa- and the intransitive verb -piau- changed from intransitive to transitive and got a new
meaning, 'running something'.

Example 6.2.1.4: Process verbs, and other verbs

A) Word Oo'o keaifa
Gloss bananas they ripe

The structure of process verbs is not different from the other intransitive clauses.

6.2.2. Translation Issues for Intransitive Clauses

When translating intransitive clauses, it is important to remember that some intransitive

verbs (e.g. run, dance) can become transitive and their meanings change or they get a new
meaning.

6.3. Di-transitive clauses

Clauses that have both an object and a recipient are called di-transitive. An English example is:
I gave the book to him.

6.3.1. Examples
Example 6.3.1.1: Di-transitive clauses (that have recipients)

A) Word lau Alphonse fe'a lapenia

Gloss I Alphonse bilum I gave him

I gave Alphonse a bilum.

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This is our usual order for sentences that have recipients: agent – recipient – patient – verb

6.3.2. Translation Issues for Di-transitive Clauses

When translating di-transitive clauses: it is important to remember that only the subject
marker and the recipient marker appear on the verb.

6.4. Semantic roles (noun roles)

6.4.1. Agent
An agent deliberately makes an action or event happen. E.g. ‘Cain murdered his brother’

Example 6.4.1.1: Agent

A) Word John akafa auni'i kepainimai
Gloss John wife both they told us

John and his wife both told us.

John akafa auni'i kepainimai.

6.4.2. Force
A force makes an action happen but not deliberately. E.g. ‘the wind blew down Job’s house’.

Example 6.4.2.1: Force

B) Word Ameku Job ega e'a epua'afogaina
Gloss wind Job his house it blew down

The wind blew down Job's house

Ameku Job ega e'a epua'afogaina

6.4.3. Experiencer
An experiencer does not control what happens, and they are not changed by what happens.
They feel what happens with their senses or emotions. E.g. ‘Samuel heard the sheep’, ‘Jonah
felt angry’.

Example 6.4.3.1: Experiencer

C) Word John akafa fou aisa'i
Gloss John wife with we saw them

We saw John with his wife.

John akafa fou aisa'i

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6.4.4. Stimulus
A stimulus is something that is seen, thought about, or felt. E.g. ‘I saw a dog’, ‘The man thought
about his daughter’.

Example 6.4.4.1: Stimulus

D) Word John akafa fou aisa'i
Gloss John wife with we saw them

We saw John with his wife.

John akafa fou aisa'i.

6.4.5. Possessor
A possessor is someone who has something. E.g. ‘Joseph has a coat’.

Example 6.4.5.1: Possessor

E) Word Arthur kamata egai ekae
Gloss Arthur shoes with him it is there

Arthur has shoes.

Arthur kamata egai ekae.

6.4.6. Location
A location is where an action or event takes place. E.g. ‘Eli slept in his bed’, ‘She found the
coin under the table’.

Example 6.4.6.1: Location

F) Word Aupu gagauga fe'a alogai ekae.
Gloss leaf bilum in it is there

The leaf is in the bilum.

Aupu gagauga fe'a alogai ekae.

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6.4.7. Source / Destination
A source is where something moves from, a destination is where something moves to. E.g.
‘Abraham travelled from Ur (source) to Haran (destination)’.

Example 6.4.7.1: Source

G) Word paguai amai Moku.
Gloss from the village we came Port Moresby

From the village we came to Port Moresby

Paguai amai Moku.

Example 6.4.7.2: Destination

H) Word Paguai amai Moku.
Gloss from the village we came Port Moresby

From the village we came to Port Moresby.

Paguai amai Moku.

6.4.8. Instrument
An instrument is used by someone to make something happen. E.g. ‘Jael killed Sisera with a
tent peg’ ‘Saul attacked David with a spear’.

Example 6.4.8.1: Instrument

I) Word ega'ina guguga ao ega'ina egefaisa
Gloss that arrow cuscus that he speared it

He speared that cuscus with that arrow.

Ega'ina guguga ao ega'ina egefaisa.

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6.4.9. Accompaniment
An accompaniment is someone who does something with someone else. E.g. ‘Moses went to
Pharaoh with his brother’.
Example 6.4.9.1: Accompaniment
J) Word Kina aga'o Ofuala ke akina fou kelao umai kepinau
ga
Gloss day one Ofuala and his with they in the they
younger went garden work
brother

One day Ofuala went to work in the garden with his younger brother.
Kina aga'o Ofuala ke akina fou kelao umai kepinauga.

6.4.10. Recipient
A recipient receives something from someone else. E.g. ‘The angel gave food to Elijah’.

Example 6.4.10.1: Recipient

K) Word Agelo Elijah fo'ama epenia.
Gloss angel Elijah food he gave him

The angel gave food to Elijah.

Agelo Elijah fo'ama epenia.

6.4.11. Beneficiary
A beneficiary is someone who benefits from an action done by someone else. E.g. ‘Dorcas made
clothes for the children’.

Example 6.4.11.1: Beneficiary

L) Word Dorcas imoi e'i tiapu ekaini'i
Gloss Dorcas children their clothes she sewed
them

Dorcas sewed clothes for the children.

Dorcas imoi e'i tiapu ekaini'i.

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6.4.12. Patient
A patient is someone or something an action happens to. E.g. ‘John ate a locust’.

Example 6.4.12.1: Patient

M) Word Kooga Ofuala eaupugua
Gloss Coconut Ofuala it killed him

The coconut killed Ofuala.

Kooga Ofuala eaupugua.

6.4.13. Translation Issues for Noun Roles

When translating Noun roles, we need to remember that Mekeo has its own word order for
semantic roles.

6.5. Adverbs
The man who was miraculously healed, was over forty years old. (Acts 4:22) The underlined
word is an adverb. It tells how the man was healed. Adverbs give extra information about the
events in a clause, but because there are many kinds of adverbs, it is impossible to give a
common meaning that is shared by all adverbs. The following five categories are the most
common kinds of adverbs in English

6.5.1. Adverbs of place

These adverbs tell you about the place of an event.

Example 6.5.1.1: Place Words

Place Words in Mekeo English equivalent

inae here

egae there

afu ma'oai everywhere

kainagai near

agoma far

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Example 6.5.1.2: Phrases showing place
A) Word Papiau afu ma'oai aisa'i
Gloss people place all we see them

We see people everywhere.

A) Word Inae moagu mo'imaisau
Gloss here you sit you wait for me

Sit here and wait for me!

6.5.2. Adverbs of manner

These adverbs tell you how the action is or was done. In English, they often end in -ly.

Example 6.5.2.1: Manner words

pakaipakai - slowly

pafiafi / fiakoa(fiakoa) - quickly

Usually, the adjectives are doubled.

Example 6.5.2.2: Phrases showing Manner

A) Word Pakaipakai epe'a.
Gloss slowly he walks

He walks slowly

B) Word agopo felo

Gloss We flew good

We had a good flight (Lit. 'We flew well.')

C) Word Kafo'o peagai epea

Gloss crazy walk with he walks

He walks in a funny way. (Lit. 'He walks with a crazy walk.')

D) Word Kala'au aguaguai eagu.

Gloss foolish living in he lives

He lives foolishly.

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6.5.3. Adverbs of degree
These adverbs modify adjectives and give information about the degree of the adjective: very,
rather, somewhat, too, so, incredibly. In English, most adverbs of degree come before the
adjective. Adverbs of degree can also modify adverbs of manner. In Mekeo, most adverbs of
degree come after the adjective.
Example 6.5.3.1: Degree words

ipauma - very

alogaina - too/so

pagainia - too

afa'agamo - a bit

Example 6.5.3.2: Phrases showing Degree

A) Word Amue akaiki'a ipauma
Gloss dog big very

The dog is very big.

B) Word E'a e'ele alogaina

Gloss house small too

The house is too small.

C) Word afu ekeke'a pagainia

Gloss place it is cold too

It is too cold here.

6.5.4. Adverbs of time

These adverbs tell you when something happens, happened or will happen: now, today,
tomorrow, early, late. Adverbs of time can also tell you how often something happens or
happened: always, often, never, sometimes, rarely, again.

Example 6.5.4.1: Time words

Adverbs of time in Mekeo Equivalent in English

pau (kina) / pau (inamo'e) now, today

faai yesterday

oma'e kai afterwards

fafoko tomorrow

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maina early

aoniamo / auakina always

(kina) isagai often

epogai sometimes

pugu again

Example 6.5.4.2: Phrases showing Time

A) Word kapapuo auakina imamuai loaniani
Gloss why always with your you eat
hands

Why do you always eat with your hands?

B) Word Faai kemai.

Gloss yesterday they came

They came yesterday.

C) Word Imoi pau inamo'e eapepe

Gloss baby now It is crying

The baby is crying now.

6.5.5. Sentence adverbs

In Mekeo, we do not have separate words for sentence adverbs, but we would use other words
to describe them, as shown below.
iisagai - maybe (lit. 'it looks like')
lapamia - probably (litt. 'I cause to become')
ko'a ipauma - certainly (lit. 'very sure')

A) Word Iisagai, imoi malele afemai.

Gloss maybe the boy school He could come

Maybe, the boy will come to school.

B) Word Lapamia kofi e'isapu.

Gloss probably coffee It is hot

Probably the coffee is hot

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C) Word Lapamia Aule kina Kainantu alalao.
Gloss probably Saturday Kainantu I will go

I will probably go to Kainantu on Saturday.

6.6. Negative Clauses and Negation

Negative clauses are those which include a meaning like no or not in English. In our language,
we only have one negation word. Another way of showing negation is done by using irrealis
forms.

6.6.1. Examples

Example 6.6.1.1: Words that say ‘no’

Laa'i means 'no' and is used as a negation word for noun phrases, but not with verbs. It
occurs at the end of a noun phrase.
A) Word Imega gagaina
laa'i
Gloss Hot water hot no

There is no hot water.

B) Word Amue akaiki'a laa'i.

Gloss Dog big no

The dog is not big.

To show negation on verbs and some adjectives we use irrealis forms.

A) Word a- -ke- -feu
Gloss IRR (not) they sleep

They did not sleep.

B) Word a- -e- -mai-

Gloss IRR (not) he come

He did not come.

C) Word Amue a- -e- akaiki'a

Gloss dog IRR (not) it big

The dog is not big.

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Example 6.6.1.2: Negative commands
A) Word fo- -lo- lao
Gloss IRR (negative you go
command)

You should not go!

A) Word Kuku fo- -lo- -ani- -a

Gloss Smoke IRR you eat it
(negative
command)

You should not smoke / no smoking!

Example 6.6.1.3: Strong negatives

In Mekeo we do not have negation words that are stronger than the ordinary negatives. (For
example, English 'never' is stronger than 'not'. We make a negation stronger by reduplication
of the verb stem.
A) Word Lau alakapakapa laa'i.
Gloss I I do not do it not

I never do it.

A) Word Lau alalaolao Laa'i.

Gloss I I do not go not

I never go.

Example 6.6.1.4: Words with a negative meaning

Our language does not have words or expressions that are negative in themselves, like the
English words dislike, unable, useless, impossible.

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6.6.2. Translation Issues for Negative Clauses

When translating negative clauses we need to remember that the word laa'i plays a major
role in making negative commands stronger.

When we want to make negation words stronger, we reduplicate the verb stem and still add
laa'i at the end of the sentence.

7. SENTENCES

7.1. Conjunctions

7.1.1. Examples

Example 7.1.1.1: Conjunctions

Conjunctions in Mekeo Equivalent in English

(ke)...fou and

kina when

fou/kai'alao together

o/ma or

aisama if/when

kai but/while/so that

alogai while

koa if

kainai/puo/gome because

egae after that

auga general conjunction

puo so

A) Word Amue (ke) uma fou laisa'i.

Gloss dog and pig together I saw them

I saw dogs and pigs.

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Ke and fou can appear together in one sentence, but fou can also appear on its own, without
ke.

B) Word Au auni'i kai'alao keagu a'ifa keafia

Gloss Man two together they sit knife they take

The two men are sitting together holding the knife.

C) Word Amue ke uma fou kai'alao laisa'i.

Gloss dog and pig together together I saw them

I saw (both) the dogs and pigs together.

Fou and kai'alao can appear together and separately in a sentence, when they do appear
together more emphasis is stressed.

D) Word Imu ageake aisama afalalao.

Gloss rain It come down if I will not go

If it rains, I will not go.

Aisama can mean 'if' and/or 'when'.

E) Word oi ti o kofi anina loani?

Gloss you tea or coffee like

Would you like tea or coffee?

F) Word Laisafa kainai, afalafai.

Gloss I am sick because I will not come

I will not come, because I'm sick.

Gome and puo are also used along with kainai, either on their own or together in a sentence.
Puo is also used to mean 'so'.

G) Word Lofeu alogai, lapinauga.

Gloss you sleep while I work

While you were sleeping, I worked.

H) Word Ea'afeai koa age'ea'afeai

Gloss all of it burns if all of it will burn

If all of it burns, then all of it burns.

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I) Word Eaguega kai James fei eafia emai Ray kaniagai e'efaisa
Gloss He was while James water he takes it he came Ray on his head he wets
sitting by
pouring

While he was sitting, James came with water and poured it on Rays head, wetting him.

J) Word me'egai foapa kai kooga ani'i fapa'opu'i.

Gloss aside you so that coconut fruits I could drop them
should
stand

You should stand aside so that I will be able to drop the coconuts.

K) Word Ti alou elao kai kofi lopeniau.

Gloss tea I want but coffee you gave
me

I wanted tea but you gave me coffee.

7.1.2. Translation Issues Related to Conjunctions

When translating conjunctions: in our language, some conjunctions have several meanings.
The same word could be used for different purposes. E.g. the word kai could be translated
as 'but', 'while' and 'so that'.

7.2. Commands (Imperative Sentences)

7.2.1. Examples

Example 7.2.1.1: Commands

We use different kinds of commands in different situations.

1. A parent to a child
A) Word moufele fiakoa!
Gloss You wash! quickly

B) Word Oi lao moufele, John, foufele felo.

Gloss you go You wash! John You should good
wash

You go and wash, John, wash properly!

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In this case you use 'moufele' (wash!) and 'foufele' (you should wash), which are both irrealis
forms.

2. A man talking to his elderly father or a woman talking to her in-law

(tambu)
C) Word Emu fei lala'aisa efua.
Gloss your water I drew it It finished

I have already drawn your water.

In our language we cannot command our elderly father or in-law. Instead, we would
approach the subject more politely, by giving an indirect suggestion.

3. A friend passing on good advice from a doctor

D) Word Papiau aumauni puo afafoufele.
Gloss human so you should
wash a bit

You are human, so you should wash a bit.

In this case, you are talking to someone on your own level. You are telling your friend that he
is just like you and that he should not go about without at least taking a bath.

E) Word Moni afa foge paisa.

Gloss money pay You should put it really

You should really pay the money.

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In the clauses in a command sentence, you can use subjects together with the command or
leave the subject out. E.g. 'oi molao!' or 'molao!'
Besides the ordinary command sentence we have a weaker, more polite command
sentence. E.g. molao (you go!) could be replaced by folao auga (you should go!) which is
more polite.

7.2.2. Translation Issues Related to Commands

When translating commands: we need to remember that different commands are used
depending on the subject the command is directed to.

8. Questions

8.1. Questions (Interrogative Sentences)

8.1.1. Yes-No Questions

Example 8.1.1.1:

To make a yes-no question, we use the marker 'ma' at the end of the sentence. The word
order in the sentence does not change, when we turn a statement into a question.

A) Word Keagu ma?

Gloss they sit/they are QUEST

Are they there?

B) Word Kapa akaiki'a keagegeaina ma?

Gloss anything big they forgot QUEST

Have they forgotten anything of importance?

We can also use yes-no questions to scold people, to make people think (rhetorical) and as
a greeting.

1. Scolding people/rhetorical question:

A) Word Ega'ina alokapamo agelaolao?
Gloss that You will do It will keep on
going

Will you keep on doing that?

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2. General greeting / rhetorical question:
B) Word Oi loague?
Gloss you you sit/you are

Are you still there? (Lit. Are you sitting?)

When we translate negative questions, we use irrealis forms.

C) Word a- -lo- -kuapi- -na ma?
Gloss IRR (not) you read it question
marker

Didn't you read it?

8.1.2. WH Questions
When we want to find out more than just ‘yes’ or ‘no’, in English we ask questions using
question words such as Who? What? Which? How many? When? Where? How? Why? (People
sometimes call these WH questions because most of these English question words start with wh.)
Example 8.1.2.1:

Question words in Mekeo Equivalent in English

kapapuo why

kapa'ina kainai why

gaika (kina) when

kapa'ina/kapa what

ala'ina/kapa(auga) which

pika how many

ala(koa) how

kai(sau) who

A) Word Kapapuo Kainantu lolao?

Gloss why Kainantu you go

Why did you go to Kainantu?

B) Word Kai fo'ama egakunia?

Gloss who food she cooked it

Who cooked the food?

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Usually, our question words come at the beginning of the question. However, pika comes
after the noun phrase.

C) Word Gaumu ma'oaimo pika?

Gloss your child All of them How many

The question marker 'ma' does not occur in WH questions.

In Mekeo, it is polite to ask questions to get information. You can ask questions to anybody
in the community. It is polite to ask people questions about themselves, as long as the
questions are not sensitive. It is possible to ask people why-questions to get information, but
it must also be noted that why-questions can be used for scolding or accusing.

8.1.3. Translation Issues for Questions

During our four-week course we did not find any translation issues for Questions. Perhaps
further research might come up with translation issues in relation to Questions.

9. Reason, Result, Purpose

9.1. Reason and Result

Here are some sentences that show a reason and a result in our language.

Example 9.1.1: Reason and Result

result reason
A) Word Alou egama gome Deo epalaginiau
Gloss I am happy because God he helped
me

I am happy, because God helped me.

reason result
B) Word Gome Deo epalagainiau kainai alou egama.
Gloss Because God He helped me therefore I am happy.

Because God helped me, I am happy.

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 result reason
A) Word Lau isa launia, gome isa lau eauniau.
Gloss I he I hit him because he I he hit me

I hit him, because he hit me.

reason result
A) Word Gome isa eauniau kainai isa launia.
Gloss Because he he hit me therefore him I hit him

Because he hit me, I hit him.

Reason/Result Rule: there is no usual order for Result and Reason. We can use either
Result – Reason or we can use Reason – Result. When we use Reason – Result, we use
'kainai' between the two parts.

9.1.1. Translation Issues for Reason and Result

During our four-week course we did not find any translation issues for Reason and Result.
Perhaps further research might come up with translation issues in relation to Reason and
Result.

9.2. Purpose and Result

Here are some sentences that show a purpose and a result in our language.

Example 9.2.1: Purpose and Result

purpose result
A) Word Fo'ama Ma'afa laoma kainai taoni lalao.
Gloss Food I wanted to I said therefore town I go
buy

Because I wanted to buy food, I went to town.

result purpose
A) Word Taoni lalao gome fo'ama ma'afa laoma puo.
Gloss town I go because food I wanted I said That is
to buy why

I went to town, because I wanted to buy food.

Purpose/Result Rule: there is no usual order for Result and Purpose. We can use either
Result – Purpose or we can use Purpose – Result. When we use Result – Purpose, we add
puo after the Purpose.

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9.2.1. Translation Issues for Purpose and Result

During our four-week course we did not find any translation issues for Purpose and Result.
Perhaps further research might come up with translation issues in relation to Purpose and
Result.

10. Appendix

Text 1: Ala aoma amai Ukarumpa

Iifi kina paguai amai Moku.
Egae Mokuai gapi aga'o afeu, ke egani amagai Monday amai kapai loli feukaimai afugai
egae agu a'ima'ima.
Seven o'clock amai agu alogaina ten o'clock aisama loli emai aguka palai afuga alao.
Egae palaisai aguka agopo felo amai Aiyurai ake.
Ega'ina afegai loli elao aguka amai Ukarumpa.

Word Iifi kina paguai amai Moku

Word gloss Sunday from.the.village we.came Port Moresby
Word cat. n n v n

Free: On Sunday we came to Port Moresby from the village.

Word Egae Mokuai gapi aga'o afeu, ke egani amagai

Word gloss from.there at.Port night one we.slept and the.next.day morning
Moresby
Word cat. adv n n cardnu v conn n n
m

Word Monday amai kapai loli feukaimai afugai egae agu a'ima'ima
Word gloss Monday we.came where truck he.would. at.the. from.there we.sat we.waited
load.us place
Word cat. n v adv n v n adv v v

Free: From there we slept at Port Moresby for one night and on Monday, the next day in the
morning we came to the place where the truck would load us. There we sat and waited.

Word Seveno'cloc amai agu alogaina ten o'clock aisama loli emai
k
Word gloss seven o'clock we.came we.sat for.a.long. ten o'clock when truck it.came
time
Word cat. cardnu adv v v adv cardn adv conn n v
m um

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Word aguka palai afuga alao
Word gloss we.got.on plane place we went
Word cat. v n n v

Free: We came at seven o'clock and we sat for a long time. When the truck came at ten
o'clock, we got on and we went to the airport.

Word Egae palais aguka agopo felo amai Aiyurai ake

ai
Word gloss from.there on.the. we.got.on we.flew good we.came at.Aiyura we.got.off
plane
Word cat. adv n v v adv v n v

Free: From there we got on the plane and had a nice flight. We arrived at Aiyura and got
off.

Word ega'ina afegai loli elao aguka amai Ukarumpa

.
Word gloss that after truck it.went we.got.on we.came Ukarumpa
Word cat. dem conn n v v v n

Free: After that the truck went and we got on and came to Ukarumpa.

Text 2: Kapukapu fouga

Kina aga'o gapiai alao akapukapu. Alao ao aga'o aisa ke ma'oaimo alao auga, ega'ina aoga
aisa ama'opo aoma auga, gugu ma'oai ao ega'ina a'opoisa auga agea afe'aina gugu
ega'ina ma'oai kegea afe'ai. Gugu aga'omo ipauma eka auga, au aga'o auai e'agaukae
ega'ina guguga ao ega'ina egefaisa, e'ualai aupugua, afia amai akafa egakunia ma'oai ania
efua auga, lai ma'oai akani aua emai e'a alao. Lau e'u isonioni egae efua.

Word kina aga'o gapiai alao akapukapu

Word day one at.night we.went we.hunt
gloss

Word cat. n cardnum n v v

Free: One time we went hunting at night.

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Word alao ao aga'o aisa ke maóaimo alao auga
Word we.went cuscus one we.saw and all.of.us we.went
gloss

Word cat v n cardnum v conn quant v prt

Word ega'ina aoga aisa ama'opo aoma auga, gugu ma'oai

Word that that.cuscus we.saw we.wanted.to. we.said arrow all
gloss
try
Word cat. dem n v v v prt n quant

Word ao ega'ina a'opoisa auga agea afe'aina

Word cuscus that we.aimed.and.s we.missed completely
gloss
hot.at
Word cat. n dem v prt v adv

Word gugu ega'ina ma'oai kegea afe'ai.

Word arrow that all they.missed completely
gloss

Word cat. n dem quant v adv

Free: We went and saw a cuscus and we all wanted to try to shoot that cuscus, but all the
arrows that we aimed and shot at it missed completely.

Word gugu aga'omo ipauma eka auga, au aga'o auai

Word arrow only one very it.stays man one in.the.tree
gloss

Word cat. n cardnum adv v prt n cardnum n

Word e'agauk ega'ina guguga ao ega'ina egefaisa, e'ualai aupugua

ae
Word he.climb that that.arro cuscus that he.speared it.fell we.killed.
gloss
ed.up w .it it
Word cat. v dem n n dem v v v

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Word afia amai akafa agakunia ma'oa ania efua auga,
i
Word we.took. we.came wife she.cooked.it all we.ate.it it.finished
gloss
it
Word cat. v v n v quant v v prt

Word lai ma'oai akani aua emai e'a alao

Word we all we.dispersed each one our house we.went
gloss

Word cat. pro quant v quant pro n v

Free: Only one arrow remained, one man climbed up the tree and with that arrow he speared the
cuscus, it fell and we killed it, and took it to his wife, she cooked it and after we all ate it,
we dispersed to our own houses.

Word lau e'u isonioni egae efua.

Word me my story here it.finishes
gloss

Word cat. pro pro n adv v

Free: My story ends here.

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