SELEPET PRONOMINAL ELEMENTS

K.A. McELHANON

O. INTRODUCT I ON

A simp l e lis ting o f p ronominal forms and their dis t ribution d o e s not
c ons t it u t e an adeq uat e d e s c ription of t he pronoun morp h o l ogy in S e l e ­
l
pet. A r e c ent d e v e l opment i n t h e ana l y s e s o f c omp l e x mo rpho logic a l
s y s t ems 1s the mat rix t e chnique deve l oped by K.L. Pike which p rovide s
ins ight int o the int ernal pat t e rning of morphemic s y s t ems of great
2
comp l e xity. This pat t e rning is graphi c a l l y disp layed in mat ric e s
which indicate t h e fo rmative s , t h e vect ors and t he c at e gorie s. The
format ive s are phonol ogic al p artic l e s fil ling the ce l l s of the mat rix .
The v e c t o r s are contrastive rows or c o l umn s in the mat rix ( e.g. c o l umn s
indicating s ingular , dua l and p l ural numb e r). The cat e go ries are t he
meanings o f emic v e c t o rs . The fo rmative is re l e vant t o phonol ogy , t he
v e c t o r to grammar , and the c a t e gory t o semantic s ; t he t o t a l b eing a
fo rm-meaning c omp o s ite .
An app lication of t he mat rix t e c hniq ue to Se lepet morp h o l o gy r e ve a l s
t h a t unde rl ying a l l o f Selepet mo rp h o l ogy i s a b asic s t o c k o f format ive s
which are comb ined in various way s to indicate p e rs o n and numb e r. In
order t o adequat e ly anal y s e t he morpho logy o f any one word c l a s s , one
has to simult ane o u s l y anal y s e t he mo rpho logy of all of t he w o rd c l a s s e s
i n order t o ide ntify t he formative s and a l l o fo rmative s. This is n e c e s ­
s ary b e cause fo rmative s'which a r e n o t readily apparent in o n e w o r d c la s s
may b e mo re apparent in anot h e r. For examp l e , t h e a l l o format ive s a and
k indicating 'singular ' o c c ur only in t he 3 s s u ffix o f the incho ative
3
fut ure verb and c e rt ain personal p ronomina l forms.
Se l epet p ronominal e l eme n t s indicate s e ven distinctions o f p e rs on
and numb e r : I s , Id , I p , 2 s , 2 - 3d , 2 - 3 p and 3 s . In some in s t an c e s t hird
p e r s o n may be distingui s h e d from s e c ond p e rs o n in the dual and p l u ra l
numb e r by t h e c ompounding o f t h e 3 s fo rm b e fo re t he dual o r p l ural fo rm.

23

McElhanon, K.A. "Selepet Pronominal Elements". In Blowers, B., Griffin, M. and McElhanon, K. editors, Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 13.
A-26:23-52. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1970. DOI:10.15144/PL-A26.23
©1970 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.
24

1�e Selepet pronom inal elements inc lude both free and bound form s.
The fre e forms inc lude three word cla s s e s: the pers onal pronouns w h i c h
s ub s titute for the c ore o f t h e General Noun Phras e and thus m a y b e
further qual i fi e d b y peripheral elements o f the Ge neral Noun Phrase; the
inde f i n ite pronouns which o c c ur in the third order po st-Head tagmeme
of the Ge neral Noun Phra s e ; and the demon strative pronouns w h i c h o c c ur
in th e fo urth order po st-Head tagmeme o f the Ge neral Noun Phras e. The
c la s s of d emonstrative pronouns i s d i v i d e d into two s ubcla s s e s , the
re gular demonstrative pro nouns and the i nterrogat i ve demonstrat i v e pro­
noun s , on the ba s i s of their d i s tribution in clau s e and phras e level
tagmeme s . The bound forms include the pronominal obj ect and bene fac t i ve
verbal a f f i x e s and th e nomi nal p o s s e s s i on -marking s uf f i x e s .

1. P E R S O N AL P RONO U N S

Matri x 1 s umm�r ise s the distribution o f the vari ous s ubcla s s e s o f

the pers onal pronoun within the axe s o f ax i s -relator p hra s e s and i n the
obj e c t tagmeme . E x c ept for the obj ect tagmeme all other c la u s e l e ve l
tagmeme s manifest ax i s -relator phras e s : Subj ect A x i s -relator p hra s e
( S ub-Ar . ) , A c companiment Axis-relator phrase (Acc-Ar . ) , P o s s e s s i on A x i s ­
relator phra s e (Pnss-Ar . ) , Benefaction/Cause Axis-relator phra s e
( B/C-Ar. ) and Location Axis-relator phra s e ( Loc-Ar . ) . The s e phra se�
all c on s i st of an axi s follow ed by a relator e ncliti c or relator word .
In Matri x 1 , x = o c c urrence, - - - = non-o c c urre n c e and the notat i o n
( sub . ) indi c ates that t h e pronomi nal form s ubstitutes for t h e axi s ­
relator p hrase a s the filler o f the claus e l e vel tagmeme. The notat i on
( Po s s-Ar . ) indi cates that the pronomi nal form o c c ur s in the a x i s o f the
P o s s e s s i on A x i s -relator phra s e w h i c h in turn o c c ur s in the axis of the
4
Locat i on A x i s -re lator Phra s e .

I s form Ob j . Sub-Ar . Acc -Ar . Pos s Ar .

- B/C-Ar . Loc -Ar .

(1 ) n a x x x x x ( Po s s-Ar . )
(2 ) n a k u x ( sub . ) x ( sub. )
( 3 ) nine x ( sub. ) x ( sub . ) x x
niniak x x x x

1. 1. REGULAR PER S O NA L P R O NOUNS

The re gular perso nal pronoun i s a person-number compo s ite in whi c h

the formative s , vectors and categor i e s are cle arly d i stingu i s h ab l e .
 25

T he s e are p re s en t e d in Mat rix 2 . The linear order of t he 've c t o r s in

t h e realised forms is p e r s on ( indicated by t he formative s n ' f i r s t' ,
g / V 'second' and V 'thi rd') , number ( indic ated by t he formative s a
's ingul ar' and e 'non - s ingu l a r') and number ( indic a t e d by t h e formative s
k ' s ingul' a r' , ,t 'du a l' and n 'p l ura l') . 5

Ma.tJL-i.x 2 : S e..ie.pe.t JLe. g u.ia.JL pe.JL4 ona..i pJLOn OUn4

Sg . Sg . non - Sg . Du . non - Sg . P l .
(a ) (k ) (e ) (t ) ( e) ( n )

1st per . (n ) n a k n e t n e n
2 nd pe r . (g / V ) 9 a k V e t V e n
3rd per . (V ) V a k ( V ak ) v e t (V a k ) V e n

The formative k 's ingu lar' is l o s t in a l l t he firs t and s e c on d p e r s on

regular p e r s o n a l p ronoun forms e xc ept when t he c ont ras tive s u f fix
{-ku} -ku _ -gu _ -hu is added ( s ee 1. 2.). The distinction bet we e n
s e c o nd and t hird p e r s o n i s ab sent in t he dua l and p lural forms but t hi s
l a c k o f distinc tion is overc ome b y t he c ompounding o f t he 3s form y ak
wit h t h e dua l and p l ura l fo rms t o sp e cify t hird p e rson .
Context indic a t e s in mo st c a s e s whether s e c ond or t hird p e r s o n is t o
b e inferred i n the u s e o f t he ambiguous forms . In forms of addre s s ,
c ommand s , e t c . , t he forms y et or y e n r e f e r o n l y t o t he s e c o nd p e r s on .
I n narrative s t ruct ure , when y et or y en re fer to t he s e c o nd p e r s on ,
t he s e forms a lway s oc cur within a quotative as t h e obj e c t o f t h e v e rb
na g a- 'to think' or sa- 'to say'. When t he forms refer to t he t hird
p e r s o n , the referent i s c l early s t ated . Once the referent is s t at e d ,
howeve r , t h e ambiguo us pronomina l forms are u s e d fre e l y without furt h e r
s p e c i fication unle s s anot h e r re ferent int e rvene s . When anot h e r re ferent
int ervene s , t h e original re ferent is again brought into fo c u s eit h e r by
r e s t ating t he r e f e rent o r u sing the t hird person form y ak before t h e am­
biguous forms are again u s e d for indicat ing t h e t hird p e r s on .
'
( a) sihan y en neng a l a n to rokatnoma i v awu sam
young you with us you/they will join thus saying
, saying thus, "You young men must join us"...'

( b ) a ta l i pF)e kapam pato ahom tatma veF)e ahom ba tatma

his elder stick big fighting 8taying you/ fighting go staying
brother8 they
'hi8 elder brothers fought hard and 8tayed there, they fought and
went and 8tayed.. . '

The 3s p ronoun y ak oc c u r s in t h e s ubj e c t or obj e c t t agmeme s wit hout

regard to numbe r , t he number o f t he subj e c t o r obj e c t being indic a t e d in
26

t he verb a l subj e c t -marki ng or obj e c t -marking a f f i x e s respec t i v e l y .

( a) subj ect
yak g e l) et a van, y awu y e r ak bi
they they aame when thus say ing they shot eaah other
down
'When they aame down, they (all) said l i ke this and shot eaah other . '

( b) obj ect
y ak k a ty e l ek bom
them I will put them ( du . )
'I w i n appoint the two of them.'

The regular persona l pronoun s ub s t i t u t e s for t he c ore ( Po s s e s s i on ,

A t t ri b ut i v e and Head t agmeme s ) o f the G enera l Noun P hr a s e. As s u c h i t
may b e q ua l i fi e d b y t h e adj e c t i ve s , numera l s , i nde f i n i t e pronouns and
demons trat i v e pronouns . I t o c c ur s i n t he c lause l e v e l obj e c t t agmeme
6
and in t he a x e s o f mo s t of t he a x i s -re l a t or phra s e s . I t d o e s not o c c ur
in t h e a x i s o f the I nstrument Axi s -r e l a t or p hrase ( Inst-Ar . ) . I n t he
obj e c t t agmeme t h i s pronoun o c c ur s w i t h no a f f i x e s but in t he a x e s o f
t h e v ar i ous axi s -relator phras e s i t i s fo l lowed b y e i t her a r e l a t or en­
c l i t i c or r e l a t or word. In addit i o n to o c c urring w i t h t he s u f f ix i a l
re lator enc l i t i c s i t a l s o o c c urs wit h certain unre str i c t e d enc l it i c s :
- am a 'however, on the other hand ' w h i c h i n d i c a t e s c ompar i s o n , { -ak}
-ak _ -ek _ - o k 'only ' whi c h i n d i c a t e s e x c l u s i o n o r emphas i s and { - ba n }
- ba n _ - w a n ' too, also ' w h i c h i nd i c at e s t hat t h e i t em s o ident i f i e d i s
o n e o f a numb er o f s imi lar i t ems o r t hat t he i t em inc ludes a numb er o f
s u b - c at egori s ed i t ems .
The regu l ar pers ona l pronoun has t he fol lowing d i s tr ibut i o n in p hr a s e
a n d c la u s e l e v e l t agmeme s :
( 1 ) Obj ect ta9 meme . As a lready n o t e d t he pronouns oc cur w i t h no a f ­
f i xat i o n i n t he obj e c t t agmeme.
nen p i ri-nene k - o p ( 0 : us, P : wash us he ( rpt ) )
- -

, He baptised us . '

( 2 ) Subj ect Axis-relator phrase . When t he regular personal pronouns

o c c ur i n t he ax i s o f t h i s p hr a s e t hey are s u f f i x e d by the re lat or e n­
c l i t i c - I) e ( sub . ) . The r e s u l t an t forms are l i s t e d i n Mat r i x 3 .

7
Ma..tlti x 3 : Re. g ula.1t p e.lt.!> on a.l plton o un.!> a..s .s u bj e.c..t

59 · Du . Pl o

1st per . na l) e netl)e nen l) e

2 n d per . g a l) e y et l) e y e l) e
3rd per . y a k l) e (y ak ) y et l) e ( y a k ) y e l) e
 27

ne n - � e han-gat p a i � pa i � yawu mans i n

we-sub. g round- 'or searching thus we live
' We live a l ways searching for ground. '

( 3 ) Ac c ompan ime n t Axi s - r e l a tor phrase . Til e Acc -Ar . manife st t h e

re lat or word o r o p ' with ' . T h e regular p e r s o n a l pronouns o c c ur as free
forms in the axj s . No te that y a k d o e s not o c c ur with y e t or y e n t o
d i s t i n g u i s h t hird person.
na o r o p 'with me '
y e n o ro p 'with you '
y a k o ro p 'with her/him/them '

(4 ) Bene fact ion/Cause and Pos s e s s ion a x i s - re l ator phrase s . The s e

phra ses bo t h o c c ur with t h e re lator enc l it i c { - g a t } - g a t - - k a t - - h a t
but are d i s t i nguishable in that whereas the former i s r e l e vant t o the
c lau se level and is permu t ab le , t he l a t t er is re levant t o t he phras e
l e v e l and a lway s pre c e de s and qua lifie s t he Head o f a General Noun P hrase.
When the regular per s onal pronoun o c c urs in t he Benefac tion/Cause
t agmeme it agree s in per s o n and number wit h the pronominal bene factive­
marking verba l s u ffixe s .
(a) ya ye-g a t h e ro �e o t - yi n g i - mini - wi
those them-for friend liness did - for them-used to-they
'They used to be weH p l eased with them. '

( b) ya yet - g a t he ro�e o t - yit k i - mi n i - wi

those them ( du. ) -for friend liness did-fo!' them ( du. ) -used to-they
' They used to be we l l p leased with the two of them.'

When the regular personal pronoun o c c urs in t he axis o f Po s s -Ar . wit h

t h e enc litic { - g a t } the r e s u l t ing form shows normal p o s s e s sion. The
regular personal pronoun agre e s in person and number wit h t h e nomina l
p o s s e s sion-marking s u ffix e s ( if any) o n t h e noun q ualified b y the
8
pos s-Ar . In t his re gard t h e pronominal forms dup licate much o f t he
in formation given in the p o s s e s sion-marking s u ff i x e s but have t he addi­
tional c l arific ation of person when y a k o c c urs be fore t h e forms y e t or
yen. The re s u l t ant forms are given in Matrix 4 . 9

Ma..tlt. .i. x. 4 : Reg u.£.a.1t. pelt.� ona.£. plt. on o u.n � � ho w.i.n g pO He� � .i.on

S9 · Du . PI .

1 s t per . nahat net k a t ne n g . H

2nd per . g�h�t yet kat y eg a t
3 rd per . yH�t ( y a k ) yet k a t ( y a k ) yeg a t

The c ompound per s onal pronoun forms y a ky e t and y a k y e n are u s u a l ly

28

u s e d t o d i s t ingui s h t hird person . O c c a s ional l y , however ,' t he personal

pronouns y e t and y e n o c c ur i n appo s i t i o n t o a noun or proper name and
so t h ird p e r s o n i s i nd i c at e d w i t ho ut the o c c urrence of y a k .
( a ) y e t - g a t eme t (you ( d u.) -po s s ., house) 'your ( du . ) house'
( b ) y a k y e t - g a t emet (them ( d u. ) - pos s . , house) 'their ( du . ) house '

( c ) a me r i k a y a k y e - g a t o ro t meme (America , them - po s s . , customs) 'the

customs of those Americans'

( d ) a me r i k a y e -g a t a i (America , them-po s s., work) 'the work of those
Americans'
( e ) a t a l i pl)e y e- g a t k a i yel) a n (his el.brs. , them - po s s ., on their legs)
'on his brothers ' Zegs'

When o c c urr ing in t he a x i s of t he Po s s -Ar . t h e pronoun y a k in t he

c ompo un d forms y a k y e t and y a k y e n i s o ft e n rep l a c e d by t he demons trat i v e
pronouns y u 'this, these ' o r y a 'that , those', p art i c u lar ly i f t h e
re ferent . i s non-human.
( a ) a me r i k a y a y e - g a t s u m (America, those, them - p o s s . , graveyard)
'the graveyard of those Americans'
( b ) n a k y a y e - g a t t o p yel) a n (trees , those, them - po s s . , at their bases)
'at the base of those trees '

O c c as i o n a l l y t he regular personal pronoun o c c urs a l one in t he p o s ­

s e s s io n t agmeme w i t h t he p o s s e s s i on -marking nominal s u f f i x e s o c c urri n g
o b l i ga t or i l y on t he p o s s e s s e d n o u n i f i t o c c urs i n the Head o f the
G e neral Noun Phra s e . The r e s u l t i s empha s i s :
n a eme t - n e (me, house-my) 'MY house'

( 5 ) Location Axis -re lator phrase . The regular personal pronouns

10
u s ua l ly do not o c c ur i n the ax i s o f t he Loc -Ar . Rat her , the P o s s -Ar .
man i f e s t i n g t he regular per s onal pronoun in it s axi s o c c ur s embedded
i n t h e axis of t h e Loc-Ar .
(a) naha l an ( n a - g a t - a n me -po s s . -at) 'with me' ( Zit. 'at my (place) ')
(b ) n a h a l a ngen ( n a - g a t - a n g e n me -po s s . -towards ) 'towards me'
( c ) n a h a l a n g e b a ( n a - g a t - a n g e b a me -pos s . -from ) , from me'
( d ) n e n g ala b a ( ne n - g a t - a b a u s -pos s . -o u t of ) 'out from among us'

1 .2. C O NTRAS T I VE P R O N O U N F O R M S

The regular personal pronoun may be mod i fi e d t o i n d i c a t e c ontrast by

11
t h e s uf fi xa t i o n of t h e morpheme { - k u } - k u _ - g u
h u. The r e s u l t i ng
_ _

forms e mp ha s i s e t hat t he person so iden t i fi e d i s c ontra s t e d w i t h ot her

person s . For i n s t anc e , when a ho s t d i s t ribut e s food t o a group o f
gue s t s but omit s one person , t h e omi t t e d person c ou l d s ay , naku b i a
( I-contra s t ive morpheme , no ) w h i c h fre e l y tran s l at ed means 'But what
 29

about me ! '. The 3s form y aku i s regularly u s e d w i t h i nanimat e r e f e r­

ent s and f u l fi l l s t he s emant i c d i s t i nc t i ons of t he demo n s t rat ive p r o ­
nouns whi c h do not oc cur w i t h the morpheme { -k u } . The re s u l t ing forms
are g i v e n i n Mat r i x 5 .

Sg . Du . Pl o

1st pe r . n ak u n e t ku nen g u
2 nd per . g ak u y e t ku y eng u
3rd per . yaku y ak ( y e t ) k u y a k u o r y aky eng u

The s e p ronouns oc cur only w i t h future t en s e verbs and have a l i mi t e d

d i s t ri but i on :

( 1 ) S�b j e c t tagmeme .
n a k u a riwom 'I wi � � go (not anyone e � 8e ) . '

( 2 ) Obj ec t tagmeme .
naku nohowu a p 'He wi � � hit me (and no one e � 8e ) . '

( 3 ) Po s s e s s ion tagmeme . When t he p ronouns showing c o n t r a s t o c c u r

in t he p o s s e s s i on t agmeme t he p o s s e s s i on-mark ing n ominal s u ffix e s a l s o
o c c u r o n t he noun i f i t o c c ur s i n t he Head o f t he General Noun P h r a s e.
naku e m e t -ne (my , house-my ) 'my hou8e and no one e � 8e ' 8 '

( 4 ) Accompaniment Axi s -re l ator Phrase .

ga naku o ro p a ri r o m
A

you me with we ( du . ) wi l l go
' You wi l l go with me and no one e � 8e. '

The c o n t rast ive pronomi nal fo rms are i n t e n s i f i e d by t h e o c c urrence

o f t h e s e c ond eleme nt o f t h e emphat i c pronoun c omp o s i t e s ( s e e 1 . 6. 2 . )
i n a p o s t p o s i t i on .
nak u n i n i ak t a t bom
{ I, my8e �f, I wi � � remain }
'I wi � � remain a �one by my8e �f . '

1. 3 . C O M PA R A T I VE P R O NOU N FORMS

The r e gu l a r p e rs o n a l p ronoun may o c c ur w i t h t h e unre s t r i c t e d s uf f i x

12
- a ma 'however, o n the other hand ' s h o w i ng compari s on. T h e re s u l t i n g
forms a r e given i n Mat r i x 6 .
30

Ma.tlt.t x 6 : R e.g u.ta.1t p e.1t.6 0 na..t pltO n o u n.6 .6 how.tng c o mpd.It.t.6 o n

Sg . Du . Pl .

1 s t per . nama ne r a m a nenama

2nd per . gama ye rama y e na m a
3 rd per . y ah a m a y aha m a y ah a m a

y en a m a d en w aia l esi a n a g im a i
you-howe v e r talk o n radios you give one another
' You [ Europeans ] , however, always talk to one another on the two-way
ra dios . ' ,

1 .4. I N CL USI V E P R O N O U N F O RMS

The re gular p e rs o nal pronoun a l s o o c c urs w i t h the inc lus i ve ( in c l . )

s u f f i x { �b a n } - b a n _ - w an 'too , also ' . Whe n s u f f i x e d t o nouns t h i s s u f­
f i x fo c u s e s att ent i on on the i t ems s ub c l a s s e d under t he noun , and c an
b e s t b e t rans l a t e d as 'all kinds of ' or 'different kinds of '. Thus
l o k ba n ( man - inc l . ) fo c u s e s attent i on on t he various groups o f p e op le :
'Europe ans, New Guine ans , Chinese , Japan ese , e tc . ' and g o k a w an ( sw e e t
potato - inc l . ) foc u s e s at t e nt i on on a l l t he various sweet p o t a t o c ult i ­
gens. When t h e s uffi x i s added t o t h e p e r s onal pronouns t h e p ronoun
i n c l udes i t s re ferent p l us s omeone e l s e . The r e s u l t i n g forms are g i v e n
in Mat r i x 7 .

Ma.tlt.tx 7 : R e.g u.ta.1t pe.lt.6 o na..t plto n o un.6 .6 h o w.t n g .t n c.tu.6 .t o n

Sg . Du . Pl .

1 s t per . na w a n ne t ban nenban

2nd pe r . g awan y e t ban y e nban
3 r d per . y a k ba n y a k ( y e t ) b an y a k ( y en ) ban

These pronouns have a very l i mi t e d d i s t ri b ut ion :

(1 ) S ubj e c t tagmeme . The p ronouns oc cur b ot h in the s ubj e c t t agmeme

and in t h e a x i s of the Sub-Ar . The verb a l s ubj e c t -marking s u f f i x e s i n
t h e s ame c la u s e oc c ur i n the p l ural numb e r .
na w a n t a t nom ( I-also, we will re main) ' We will re main (you and I and
a third party) . '

( 2 ) Ob j ec t tagmeme . The pronominal ob j e c t -mark ing s u ff i x of t h e

v e rb i n the s ame c l aus e o c c urs i n the p lural number.
 31

nawan n i ng i wuap
I-a l so he wi l l give us
'He wi n give it to us (you and I and a third party) . '

nawan oro p net� i ak p i r i nenehop

I-a lso with ourse l ves ( du. ) he washed us ( pl . )
'He baptised us . not on ly you but a lso me. '

1. 5 . EX C L US I V E PR O N O UN F O RM S

Whe n t h e regular p e r s onal p r onoun o c c u r s in t he ob j e c t t agmeme i t i s

o f t e n s u f f i x e d b y t h e unre s t r i c t e d s u f f i x { - a k} - g k _ -e k - - o k 'on ly'
and shows emphas i s or e x c l u s i on . The r e s u l t ing forms are given i n
Mat ri x 8 .

Ma..tlt.tx 8 : R e. g uia.1t p e.lt¢ o na.i plto n o u n ¢ h o w.tng e. x c.i u¢ .t o n O lt e.mpha.¢ .t¢

Sg . Du . Pl o

1 s t per . naek ne l a k nenak

2 nd per . gaek ye l ak yenak
3 rd pe r . yahak yahak yahak

naek n o h om ara p
me-on ly hitting me he went away
'He hit on ly me and went away. '

1.6 . T H E EMPHAT I C PERSONA L PRONO UNS

1.6. 1 . The b a s i c fo rms o f t h e s e p ronouns o c c u r o n l y i n t he s i ngul a r

n umb e r : n i n e ' I myse l f . my . mine ' ; g i k e 'you yourse l f . your . yours' ;
and i k � e 'he himse lf. she herse l f . his . her . hers . its'. The pronoun
h a s t h e fo l l owing d i s t ri b ut i on :

( 1 ) Sub j e c t tagmeme . The emphat i c pronouns o c c u r in t he subj e c t

t a gmeme rat h e r t han i n t h e a x i s o f Sub-Ar .
n i ne t o p �e samune naga
I-myse lf its basis I te l l you listen
'Listen to ME as I te l l about it ! '

( 2 ) Obj ec t tagmeme
g i ke ka i t -gohom
you -yourself tricking-you
'tricking Y O U '

( 3 ) Pos sess ion tagmeme . I n t he p o s s e s s io n t a gmeme t h e emphat i c

p ro noun s ub s t i t u t e s for t he Po s s -Ar . and c o n c ord e x i s t s b e tw e e n p e r s on-
32

numb er o f t h e e mphat i c p ronoun a n d t h e p o s s e s s i on-marking ' nominal suf­

fixes o f f o l l owing noun i f t hat noun o c c ur s i n t h e H e a d t agmeme o f the
General Noun Phras e .
nine emet-ne (M Y , house-my) 'MY house'
gike e met- g e ' ( YO UR, house-your) , Y O UR house '

I f t h e f o l lowing noun i s in t he a t t r i b u t i ve t agmeme of t he General Noun

Phra s e t he n it d o e s not o c c ur with p o s s e s s i on-mar k i ng s u f f ix e s .
nine emet g owet � an (M Y , house, underneath it) 'underneath MY house'

When t h e e mp h a t i c p ronoun o c c u r s i n the p o s s e s s i o n t a gmeme a l l o t h e r

uni t s o f t he General N o u n Phra s e a r e fre q uent l y a b sent .
g oko rok yu � e rek g u l ip t u h u m , nine nia p
chicken these aZZ doing away with mine it ate it
'It ( a dog) did away with a Z L the chickens and ate MINE (too) . '

( 4 ) B�ne faction/Cause Ax i s-re lator phrase

ik� e - g �t g aiakma mem tipi t a p i tu h u m
himse Zf -for cutting himse lf ho lding in smaL l pieces doing
'He he Zd and cut himseLf in sma Z Z pieces to his own advantage. . . '

( 5 ) Loc a t ion Axi s - re lator phra se . The l o c a t i v e enc l i t i c i s

{-an} -an _ -en .
se l e p et ik � e - an y anama idum�e tatbi
Se Zepet itseLf -at there-however Indum they stayed
'The Indum peopLe, however, stayed there at Se Zepet viL Zage itse Zf · '

( 6 ) Accompaniment Axi s -r e l ator phrase

y�k nine oro p takawit
he me-aLone with we ( du . ) came
'He came with me a Zone.'

1 . 6 . 2. The empha t i c p ronoun has an a l t e rnat e s t ru c t ure c o n s i s t ing of

a n opt i on a l regular p e rs o n a l p ronoun fo l l owed by a s e c ond p ronomin a l
form s u f f i x e d b y t h e s u f f i x { - a k } 'on Zy'. I n t he s ingular numbe r t he
s e c o n d forms are t h e emphat i c pronomina l forms g i ven in s e c t i o n 1 . 6 . 1 .
b u t i n t h e dual and p l ural numb e rs t h e forms are : net � e ld , y e t � e 2-3d ,
n e n � e lp and y e � e 2 -3p . The final vowe l s o f t he s e c ond form c hange
from e to i when the s u ff i x - a k is adde d . S ome s p eakers , however , do
not a lway s make t h i s vowe l c hange i n the dual and p lu r a l forms . When
the o p t i o n a l regular p e rs o n a l p ronoun o c c ur s , the r e s u l t i ng c ompo s i t e
form shows grea t e r emphas i s . The s e forms are given i n Mat r i x 9 . 1 3
 33

Mat�� x 9 : Emp hat�e p� o n o u n - - 2

Sg . Du . Pl .

�st per . (na ) ninia k ( ne t ) ne t Qia k (nen ) nenQ i a k

2 nd per . (g a ) g i kia k ( y e t ) y e t Qia k ( y e n ) y e Qia k
3rd per . ( y a k ) i k Qia k (y a k ) y e t Qia k (y a k ) y e Qia k

T h e s e forms have t he fol lowing d i s t ri b ut io n :

( 1 ) Subj ect tagmeme . The form may o c c ur free i n t he s ubj e c t t agmeme

or in the a x i s of Sub-Ar . w i t h t he enc l i t i c - Q e ( sub . ) .
na nini a k ar i wom (I, myself, I will go) 'I myself will go.'
na n i ni a k - Q e k u a n (I, myself- sub . , I killed it) 'I killed it myself · '

(2 ) Obj ect tagmeme . In the obj e c t t agmeme t he emp h at i c p ronouns

u s ua l ly o c c ur w i thout the p re p o s e d regular p e r s onal p ronoun s .
g i ki a k ge g oho m ne g e km a y ahawu a p
you yourself descending killing you eating you it will ascend
'It will descend, kill and eat only you and go back up.'

( 3 ) Pos s e s s ion tagmeme . The emphat i c p ronoun - - 2 d o e s not o c c ur i n

t h e p o s s e s s i o n t agmeme ; rat her t h i s d i s t i nc t i o n appears t o b e s hown b y
t he regular p e r s onal p ronoun w i t h t h e mo rpheme { - k u } showing c on t r a s t .

( 4 ) Benefaction/Cause Axi s -re l ator phra s e . The relat o r e nc l i t i c i s

{ - g at } .
na n i ni a k - g a t y a p 'He spoke only about me . '

( 5 ) Location tagmeme . T h i s p ronoun form d o e s not o c cu r i n t h e l oc a ­

t i on t agmeme ; s e e t h e b a s i c forms ( 1.6.1 . ) .

( 6 ) Accompaniment Ax i s - r e l ator phrase . When t h e empha t i c pronoun--2

o c c ur s i n t he a x i s , t he re lat o r word o ro p 'with' is p ermu t e d to a p r e ­
a x i s p o s i t i on .
o ro p netQia k 'with us ( du . ) only'
o ro p y e Q i a k 'only with them'

1 . 6. 3 . An a l t e rnate mo rphologi c a l s hape oc c ur s when t he morphophonemi c

rule e + a + a i s in e f f e c t . The s t ru c t ure i s t he s ame a s t hat o f
1 . 6 . 2 . b u t t h e phono logi c a l real i s at i o n i s d i fferent . The s e forms have
b e e n ob s erved only i n the s ubj e c t t agmeme and are l e s s emphat i c t han
those o f 1 . 6.1. , p a r t i c ularly when t he forms are built upon t he regular
pe r s o na l p ro nouns rat h e r t han upon t he emphat i c p r onoun o f 1.6 . 1 . Ex­
cept for t h e emphat i c p ronouns w h i c h o c c u r only i n the s i n gu l a r numb e r ,
t he rema in i n g forms are s imp l y t he regular p e r s onal p ronouns i n t h e a x i s
o f t h e Sub-Ar . w i t h t he e n c l i t i c - Q e a n d a r e made emphat i c b y t he s u f f i x
- a k 'only'. The r e s ultant forms a r e g i v e n i n Mat r i x 1 0 .
34

Mat��x 10: Emphat�c p� o n o u n - - 3

Sg . Du . Pl o

1st per . (na ) n i na k / na rj a k net rj a k nenrj a k

2 nd pe r . (g a ) 9 i k a k/ g a rj a k y e t rj a k y e rj a k
3rd per . ( y a k ) i k rj a k / y a k rj a k y a k(y e t ) rj a k y a k(y e ) rj a k

( a ) na n i na k sog o kum ta kan

I mY8eLf animaL kiLLing I came
'I mY8eLf kiLLed the a n imaL and came.

( b ) g e rman a ust r e l ia ta ka i
German8 AU8traLian8 they-aLone they came
'OnLy the Germa ns and AustraLians came. '

2. I NDEF I N I TE PRONOU NS

Th ere are only t w o pronouns in t h i s c l a s s and t h e p lu r a l numb e r i s

formed b y redup l i c at ion .
ala 'a, an, another '; a l a l a 'other8, 8ome, a few'
o d o p 'a, an, another'; o d o w o d o p 'other8, 8ome, a few'

The s e p ronouns are s emant i c a l ly d i s t i n c t in that a l a gene ral ly r e f e r s

t o another o f t he s ame s o rt b ut o d o p r e fe r s t o anot h e r o f a d i f ferent
s o rt . Furt h e rmore , a l a o c c ur s w i t h the c on t ra st i ve s uf f i x {- k u } :
1 0 k a l a h u ta k a p 'A different man came. '
(a) yak m uo p . y a kat i bi m e bo m
8he 8he d ied therefore woman another I wi l Z get
'She died. Therefore I wiLL get another wife ( n o i n d icat i o n that
she w i l Z be different) . '

(b) a l a mem nih i

another hoLd i ng give me
' Give me another (L ike the first) . '

(c) 1 0k ya h a k a rj o an. 1 0k odop me bom

man that di8Like I do man another I wiLL get
' I do not Like that man. I wi Z Z get another hU8band (who i8 d i f ­
ferent) . '

Th e s e p ronouns o.c c ur in the t hi rd order p o s t -Head t agmeme ( I n d e f i n i t e ,

Id . ) o f t he General N oun Phra s e .
( a ) w a h a p ba l e rj e a l a ( H : thing, A : bad, Id : a ) 'a bad thing'
(b ) kono k a l a ( N : one, Id : another) 'an other o ne'

W h e n a l a o c c ur s a l o ne ( i . e . as the only i t em of the General N ou n

 35

Phra s e ) i n t h e axe s o f t h e Sub-Ar . , t h e B/C-Ar . or t h e Pos s -Ar . , i t

14
has t h e meaning 'who? ' and r e f e rs only t o human referen t s .

( 1 ) S ub j e c t Ax i s -re lator phrase

i m i �e a l a-�e s a op
his younger b rother anothe r-sub . he said
'Another younger b rother of h i s spoke. '

a l a -�e mem y ingiap

who- sub . ho Lding he gave it to them
'Who gave it to them? '

( 2) Bene fac t ion/Cause Axi s -r e lator phrase

h an a l a-gat m ene s a m
ground another-for wanting to hotd
'wanting to take over another country ! ... '

a l a-gat · s awi
whom-for they spoke
'For whom did they speak? '

( 3 ) Pos s e s s ion Axi s - re l ator phrase

m e sik s oki s oki
sickness another-po s s . germs
'germs which cause another sickness '

� I �-g�t h�nangen
wh o - po s s . to the ground
'to whose country '

The pronoun a l a a l s o o c curs in t he fo l l owing t agmeme s .

( 4 ) Ob j e c t tagrnerne
ala yat 'What did you say? '

(5) I n strument Ax i s - r e l ator phrase w i t h t he re l at o r w o rd k a d ak.

bia b a g up ala ka d ak k u op
no ctub another with he hit it
'No, he hit i t with another ctub. '

( 6 ) Locat ion Axi s -re l ator phrase

a l a - eng en s o t bia - eng en a riop
another-to food no-to it went
'It went to another ptace , to a ptace with no food. '

3. DEMO NS TRAT I V E PRO NOUNS

Th e s e p ronouns may b e d i v i de d i n t o two s ub c l a s s e s on t h e b a s i s o f

36

t h e i r d i s t ri b ut i on : t h e regular demons t rat i ve p ronouns and t he i n t e r ­

rogat i ve demo n s t rat i ve p ronoun s .

3.1. R E G U L A R VEMO NSTRAT I VE P R O N O U NS

The regular demons t rat i ve p ronouns have the s t ructure : + nuc l e u s +

p o s it i on . The nuc l e u s i s man i fe s t e d by the demon s t rat i v e forms and t h e
p o s i t i o n i s man i fe s t e d b y re l at i ve p o s i t ion markers . T h e demonst rat i ve
forms are : y - 'thi8, that', e d - 'that over there', e b - 'that down beLow '
and ew- 'that up above'. The p o s i t i o n mark e r s are : -u 'nea r ' and - a
'di8tant '.
yu 'thi8 ' (near the 8peaker)
ya ' 'that ' (near the hearer)
edu 'that over there ' (removed from both 8peaker and hearer but
near by)
eda 'that over there' (distantLy removed from both 8peaker and hearer)
ewu 'that up there' (near)
ewa 'that up there ' (distant)
e bu 'that down the re' (near)
eba 'that down there ' (distant)

T h e s e p ronouns oc cur in a fourth order po s t -Head tagmeme ( Demon­

s t rat i ve , D . ) o f the General Noun Phrase and t h u.s frequent l y qual i fy
t h e i n d e f i n i t e p ronoun s .
( a ) kat p ato y a ( H : 8tone, A : big, D : that ) 'that big 8tone '
(b) a l a ya ( Id : another, D : that ) 'that other one'

3. 2 . I N T E R R O G A T I V E V E M O NS T R A T I V E P R O N O U NS

There are only two i n t e rrogat ive demon s t rat ive p ronoun s : wosa 'which
one' and wua n 'what'. wosa i n c l ud e s b o t h animat e and inanimate refer­
e nt s ; wuan i n c l ud e s i nanimat e refe rent s a s we l l as act i on s . wosa o c ­
c ur s i n t h e s ame t agmeme a s t h e regular demon s t rat i ve p ronoun s . wuan
s ub s t i t ut e s for the c ore of the General Noun Phra s e .
( a ) k a ok wosa -�e ku p ekma ( A : white, D : which - sub . , iP : pluc king) 'which
white (man) plucked it...'

( b ) wuan a l a ekyong o a i ( core : what, I d : another, iP : they told him )

'What el8e did they tell him ? '

( c ) wua n g o go � e ( core : what, A : crooked ) 'what c rooked thing . . . '

3 . 3. V I S TR I B U T I 0 N

The vari ous demonst rat ive p ronouns have s l i gh t l y d i fferent patt erns
o f d i s t ribut i on i n c lause l e v e l and phrase l e v e l t agmeme s . N o t e t hat
 37

the demonst rat i v e s e w u , e d u and e b u o c c ur only in the axes o f t h e

Loc-Ar .
( 1 ) S ubj e c t Axi s -r e l ator phrase
( a) bau v a - f) e hobot ku kum p i l am g ao p
pig that- sub. aane riding on aasting it aame
'That pig aame arashing through the aane. '

ari edaken f) e r e k tatuk t a t u k yap

what-sub . go over there all it beaame rotten
'What has all gone over there and beaame rotten? '

(c) 1 0k w o s a - f) e ga sam g o w e f) e k u p e km a g o l em ari

man whiah-sub . aassowary its leg pluaking aarrying go
'Whiah man pluaked out the aassowary's leg and aarried it away?'

( 2 ) Ob j ec t tagmeme . A l l of t he demons t ra t i v e s e x c ept e w u , e d u and

e b u o c c u r a s obj e c t s .
( a ) v a o t n o m (that, we will do) 'We wi n do that. '
( b ) w u a n n ema t (what , you eat) 'What do you usually eat? '
( c ) w o s a s a m u n f) e (whiah , we say) 'Whiah (statement) shall we make?'

( 3 ) Location Axi s -r e l ator phrase . A l l o f t he demon s t rat i ve s o c c u r

i n the ax i s o f t he Loc-Ar . The form w u a n man i fe s t s vowe l c o n t ra c t i o n
t o t h e form w o n .
(a) va-an (that -at) 'there'
( b ) w o n - a n (what-at) 'where?'
( c ) w o s a - a n (whiah-at) 'where? '

(4) Bene f a c t ion/Cause Axi s -re l a tor phrase . A l l o f the demons t rat i v e s
e x c ept w o s a , e b u , e d u and e w u o c c ur in t he ax i s o f t h i s phra s e .
( a) Va-kat sam kat b i
that-for speaking they put it
'Speaking about that they put it. '

( b ) w u a n -g a t giai
what-for they aame down
'Why did they aome down?'

( 5 ) Po s s e s s ion Axi s - r e l ator phrase . The fo rms w o s a , e b u , e d u and

e w u do not o c c ur in the axis of t h i s phra s e .
emet Vu
wh o - po s s . house this
'Whose house is this?'

( b ) muop Va-kat s u ma n ari

he died that-po s s . to 'the grave go
'Going to' the grave of him who died.. . '
38

( 6 ) Manne r A x i s - re lator phrase . O n l y t he regular demo n s t rat ive

p ronouns ( e x c ept ing e b u , e d u and e w u ) occur in t he axi s o f t hi s phras e .
The r e l a t o r i s - w u ' like ' .
(a) yawu ' in that manner , thus , l i ke that (one ) ,
(b) yuwu 'in this manner , thus, l i ke this (one ) ,
(c) ewawu ' l i ke that (one ) up there '
( d) edawu ' like that (one ) over there '
( e ) ebawu ' li ke that (one ) down there '

( 0 a w u omo� k a me t m a yawu t u h uop

k. of here p lanting thus he did
'He p lanted the herb in that manner . '

(7) In strument Ax i s -relator phrase . The re are two r e l a t o rs : t h e en­

c l i t i c - � e and t he word k a d a k .
(a) pet ya-�e l a t b ag i � e t a
l oin a loth that-with they girded him
' They girded him with a loin c loth. . . '

mem y a h a t nom
what- with ho lding we wi l l get up
' With what sha l l we begin it (business ) ? '

( 8 ) · Accompaniment Ax i s -re lator phrase . O n l y t he regular demo n s t ra­

t i ve p ronouns have b e en ob s e rved o c c urring in t he a x i s o f t h i s phras e .
i b i �e ya o ro p ma domawot
his wife that with they ( du.) wi l l live
, He wi Z Z live with that wife of his . '

When t he regular demo n s t rat i ve pronouns o c c ur in t he s ubj e c t t agmeme ,

obj e c t t a gmeme , or t he a x i s of t h e Sub-Ar . t he y may a l s o o c c u r w i t h t h e
s u ffi x - a k 'on ly ' y i e l ding emphat i c forms ( s ee 1 . 5. and 1 . 6. c o n c e rn i n g
t h e regu l ar p e r s onal pronoun in t h e s ame c on s t ru c t i o n s ) or t he s u f f i x
- a ma ' however ' y i e lding c omparat i ve forms ( s ee 1 . 3 . ) .
( a) han y u - �e-ak pu r i r i k sawuap
ground this- sub. -on ly it wi l l rotate
' this earth wi l l rotate '

(b) den ko n o k yu-ak a l a h um

ta l k one this-on ly spea king
' speaking on ly this one language '

( c) be v a -o k h i dam
taro that-on ly pu Z Zing out
' pu l ling out on ly that taro '
 39

tj e re k mem pes u k p i l aw i
g ro u n d t ha t-however all holding they did i t comple tely
' t hey took all of t ha t g rou n d , howeve r , ... '

( e ) y u - ama bia t m u
this-however i t disappea red
' this , howeve r , disappea red '

( f ) y a - tje - a m a bau w a t tj e t a
t hose- -however pig they chase d i t
' those , howeve r , chased t he pig '

4. D E R I V E D D E M O N S T R A T I V E P RO N O U N S

Th ere are a numb e r of pronouns w h i c h have t he s t ru c t ur e : + nucleus

+ -wu ' li ke ' + -va . The nuc leus manifests t h e regu l a r de monst rat i ve
p ronouns e b a , e d a , e w a , y a and y u or t h e adverb g i r a ' how ' .
eba w u y a ' one Zike t ha t (one) down there '
ed a w u y a ' one like t ha t (one) over t here '
ew a w u y a ' one like tha t (one) u p there '
yawuya 'one like t ha t (one) near you '
yuwuya 'one li ke this (one) near> me '
9 i rawuya ' which kind of one ? '

These p ro nouns have t h e f o l l o w i ng d is t r i b ut ion :

(1) Sub j ec t tagmeme

y uwuya ki n m a n i t kia p
one li ke this s t anding he gave us
' One li ke this one s t ool and gave i t t o us ( du . ) . '

(2) Sub j ec t A x i s - r e l ator phrase

g i r a w u y a - tj e ka s a i
wha t k i n d of one- sub. they pu t i t
' Wha t kind of people pu t i t . '

( 3 ) Ob j e c t tagmeme
yuwuya mem tohora
one like this holding you come
' when you b ring one like this '

( 4 ) Bene fact ion/Cause �x i s - re l ator ph rase

gi r a w u y a - ka t naga t
wha t kind of thing-fo r you t h o ugh t
' A bo u t which kind of thing did y o u thi n k ? '
40

( 5 ) Po s s e s s ion Ax i s -r e l ator phrase

g i rawu y a - ka t tOP 8e ki naga n
what kind of thing-po s s . its meaning not I know

' Which kind of thing do I not know the meaning of? '

5. NOMINAL POS S ES S ION- MARK I NG S U F F IX ES

The s e s u f f i x e s o c cur i n t h e final s u f fi x i a l order o f p o s s e s s e d nouns

( s e e McE lhanon , 1 9 7 0 b ) . They are s im i l a r i n ph onemi c s h ap e to t he
regular p e r s onal p ronouns . The s u f f i x e s and t h e i r format i v e s are g i v e n
i n. Mat r i x 1 1 .

Ma.tlL-tx 1 1 : P o � �e � � -t on -ma.lL k-tn g � u 6 6 .t xe �

Sg . Du . PI .
(¢) (t) ( n/¢)

1 s t pe r . ( n) n -e-¢-¢ n-e-t -8e n -e - n - 8 e

2nd pe r . ( g/y) g-e-¢-¢ y-e-t -8e y -e-¢-8e
3 rd per . ( ¢/y ) ¢-¢-¢-8e y-e-t -8e y-e-¢-8e

Th e fun c t i on and mean ing o f the form - 8 e i s not e v i d e nt b ut i t may

be t e ntat i ve ly regarded as an i dent i fi c at i onal ( c l as s ? ) marke r e v e n as
t h e vowe l s may b e given s u c h s t at u s i n t he p ronominal obj e c t -mar k i n g
v e rb a l a f f i x e s ( s e e s e c t i o n 6) .
The format i ve ¢ i nd i c at i ng ' t h i rd p e r s o n ' w i t h t h e s ingular numb e r
i s a l s o found i n t h e s i ngu l a r forms o f t h e s ub c l a s s I I p ronom i n a l
ob j e c t -marking a f f i x e s o c c urring w i t h t h e verb ' to bite ' : n- i h i 'me',
g-ih i ' you ' and ¢ - i h i 'him, her, it ' .
T h e p o s s e s s i on-mark ing s u f f i x e s may b e p e rmut e d t o t he p r e nu c l e a r
p o s i t i o n i n t h e noun s t ruct ure w i t h t h e r e s u l t i n d i c at ing emph a s i s .
On ly dual and p l ural p o s s e s s i on-mark ing s u f f i x e s have b e en ob s e rv e d e x ­
h i b i t ing s u c h p e rmut a t i o n a n d t h e fact t h a t s i ngu l ar forms do not s o
o c c u r may i n d i c a t e t hat t h e regular p e r s o n a l pronoun o c c urring i n t h e
p o s s e s s i o n t agmeme ( s e e 1 . 1 . ( 4 » s e rv e s t h i s func t i o n .
( a) denen8e ( d e n - n e n 8 e Zanguage-our ) ' our Zanguage '
(b) n e n 8 e r e n ( n e n 8 e - d e n our- Zanguage ) 'OUR Zanguage '

I n narrat i ve s t h e noun root on wh i c h t h e p o s s e s s i on-mar k i n g s u f f i x e s

o c c u r may b e d e l e t e d i f c o n fu s i on i s unl i k e l y t o re s u l t . S u c h d e l e t i on
o c c urs o n ly wh en the p o s s e s s e d noun oc curs in t h e a x i s of an a x i s ­
re l a t o r p h r a s e ( us ua l l y a Loc-Ar . ) . T h e rema i ning p o s s e s s i on-mark i n g
s u f f i x a n d re l a t o r enc l i t i c a s sume t h e p h o no l o g i c a l c h arac t e ri s t i c s o f
a s in g l e word .
 41

(a) In t h i s e xamp l e n e n � e - a n o c c urs r a t h e r t h an n e n g a l a n ( s e e

1 . 1 . (5» .
y a ke n ama bau hu l i n sesega t . nen�e-an yuan b i a t mu
ove � the�e > howeve� pig wild many ou�-at he�e they disappeared
'Ove� the�e> howeve � > a�e many wild pigs. Here at ou� (place) they dis­
appeared.. . '

(b) I n t h i s e xamp l e y e � e - h a t o c c u r s r a t h e r t han y e g a t ( s e e 1. 1 . ( 4 » .

ye� e-hat nam n em im ade�eta
their-poss. milk eating sleeping they continued
'they slept on d�inking their (mother 's) milk ... '

6. P RONOM I N AL O B J E C T - MA R K I NG V E RBAL S U F F I X E S

W i t h t h e e x c ep t i o n o f a s i n g l e verb root , - n 'to call someone, to

name som�one ', a l l S e l e p e t t ran s i t i ve verb root s o c c u r w i t h p ronom i n a l
ob j e c t -mark i ng s u f f i xe s . The sub c l a s s I I I obj e c t -mark i n g a f f i x e s whi c h
15
o c c u r w i t h t h e verb root - n , howeve r , are c l e ar l y pre f i x a l : noho-n-sap
( me-call-he ( ipt . ) ) 'He called me ' j goho - n - sap (you-call-he ( 1pt. ) ) 'He
called you '.
T h e re are t hree a l l omorph s ub c l a s s e s of t he o b j e c t -ma r k i n g s u f f i x e s
and t ran s i t i ve verb s are d i v i ded i n t o t hree s ub c l a s s e s o n t h e b a s i s o f
t h e i r o c c urre n c e w i t h one o f t he a l l omorph s ub c l a s s e s . The s t ru c t ure
o f the t rans i t i ve verb s t e m is an ob l i ga t o ry nuc l e u s man i fe s t ed b y a
root p l u s an ob l igat o ry obj e c t s lo t man i fe s t ed b y t h e ob j e c t -mark i ng
s u f fi x e s . I n s ub c l a s s III verb s t h e obj e c t mark e r s a l s o func t i o n a s
v e rb a l i s e r s .
I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t e a c h c l a s s o f v e rb s c o n t a i n s a v e r b r o o t mor­
p heme repre s e n t e d b y z e ro and t hat t h e s e root s are d i s t i ngui s h e d b y t h e
a l l omorph s o f t h e obj e c t -mark i ng s u f f i x e s . Thus t he z e r o morpheme s mean
'to see ' w i t h s ub c l a s s I obj e c t -mark i n g a l l omorph s , 'to give ' or 'to
bite ' w i t h s ub c l a s s II a l l omorphs and 'to hit ' or 'to kill ' w i t h s ub ­
c l a s s I I I a l lomorph s .
The ob j e c t -mark e r s may b e t en t a t i ve ly ana l y s e d as c omp o s i t e s h av i ng
t h e s t ru c t ure : p e r s o n + numb e r + c l a s s mark e r . The c l a s s mark e r may
b e ana l y s e d as a v e l a r s t op p h o neme p l u s a p r o s ody o f vowe l q u a l i t y .
I n s ub c l a s s I t he c l a s s mark e r i s k p l u s vowe l q u a l i t y e , i n s ub c l a s s I I
i t i s 9 p l us vowe l q u a l i t y i and i n s ub c l a s s I I I i t i s k / g p l u s vowe l
q ua l i t y o / u .

6.1 . The morphemes and fo rmat i v e s for s u b c l a s s I o b j e c t markers are

g i ven in Mat r i x 12 .
42

M a.tlt'<'x 1 2 : S u b c.ta.u I o b j e c t ma.ltia elt-6

Sg . Du . PI .
( ¢) ( I) ( n/¢)

1 s t per . ( n) n -e-¢-ek n -e- I -e k n-e-n-ek

2 nd per . ( g/y) g -e-¢-ek y - e - I -e k y-e-¢-ek
3 rd per . ( ¢/ y ) ¢-e-¢-ek y - e - I -e k y-e-¢-ek

re f l e x i ve/re c ip r o c a l marker i s - a k

The 3 5 ob j e c t mar k e r e k o c c u rs o n l y w i t h t he z e ro morpheme v e rb r o o t

w i t h t h e me an ing 'to see ' a n d h a s an a l l omorph - ¢ o c c urring w i t h a l l
o t h e r v e rb root s . I n t h e c l a s s mark e r indi c at ing ' s ub c l a s s I ' . t he v e l a r
s t op me t a t h e s i s e d w i t h t h e f o l lowing vowe l a n d t h e n b e c ame vo i c e l e s s i n
t h e word final p o s it i o n : t hus e k rat her t h an g e .

p i I a-nek�sap 'He dismissed me ' p i I a-¢-ap 'He threw it away '

p i r i -nek-sap 'He washed me ' p i r i -¢-ap 'He washed him '
¢-nek-sap 'He saw me ' ¢-ek-sap 'He saw him '
ga i -nek-sap 'He cut me ' ga i -¢-ap 'He cut it '
g a i -.a k - s a p 'He cut himse I f ' ye r a -a k - s a i 'They shot one another'

When t h e re f l e x ive/re c i p r o c a l fo rm - a k oc curs w i t h t h e v e rb meaning

'to see ' t h e 3 5 p ronominal marker o c curs a s t he verb root : e k-a k-sap
'He saw himself ', e k - a k - s a wo t 'They ( du . ) saw each other '.
T h e morpheme - a k a l s o o c c u r s w i t h t he meaning 'for oneself' and
r e g u l a r l y fun c t i on s as a b ene fac t i ve re f l e x i ve pronomi n a l marker when
the s ubj e c t is i n the s i ngular numb e r .
pu l uhu-ak-buap 'He will buy it for himself. '
k a t - a k-sap 'He put it away for himself. '

6.2. The morpheme s and format i v e s for s ub c l a s s I I obj e c t marke rs are

g i v e n in Mat r i x 1 3 .

Ma.tlt'<'x 1 3 : S u b c.t a. -6 -6 I I o b j e c t ma.ltia elt-6

Sg . Du . PI .
( ¢) (t) ( n)

1 s t per . Cn) n - i -¢-g i n - i - t -g i n - i - n -g i

2nd per . Cg/y) g - i -¢-g i y - i - t -g i y - i - n -g i
3 rd per . C¢) ¢ - i -¢ -g i y - i - t -g i y- i -n-g i

re f l e x i ve/re c ip r o c a l marker i s - a g i

T h e 3 5 obj e c t marker i h i oc curs only w i t h t h e z e r o morpheme meaning

 43

' to bite '. An a l l omorph w a Q o c c urs o n l y w i t h the z e r o morpheme mean i n g

'to give ' . A l l o t h e r verb root s o c c u r w i t h a z e ro m o rp heme i n d i c at i n g
3 s o b j e c t marke r . T h e s ub c la s s I I ob j e c t mark e r s a r e ob v i o u s l y re l at ed
t o t h e b e ne fact ive pronominal markers and o ft e n i t i s d i ff i c u l t t o d e ­
c i de wh e t h e r a p art i c u l a r v e rb root o c curs w i t h s ub c l a s s I I ob j e c t
mark e rs o r wh e t h e r i t o c c u r s wi t h s ub c la s s I ob j e c t marker 3 s , � , fol­
l owed b y t h e b ene fac t i ve p ronomi nal marke rs .
The b ene fa c t i ve p ronom i n a l marke r s o c c ur as a f i r s t order v e rb a l s u f ­
f i x a n d a l l fo rms are i de nt i c a l w i t h t he s ub c l a s s I I ob j e c t marke r s e x ­
c ep t 3 s wh i ch has t h e form - w a g i . 1 6 T h a t t h e b en e f ac t i ve mark e r s a r e
d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e s ub c la s s I I ob j e c t marke rs i s e vi dent i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
e x amp l e : � - i h i - n i h i - a p ( b ite-it-for me - it ( i p t . ) ) 'It chewed up it (my
rooste r) for me ' .
(a) Subc l a s s II ob j ec t ma rke r s
mabot - n i h i -ap ' He awa ited me. mabo t -�-sap ' He awa ited him. '
mewa l e - n i h i - a p 'He cheated me. mewa l e -�-a p ' He cheated him. '

( b ) Bene factive marke r s

�-ku-n i h i -ap ( h it-it-for me-he ( i pt.) ) ' He kille it f o r m e . '
kat -�-y i ng i -a p ( put-it-for them-he ( ipt. ) ) ' He put it away for them. '

6.3. The morph eme s and format i v e s for s ub c l a s s I I I ob j e c t mar k e rs are

g i v e n i n Mat r i x 14.

Matlt-<-x 1 4 : S u b c.iau I I I o b j e.c.t malt il. e.lt<l

Sg . Du . PI.
( �) (t) (n)

1 s t pe r . (n) n -o - � -go n -o - t - g o n - o - n -go

2nd per . ( g/y) g -o - � - g o y -o - t -go y -o - n -go
3rd per . ( �) �-�-ku y -o - t -go y - o - n -go

re f l e x i ve / re c i p r o c a l mark e r i s - a h o

When t h e z e r o morpheme verb root meaning 'to h i t , kill' o c c ur s t h e

3 s a l l omorph i s - k u . T h e o t h e r a l l omorph s , -g u or - h u , o c cur with al l
the o t h e r v e rb root s .
When t h e s ub c l a s s I re f l e x i ve / re c i p r o c a l form - a k o c curs w i t h t h e
v e rb s meaning ' to hit ' o r 'to call someon e , call someone 's name ' , t h e
v e rb root s a r e a h o - a n d a h o n - re s p e c t i ve l y : aho-a k-sap ' H e h i t h i ms e lf ' ,
17
ahon-a k-sap ' He sai d his own name '.
The ve rb a l i s ing force o f t h e p ronomi n a l ob j e c t markers i s mo s t e v i ­
d e n t i n s ub c la s s I I I . Tran s i t i ve verb s t ems a r e d e r i ve d from t he f o l ­
l o w i n g c la s s e s o f root s .
44

( a ) Noun roo t s :
l am - g u 'to watch him' from l a m 'ho �e'
k a l a p - g u 'to arouse him' from k a l a p 'fire'
t a n - g u 'to he �p him' from t a n 'bone'
k u l e m - �u 'to draw it' from k u l e m 'mark'
h e w u m - g u 'to bund �e it' from h e w u m 'bund �e'

( b ) Adj ec t ive roo t s :

h e l e � - g u 'to b �acken something' from h e l e � 'b �ack'
k u r i � - g u 'to ripen it' from k u r i � 'red'

( c ) Ad j un c t roots
O n l y adj un c t s o c c urring with t h e aux i l i ary o t 'to do' h ave been ob ­
s e rv e d as d e r i v e d t r an s i t i ve verb st ems .
g u l i p - g u 'to erase something' from g u l i p o t 'to disappear'
h e � - a h o 'to p � ay together' from h e � o t 'to p � ay'

( d ) Trans i t ive verb roo t s

Th e f o l l o w i n g root s h ave b e en ob s e rved o n l y in the c o re o f t rans i t i ve
v e rb s t ems :
u I i t -g u 'to beg him' a i k-ku ' to ask him'
h e g e m - g u 'to decorate it' ek-ku 'to te � � him'
h a w a m - g u 'to encirc �e it' w a l i p - k u 'to touch it'
 •

N O T E S

1. The dat a upon wh i c h t h i s p a p e r i s b a s e d were c o l le c t e d b y t he

w ri t e r during e x t ended f i e ld t r i p s from 1 9 6 4 - 9 wh i l e under t he ausp i c e s
o f t h e Summer I n s t i t u t e o f L i ngui s t i c s and t h e A u s t ral i an Nat i on a l
Univer s i t y . T h e S e l e p e t language i s spoken b y 5 5 0 0 S e l e p e t p e o p l e a n d
p e rhaps b y a s many a s 2 5 0 0 b i l i ngual Komb a p e o p l e l i vi n g i n t h e S e l e p e t
C en s us D i v i s i o n , Moro b e D i s t ri c t , Territ o ry o f N e w G u i ne a . T h e lan­
guage b e longs to t h e W e s t ern Fam i l y of t h e Huon P e n i n s u l a S t o c k of l an­
guag e s ( s e e M c E l h anon , 1 9 6 7 , 1 9 7 0 c ) . The wri t e r i s i n de b t e d to C . L .
Voorhoeve for s ugge s t i on s i n t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h i s p ap e r .
Analy s i s o f t h e dat a was fac i l i t at e d by use o f a c on c o rd a n c e o f
2 5 , 0 0 0 words o f t e x t i n the s ou t h e rn S e l e p e t d i a l e c t made o n t h e IBM 1 4 1 0
c omp ut e r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Ok l ahoma b y t h e Li ngui s t i c I n fo rmat i o n Re­
t ri e v a l Proj e c t o f t h e Summe r I n s t i t u t e of L i n gui s t i c s and t h e U n i ve r s i t y
o f Ok l ahoma R e s e a rch I n s t i t ut e , and s p o n s ored b y G rant G S- 9 3 4 o f t he
Nat i o nal S c ie n c e Foundat i o n .
The f o l lowing a b b re v i at ions are u s e d : A t t ri b ut i ve t a gmeme (A. ) , Ac­
c ompaniment A x i s - r e l a t o r P h r a s e (Ac c -Ar . ) , Bene fac t i on/Cause A x i s ­
re l a t o r P h r a s e ( B/C-Ar . ) , Demo n s t rat ive t agmeme ( D . ) , Head t a gmeme (H . ) ,
imme d i at e p a s t t e n s e ( ipt . ) , I n d e f i n i t e t a gmeme ( I d . ) , i n c lus i ve s u f f i x
( inc l . ) , I n s t rument A x i s - r e l a t o r Phrase ( I n s t -Ar . ) , L o c at i on A x i s ­
re l a t o r Phrase ( Loc-Ar . ) , Numb e r t agmeme ( N . ) , Obj e c t t a gmeme (0 . ) , Pre­
d i c a t e t a gmeme ( P . ) , P o s s e s s i o n A x i s -re lat o r P h r a s e ( P o s s -Ar . ) , remo t e
p a s t t e n s e ( rpt . ) , S ubj e c t A x i s - r e l a t o r t agmeme ( Sub-Ar . ) , and s ubj e c t
re l a t o r en c l i t i c ( sub . ) .

2. S e e in part i c ular , P i k e ( 1 9 6 3 ) , P i ke and E r i c k s o n ( 19 6 4 ) .

3. The mat r i x t e c h n i q ue was app l i e d t o S e l ep e t v e rb morpho l ogy i n

M c E l hanon ( 1 9 6 9 a ) .

4. Th i s in s t an c e o f a x i s -re l a t o r p h r a s e emb ed d i n g i s ment i oned he re

b e c au s e i t is the only t y p e of c o n s t ruc t i on wh i c h i n v o l v e s regular

45
46

p e r s o n a l p ronouns o c c urring i n t he l o c at i on t agmeme . Other instances

o f p h r a s e emb e d d i ng a r e t re a t e d i n M c E l hanon ( 1 9 7 0 a ) .

5. To ob t a i n t he c or r e c t p h o n o l ogi c a l re a l i s at i on s of t h e morpheme s i n
t h e mat r i c e s a n d t h e morp heme s marke d b y hyphe n s i n t h e e xamp l e s morpho­
p honemi c r u l e s must be app l i ed ( s e e McE lhanon , 1 9 7 0 d : 2 3 - 2 6 ) . Braces
{ } e n c l o s i n g a morpheme i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e morpheme has a l l omorp h i c
v a r i an t s wh i c h a r e genera l ly l i s t e d o n l y w i t h t h e f i r s t ident i f i c at i on
o f t h e morpheme i n t h i s pap e r . In t he mat r i c e s t h e form e n c l o s e d i n
parent h e s e s i s opt i onal .

6. I n e a r l y t re a t ment s of t h e noun mo rp h o l o gi e s of o t h e r l anguage s o f

t h e Huon P e n i n s u l a S t o c k , P i lh o fe r ( 19 2 6 - 7 , 1 9 2 7 - 8 , 1 9 3 3 ) and W a c k e
( 19 30 - 1 ) u s e d t h e c a s e s y s t em approac h . P i l h o fe r ( 19 2 6 - 7 , 1 9 3 3 ) , i n
d e s c ri b i n g Kat e n o un morp h o l ogy , l i s t e d t e n c a s e s : indi f f . ( i ns t ra n s i ­
t iv e s ub j e c t a n d t ran s i t i ve obj e c t ) , nominativ agenti s ( t rans it i v e
s ub j e c t ) , de s tinativ ( b ene fa c t i o n/ c aus e , p o s s e s s i on ) , adlativ ( lo c a t i o n ) ,
delativ ( di r e c t i o n from ) , adve r s iv ( d i re� t i on t owards ) , deve r s iv ( di r e c ­
t i o n away from ) , komitativ ( a s s o c iat i on ) , karitiv ( la c k o f p o s s e s s i on )
and i n strumenta l i s ( i n s t rument ) . T h e s e c a s e mark e r s are phrase l e ve l
e n c l i t i c s and o c cu r as re l at o r s in a x i s - r e l a t o r p h ra s e s in w h i c h t h e
a x i s may b e man i f e s t e d b y a var i e t y o f c on s t ruc t i on s from v a r i o u s l e ve l s
o f t h e grammat i c a l h i e rarchy .

7. Th e format i ve indi c at i ng p l ural numb e r has two a l l o - format i v e s i n

t h i s mat r i x : n as i n n e - n - � e and � a s i n y e - � - � e . F o r � i n d i c at i n g
p lural numb e r i n t h e v e rb a l subj e c t -mark ing s u ff i xe s s e e Mc E lhan on
( 19 6 9a : 10 ) .

8. The re are t wo c l a s s e s o f S e l e p e t noun s : t h o s e wh i c h o c c ur ob l i gat or­

i ly w i t h p o s s e s s i on-mark ing s u f f i x e s and t h o s e wh i c h do not . Bot h c la s ­
s e s o f noun s may o c cur qual i fi e d b y the P o s s e s s i on A x i s -r e l a t o r p h r a s e
s o t h at p o s s e s s i o n m a y b e s hown only b y t h e phrase o r t he nom i n a l s u f­
f i x e s o r re dundan t ly by b o t h .

9. The n in y e n a s s imi l a t e s t o t h e p o i nt o f art i c u l at i on o f t h e 9 i n

-gat 'for ' a n d t h e n reduc e s b e fo re t he p r e - na s a l i s at i o n o f t h e 9 y i e ld­
i n g y e g a t rather than y e n g a t .

10 . Th e one e x c e p t i o n i s t h at t h e regular p e r s on a l pronouns do o c c u r

i n t h e Loc-Ar . w h e n i t o c curs i n t h e H e a d o f t h e O r i g i n a l N oun Phras e :
n a - e n g a t � e (me-at, one from) 'a member of my fami Zy'.
 47

11 . The a l l omorph - h u o c c urs o n l y o n t he inde fin i t e p ronoun a l a .

12 . The en c l i t i c - a m a appears t o b e c omp l et e ly unre s t ri c t e d i n i t s o c ­

c urre n c e and h a s b e e n ob s e rved s u f f i x e d t o a l l w o r d c l a s s e s a n d c on ­
s t ru c t i o n t yp e s .

13 . The form i k G i a k i s homoph onous w i t h a d e r i ve d adve rb meaning 'by

i t s e lf, a l one ' .

14 . I n narrat i ve s t ru c t ure , howeve r , t h e noun i s frequent ly omi t t e d

from t h e G e n e r a l Noun Phrase when t h e re i s n o c on fus i on over t h e i t em
under d i s c u s s i on . Th i s omi s s i on freque n t l y l e aves a l a as t h e o n l y
remaining i t e m .
(a) bukuGa-Ge t e t mu
h i s fr i e n d - sub . a n o t h e r h e e x c r e t e d
' an d h i s fr i e n d e x c re t e d a no t h e r ( s too l ) '

(b) han mene sam , a l a-gat mene sam

g r o u n d a n o t h e r - fo r wan t i ng t o ho l d a n o t h e r - fo r a n o t h e r - fo r wan t i n g t o
hold
' wa n t i n g t o t a k e o v e r a n o t h e r c o u n t r y , wan t i n g t o t a k e o v e r an o t he r
a n d an o t h e r . . . '

15 . An a l t erna t i ve s o l u t i on would b e t o p o s i t a d i s c on t i nuous mor­

p h e me flS • • • n.

16 . An h i s t o ri c a l e x p l anat i o n o f t h e s i m i l a r i t y b e t we e n t he b e n e fa c t i ve
pronominal mark ers and t h e s ub c l as s I I obj e c t markers as w e l l as t h e
d e ve l opment o f t h e d i s parat e fo rms w a G , w a g i a n d i h i fo r 3 s i s e x pe c t ed
a f t e r d i a c h ron i c s t u d i e s are c omp l e t e d . The fo rms w a g i and ihi may
fo l l ow regular s o und s h i ft s . N o t e t hat the verb root ' t o b e g ' has t w o
forms u l i t - and w e l e t - . T h e vow e l s u and i , more o ve r , o ft e n f l u c t uat e .
Thus as u i s a c o rre s p o ndence o f w e s o a l s o i may b e p o s i t e d as a c or­
re spondence of w a . The form w a G t he n may re f l e c t a s imp l e l o s s of t he
c l a s s marker g i .

17 . I t i s apparent t hat t h e verb root s are re l at e d t o t h e re f l e x i ve /

re c i p ro c a l marker - a h o a n d may b e d e r i v e d from t hat f o rm . Whet h e r one
s h o u l d regard the fo rms a h o - and a h o n - a s a l l omorphs of flS- and - n
re s p e c t i v e l y o r wh e t h e r one s ho u l d p o s i t s p e c i a l d e r i v e d verb a l forms
may . b e c ome e v i dent a f t e r d i a c hron i c s t ud i e s are c omp l e t ed .
 B I B L I OGRAPHY

McELHANON , K . A .
1967 " P re l imi nary Ob s e rvat i o n s o n H u o n P e n i n s u l a Languages " ,
O c ea n i c L i ng u i � t i c � , 6 ( 1 ) : 1 - 4 5 .

19 70 " S e l e p e t Ve rb M o rpho l ogy " , Pac i 6 i c L i n g u i � t i c � , A 'l S , P a p e. lt �

i n N e w G u i n e a L i n g u i � t i c � N o . 1 2 , pp . 1 9 - 3 5 .

1970a S el e p et PhJta� e� , t s . 6 3pp .

1 9 7 0 b . S el e p et W O Jt d C l a� � e� , t s . 5 1 pp .

1970c " Le x i c o s t at i s t i c s and t he C l a s s i f i c at i on o f Huon P e n i n s ul a

Language s " , O c e a n i a , 4 0 ( 3 ) : 2 1 4 - 3 1 .

1970d S el ep et Pho n o l o g y . Pa c i 6 i c U n g ui � t i c � , B 1 4 . 4 7pp .

PIKE , K . L .
1963 " Th e o re t i c a l Imp l i c a t i o n s o f Mat r i x P e rmut at i o n i n F o r e ( New
G u i ne a ) " , Anth lt o p o l o g i c a l U n g u i � t i c � , 5 ( 8 ) : 1 - 2 3 .

P I K E , K . L . and Barbara ERICKSON

1964 " C o n f 1 a t e d F i e l d S t ruc t u r e s i n P o t awatomi and i n A rab i c " ,
I nt eJt n a t i o nal J o u Jt n al 0 6 Am e Jt i c a n L i n g ui � t i c � , 3 0 : 2 0 1 - 1 2 .

P I LHOFE R , G .
1 9 2 6 - 7 " Fo rmen 1 e h re d e r Kat e -Sprache " , Z eit� c h Jti n t n Ul!. E i n g e b o l!. e n e n �
S pJt a c h e n 1 7 : 1 - 4 0 .

1 9 2 7 - 8 " Fo rme n 1e h re von 1 0 Mundar t en und N a c h b ar s p r a c h e n d e s K a t e " ,

Z eit� c h Jti n t 6 uJt E i n g e b o Jt e n e n - S p Jt a ch e n , 1 8 : 1 9 6 - 2 30 , 2 9 8 - 3 1 0 .

19 3 3 G Jt ammati� d e Jt K it e - S p Jt a c h e i n N eu g ui n ea . Z e. it� c h Jti n t n u Jt

E i n g e b o Jt e n e n - S p Jt a c h e n , B e i h e ft , 1 4 , 1 7 5pp .

WACKE , K .
1 9 3 0 - 1 " Fo rme n 1 e hre der O n o - S p r a c he " . Z eit� c h Jti 6 t n ult E i n g e. b o Jt e n e n ­
S p Jt a c h e n , 2 1 : 1 6 1 - 2 0 7 .

48

McElhanon, K.A. "Selepet Pronominal Elements". In Blowers, B., Griffin, M. and McElhanon, K. editors, Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 13.
A-26:23-52. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1970. DOI:10.15144/PL-A26.23
©1970 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.