A PHONOLOGICAL GRAMMAR OF A DIALECT OF ILOKANO

by

NORMA P. OLAYA

P.N.C.G.,' P h i l i p p i n e Normal C o l l e g e , 1951

B.S.E.E., P h i l i p p i n e Normal C o l l e g e , 1962

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

i n t h e Department o f C l a s s i c s

D i v i s i o n of L i n g u i s t i c s

We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as conforming t o t h e

required standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

A u g u s t , 1967
In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s in p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the r e q u i r e m e n t s

f o r an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree

t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and

Study. I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e copying o f this

thesis f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d by the Head of my

Department or by h ]h: r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . It i s understood t h a t copying

or p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be a l l o w e d

w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n .

NORMA PERALTA OLAYA

Department of CLASSICS
The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia
Vancouver 8, Canada

Date August 9. 1967

 A PHONOLOGICAL GRAMMAR OP A DIALECT OP ILOKANO

Abstract

C u r r e n t l i n g u i s t i c s views grammar as a n i n t e g r a t e d

syntactic-semantic-phonological d e s c r i p t i o n o f a language;

as g e n e r a t i v e , t h a t i s , t h a t sentences have a d e f i n i t e

structure, 1
t h a t t h e r e a r e a n i n f i n i t e number o f s e n t e n c e s ,

and that," t h e r e f o r e , a grammar cannot be a l i s t o f elements,

but i n s t e a d a f i n i t e s e t o f e x p l i c i t r u l e s w h i c h c a n a u t o -

m a t i c a l l y a s s i g n a s t r u c t u r e t o an i n f i n i t e s e t of sentences.

The p r e s e n t t h e s i s - a p h o n o l o g i c a l grammar o f t h e c u l t i v a t e d

d i a l e c t o f I l o k a n o as spoken i n t h e town p r o p e r o f Bayombong,

Nueva V i z c a y a - has aimed t o r e f l e c t t h e s e modem concepts

o f a grammar i n b o t h i t s c o n t e n t and methodology. I t suggests

a methodology f o r t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e sound p a t t e r n o f a

given d i a l e c t . As t o c o n t e n t , the r e s u l t s of t h i s study

s h o u l d be u s e f u l as b a s i s f o r a c o n t r a s t i v e phonology o f

I l o k a n o and E n g l i s h , o r t h e o t h e r P h i l i p p i n e languages and

d i a l e c t s , w i t h t h e end i n view o f c o n t r i b u t i n g t o a n e f f e c -

t i v e second-language t e a c h i n g and c u r r i c u l u m construction.

The s t u d y has t h e f o l l o w i n g s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s :

(1) C h a p t e r 1 c o v e r s g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n s on I l o k a n o

and i t s d i a l e c t s , and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f I l o k a n o t o t h e

o t h e r P h i l i p p i n e languages and d i a l e c t s . Chapter 2 Includes

p r e l i m i n a r y d i s c u s s i o n s on c o n t e n t and p r o c e d u r e o f t h e d e s -

criptive analyses.

(2) The s t u d y o p e r a t e s on t h e taxonomic and e x p l a n a -

tory levels of l i n g u i s t i c science. The taxonomic l e v e l i s

 V

a c h i e v e d by the e t i c and the emic a n a l y s e s i n Chapters 3

and k. The explanatory l e v e l i s r e f l e c t e d i n Chapter 5 -

i n the p h o n o l o g i c a l grammar w h i c h i s a system of 3k (23 seg-

m e n t a l and 11 suprasegmental) emic u n i t s o f t h e I l o k a n o

d i a l e c t , and a s e t of kZ unordered s t r u c t u r e - a s s i g n i n g r e -

w r i t e r u l e s (32 p h o n e t i c r u l e s and 10 morphophonemic r u l e s )

w h i c h enumerate I l o k a n o u t t e r a n c e s and t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d

p h o n o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s . T h i s f e a t u r e o f t h e s t u d y may be

s t a t e d i n terms of the outputs of each l e v e l , the relation-

s h i p s of w h i c h have been s c h e m a t i c a l l y shown as f o l l o w s :

Taxonomic L e v e l Explanatory Level

3k kZ

Phones Phonemes P h o n o l o g i c a l Rules

(3) F o r the d e s c r i p t i v e methodology and procedure

employed i n t h i s s t u d y , the w r i t e r has t a k e n cues from two

linguists: (a) from Kenneth L. P i k e , h i s tagmemic t h e o r y

w h i c h b a s i c a l l y assumes t h a t any u n i t of p u r p o s i v e human

b e h a v i o r i s w e l l - d e f i n e d i f and o n l y i f one d e s c r i b e s i t i n

r e f e r e n c e t o (1) c o n t r a s t , (2) v a r i a t i o n , and (3) distribu-

tion. T h i s t r i m o d a l t h e o r y o f a n a l y s i s has been b r i e f l y

s t a t e d , thus:
Contrast
Unit = Variation
Distribution;
(b) from Noam A. Chomsky, h i s g e n e r a t i v e grammar t h e o r y

w h i c h has been b r i e f l y s t a t e d i n the f i r s t paragraph o f t h i s

 vi

a b s t r a c t and d i s c u s s e d a t c o n s i d e r a b l e l e n g t h i n C h a p t e r 5.

(*0 The a n a l y s i s o f t h e stream o f speech a t t h e end

o f C h a p t e r k g r a p h i c a l l y i l l u s t r a t e s some g e n e r a l concepts

i n l i n g u i s t i c s as a p p l i e d t o I l o k a n o .
C
(5) The t r i m o d a l scheme, U = V, i s o p e r a t i v e a t
D
both t h e taxonomic and e x p l a n a t o r y l e v e l s o f t h i s research.

The d e t a i l e d e t i c a n a l y s i s w h i c h i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y articula-

t o r y d e l i n e a t e s t h e raw m a t e r i a l s o f speech - t h e kl e t i c

u n i t s o f t h e I l o k a n o d i a l e c t , e x t r a c t e d from t h e p h o n e t i c

d a t a , t h e corpus o f u t t e r a n c e s p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p t e r 2. By

the c r i t e r i o n o f p h o n e t i c resemblance and by t h e CVD-formula

employed i n t h e process o f phonemization - Chapter k - the

kl e t i c u n i t s have been reduced t o 3^ emic u n i t s .

(6) The p a t t e r n s o f o c c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f t h e

emic u n i t s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n terms o f t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l r u l e s .

Each r u l e i s o f t h e form: X ^ Y.

W i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f i t s o r g a n i z e d d a t a , f a c t s and

information,' t h i s t h e s i s a s s e r t s :

(1) That t h e phonemes / e , o, f , v , h / - o c c u r r i n g i n

S p a n i s h o r E n g l i s h l o a n words w h i c h a r e c u r r e n t l y used by

the I l o k a n o s r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s t u d y - have become a s s i m i -

l a t e d i n t o t h e phonemic system o f t h e I l o k a n o d i a l e c t ;

(2) That t h e b a s i c s y l l a b l e s t r u c t u r e o f I l o k a n o has

f o r i t s u n d e r l y i n g p a t t e r n , CV(C) and n o t V o r CV; and,-

(3) That t h e l i n g u i s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n a t t h e e x p l a n a -

t o r y l e v e l o f t h e r e s e a r c h i s g e n e r a t i v e , s i n c e t h e phono-
 vii

l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e of the I l o k a n o d i a l e c t can "best be

a c c o u n t e d f o r , not by an i n v e n t o r y of elements,' but by
v
a system of r u l e s - i t s g e n e r a t i v e p h o n o l o g i c a l grammar.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Among those to whom the writer i s g r a t e f u l f o r

guidance and assistance i n the preparation of this thesis

are her professors: Robert J . Gregg, by whose tremendous

knowledge and a b i l i t y her Interest i n phonology was stimu-

lated; Ruth E. McConnell, who introduced her to transfor-

mational-generative grammar, and by whose creative teaching

this student was encouraged to write the phonological gram-

mar of her Ilokano d i a l e c t ; and, Frederick Bowers, i n whose

graduate seminar she gained further orientation and insight

into the transformational-generative grammar theory. She

i s also g r a t e f u l f o r the ideas shared by Professors Kenneth

L. Pike and Noam A. Chomsky. These l i n g u i s t s have promptly

answered her inquiries into t h e i r theories of language and

l i n g u i s t i c s which pervade this t h e s i s .

For f i n a n c i a l assistance i n connection with the

Colombo Plan scholarship granted her, the writer should l i k e

to record her indebtedness to the External A i d O f f i c e of the

Government of Canada, as well as to the National Economic

Council, and the Bureau of Public Schools of the Department

of Education, Republic of the P h i l i p p i n e s . Without this a i d

the degree course and research study would, i n the f i r s t place,

have been impossible.

For her orientation, t r a i n i n g , and experience i n the

teaching of English as a second language, as well as i n text-

book writing, both of which provided background f o r l i n g u i s t i c s

 iii

and i n which l i n g u i s t i c s In turn finds p r a c t i c a l application,

she i s very g r a t e f u l to Miss Fe Manza, Mrs. E s t e l a F. Daguio,

and Mrs. Trinidad S. Marino, a l l of the Bureau of Public

Schools•

She f e e l s deeply obliged to the o f f i c i a l s and s t a f f

of the UBC International House, the Housing Administration

O f f i c e , and the Office of the Dean of Women, f o r providing

her a home away from home.

A s p e c i a l word of thanks i s due to her parents and

s i s t e r s , and to the families and friends who have shown

great concern about her well-being while she was preparing

the manuscript.

N. P. 0.
 CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS i i

ABSTRACT iv

LIST OP FIGURES AND TABLES xii

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 The Ilokano Language . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Purpose and Importance of the Study . . . 6

1.3 Review of Related Studies . . . . . . . . 7

1. k Scope and Delimitation . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.5 Definitions of Terms Used . • 12

1.6 Theoretical Framework . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.7 Methodology and Procedure . . . . . . . . 18

2 METHODOLOGICAL PRELIMINARIES 20

2.1 The Organs of Speech 20

2.2 Types of Speech Sounds . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.21 How Vocoids are Described and C l a s s i f i e d . 23

2.22 How Contoids are Described and C l a s s i f i e d . 29

2.3 The S y l l a b l e : I t s Function and Structure . 31

2, k Transcription Signs and Symbols 35

2.5 Phonetic Data 39

3 THE SOUNDS OF SPEECH: A PHONETIC ANALYSIS

3.1 Phonetic Charts 44

3.11 The Segmental Sounds 4-5

3.12 The Suprasegmental Features . . . . . . . 4-5

 ix

CHAPTER

3.2 The Segments i n D e t a i l . . . . . . . . . . 46

3.21 Vocoids . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . i.. 46

3.211 The Fronfc Vocoids:[i, I, e, a] . . . . . . 47

3.212 The Central Vocoids: [a, a] . . . . . . . 57

3.213 The Back Vocoids: [u, U, o] . 60

3.22 Vocoid Chains . . . . . . . . . 69

3.221 The Fronting Vocoid Chains 70

3.222 The Retracting Vocoid Chains . . . . . . . 77

3.23 Contoids , . .'

;
82

3.23I Plosives: [p, b, t , d, k, g , q ] . . . . . 82

3a.232 Nasals: [m, n, n] . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

3.233 L a t e r a l : [ l ] . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . 97
3.234 Alveolar Flap: [ r ] . . . . . . 98
3.235 Fricatives: [ f , v,' s, h, n] 100
3.24 Contoid Clusters . . . . . . . .' . . .' . . 105

3.241 Prevocalic, I n i t i a l Contoid Clusters . . . 110

3.242 Prevocalic, Medial Contoid Clusters . • . 115

3.243 Postvocalic, P i n a l Contoid Clusters • . . 121

3.'3 The Supfcasegments i n D e t a i l . . . . . . . 123

3.31 Stress and Rhythm . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

' 3.32 Length 129

3.33 Juncture, P i t c h and Intonation . . . . . . 131

3.331 Juncture . . . . . . . . . . . 131

3.332 Pitch and Intonation . 132

 X

CHAPTER

4 PHONEMIC ANALYSIS 137

4.1 Rationale f o r Phonemizatlon . . . . . . . 138

4.2 Determining the Set of Phonemes . . . . . 139

4.21 The Phoneme Concept . . . . . . . . . . . 139

4.22 Analytic Procedure:

Pike's Tagmemic Theory . . . 14-1

4.221 CONTRAST* ;i . . . . . . . . . 144

4.2211 Vowels. . . . .' . . . . - . . . . 1

. . . . 147

(a) Contrasts i n a l l dimensions . . . . 151

(b) Contrasts i n tongue height . . . . . 152

(c) Contrasts i n tongue advancement . . 154

4.2212 Consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

(9&ic^oice versus Breath . . . . . . . . 155

(b) Contrasts i n Point of A r t i c u l a t i o n . 160

(c) Contrasts i n Manner of A r t i c u l a t i o n . 167

4.2213 Suprasegmental Prosodemes . . . . . . . . 174

(a) Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

(b) Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

(c) Pitch, Intonation and Juncture (PIJ) 1^8

4.222 VARIATION and DISTRIBUTION:

Phonotactics and Morphophonemics . . .' 181

4.2221 Phonotactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

(a) Diphthongs 182

(b) Consonant Clusters . . . . . . . . 186

 xl

CHAPTER
(c) Vowels . . . . . . . . • 188

(d) Consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

(e) Tonemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

(f) Junctonemes . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 ! !
196

(g) Stronemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

4.2222 Morphophonemics . . . . . . . .* . . . . . 199

(a) Phoneme Addition . . . . . . . . . . 200

(b) Phoneme Deletion . . . . . . . . . . 203

(c) Phoneme Substitution 204

H) (1) A s s i m i l a t i o n . . . . . . . . . 204

(2) Dissimilation . . . . . . . . . 205

(3) Gradation . . . . . . . . . . . 206

(4) Reduplication . . . . . . . . . 208

4.'3 The Stream of Speech .• - . . . . . . .' . 209

4.'31 Corpus . .' . . ;

. . . . . . .
:
209

4.32 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . 209

4.33 Analysis . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . 211

5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 216

5.1 Summary . • . . . . . • . . . . . . .' . 216

5.2 Conclusions . . . . . . . . 237

BIBLIOGRAPHY 241
 LIST OP FIGURES AND TABLES

FIGURE PAGE

1 Map of the Bhilippin.es showing Ilokano-

speaking areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Cross section of the head showing the organs

most d i r e c t l y involved i n the production of

speech-sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . • •• • • 22

3 The Eight Basic Cardinal Vowels ... 24

4 The Central Vocoid Triangle . . . . . . . . . . 26

5 Vocoid Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 28

6 Contoid Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . 31

7 Ilokano Vocoids . . . . 44

8 Ilokano Vocoid Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

9 Ilokano Contolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

10 Ilokano Vowel Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

11 Ilokano Consonant Pattern . . ... . ... . . 172

TABLE

1 Philippine Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 The Stream of Speech Analyzed . . . . . . . . . 211

 CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Ii

ABSTRACT iv

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES viii

CHAPTER PAGE
1 INTRODUCTION . . . 1

1.1 The Ilokano Language 1

1.2 Purpose and Importance of the Study . . 6

1.3 Review of Related Studies . 7

1.4 Scope and Delimitation 9

1.5 Definitions of Terms Used 12

1.6 Theoretical Framework . 16

1.7 Methodology and Procedure . . . . . . . 18

2 METHODOLOGICAL PRELIMINARIES . 20

2.1 The Organs of Speech 20

2.2 Types of Speech Sounds 21

2.21 How Vocoids are Described and C l a s s i f i e d 23

2.22 How Contoids are Described and C l a s s i f i e d 29

2.3 The S y l l a b l e : I t s Function and Structure 31

2.4 Transcription Signs and Symbols . . . . 35

2.5 Phonetic Data . ; . . 39

3 THE SOUNDS OF SPEECH : A PHONETIC ANALYSIS. . 43

3.1 Phonetic Charts 44

3.11 The Segmental Sounds . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.12 The Suprasegmental Features . . . . . . 45

 X

CHAPTER PAGE

3.2 The Segments i n D e t a i l 46

3.21 Vocoids 46

3.211 The Front Vocoids. . . . .* • Z • i * 47

3.212 The Central Vocoids . . . . . 57

3.213 The Back Vocoids 60

3.22 Vocoid Chains 69

3.221 The Fronting Vocoid Chains 70

3.222 The Retracting Vocoid Chains . . . . . . . 77

3.23 Contoids . 82

3.231 Plosives . . . . . 82

3.232 Nasalss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

3.233 L a t e r a l . . . 97
3.234 Alveolar Flap 98
3.235 F r i c a t i v e s 100
3.236 Semlvouelds 104

3.24 Contoid Clusters . . ; . . . . . . .

:
... . 105

3.241 Prevocalic, I n i t i a l Contoid Clusters . . . 110

3.242 Prevocalic, Medial Contoid Clusters . . . 115

3.243 Postvocalic, F i n a l Contoid Clusters .. . . 121

3.3 The Suprasegments i n D e t a i l 123

3 .'31 Stress and Rhythm . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

3.32 Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

3.33 Juncture, P i t c h and Intonation . . . . . . 131

3.331 Juncture . . . . . .' . .

<. . • . • • . . . 101

3.332 P i t c h and Intonation 132

 xi

CHAPTER PAGE

4 PHONEMIC ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . 137

4.1 Rationale f o r Phonemization . . . . . . . 138

4.2 Determining the Set of Phoneme . . 139

4.21 The Phoneme Concept . . . . . . . . . . . 139

4.22 Analytic Procedure: P i k e ^

Tagmemic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

4.221 CONTRAST . . . . .
:
. . . . . . . . . • . 144

4.2211 Vowels . . . . . . . . 147

4.2212 Consonants . . . . . . . . . . . 155

4 . 2 2 1 3 Suprasegmental Prosodemes . . . . . . . . 174

(a) Stress . 175

(b) Length 176

(c) P i t c h , Intonation and Juncture (PIJ). 178

4.222 VARIATION and DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . 181

4.2221 Phonotactics 182

4.2222 Morphophonemics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

4.3 The Stream of Speech . . . . 209

4.31 Corpus . . . . . . . 209

4.32 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

4.33 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J
211

5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 216

5.1 Summary • . . . . . . . . . . • .' . . . . 216

5.2 Conclusions . . a . . . . . .'• . . . • . • . 2|2

BIBLIOGRAPHY 241
 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1*1 The Ilokano Language

The Ilokano language, l i k e a l l the other Philippine

languages and d i a l e c t s , belongs to the Indonesian branch of

1
the Malayo-Polynesian l i n g u i s t i c family. By typological
2

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , i t i s an agglutinative language.

Ilokano i s the t h i r d major Philippine language. The

National Census of I 9 6 0 l i s t s 3,158,560 native speakers d i s -

tributed throughout the country, the majority of whom l i v e

i n the four provinces where i t i s the native tongue, namely,

Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Abra, and La Union; and In the

areas where Ilokanos have heavily immigrated - Mountain

Province, Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, Nueva E c l j a ,

3
Pangaslnan, Tarlac, Zambales, and Manila.

1
Jose V i l l a Panganiban, *The Family of Philippine
Languages and D i a l e c t s , Inclosure to B u l l e t i n No. 137.
1

s. 1957. Bureau of Public Schools, Department of Education,

Manila: BPS, 1957. P. If Charles F. Hockett, A Course i n
Modern L i n g u i s t i c s , New York: Macmillan, 1958, p. 595;
Leonard Bloomfield, Language, New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1961, p. 7 1 .
2
Ilokano makes extensive use of a f f i x e s to s i g n a l
grammatical meaning. For d e t a i l s on types of l i n g u i s t i c
structure, see Edward Sapir, Language: An Introduction to
the Study of Speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World,
Inc., 1921, Chap. 6.
3
Bureau of the Census and S t a t i s t i c s , Philippine
National Census of I960 (Summary Report), Manila: BCS,
1962, p. 15. See also F i g ; 1 and Table 1 of t h i s t h e s i s .
 2

Ilocos Norte h- — Cagayan

— Mountain P r o v i n c e
Abra
Ilocos Sur —
Isabela — Pig. 1
La Union
Nueva V i z c a y a Map of the P h i l i p p i n e s

showing the Ilokano-speaking

Pangaslnan
Nueva E c i j a areas.
Zambales —
Tarlac — —
 3

Although t h e I l o k a n o spoken i n each o f these places

is a distinct dialectal variant of t h e language - e s p e c i a l l y

i n p h o n o l o g y , a n d t o some e x t e n t i n v o c a b u l a r y - mutual intel-

ligibility b e t w e e n them i s o f s u c h a d e g r e e t h a t speakers

coming f r o m rather widely separated l o c a l i t i e s can use i t

with f a c i l i t y a s a means o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n among themselves.-

It i s the informed observation of the w r i t e r that i n

t h e r e g i o n s where I l o k a n o i s a n "immigrant language" phonolo-

gical dialectal v a r i a t i o n c a n be a f u n c t i o n o f i t s c o e x i s t e n c e

w i t h t h e n a t i v e language o r languages. I n Nueva V i z c a y a , f o r

instance, t h e two n a t i v e l a n g u a g e s , Gadang a n d I s i n a y , t e n d t o

help Ilokano preserve the f o r e i g n ( S p a n i s h o r E n g l i s h ) sounds

[e, o, f , VJ i n i t s p h o n e t i c c o d e . These sounds a r e i n t h e

phonemic s y s t e m s o f t h e two n a t i v e t o n g u e s , t h u s : Gadang p h o n -

emes / e / a n d / f / , a s i n i p e f u / q i pS f u q / ' t o b e g i n ' , nefuffuk

/ne f u f f i k / 'knocked o n t o ' , a n d t h e I s i n a y phonemes / e / , / o / ,

and / v / , a s i n mamvevoy /mam v § voy/ 'to p l a y ' . The I l o k a n o

spoken i n the p r o v i n c e o f Pangasinan, o n t h e o t h e r hand, h a s

a s s i m i l a t e d t h e t e n s e schwa / © / o f t h e n a t i v e l a n g u a g e , and

has lost i t s f o r e i g n £e3-sound, w h i c h i s n o t i n t h e Pangasinan

phonemic c o d e . T h u s , most I l o k a n o s i n Pangasinan would s a y ,

for example, g e r r a / g l r r a q / 'war' n o t / g g r r a q / ; amen /q& m i n /

•amen' n o t / q f i men/ w h i c h d o e s n o t t h e r e f o r e c o n t r a s t w i t h a m l n

/q& min/ ' a l l ' ; a g e s k w e l a / q a g i s kwfi l a q / 'go t o s c h o o l * n o t

/ q a g e s kw& l a q / .
 4

Table 1. Philippine Languages

(A P a r t i a l L i s t )

THE PHILIPPINES

Number of -islands: 7,107

Land area: 115t000 sq. miles
Total population (as of I 9 6 0 census): 27,087.685

THE EIGHT MAJOR PHILIPPINE LANGUAGES

Total No. of Speakers Percentage
(I960 Census)

C ebuano 6,529,882 24.1

Tagalog 5,694,072 21.0
Ilokano 3,158,560 11.7
Hiligaynon 2,817,314 10.4
Bikol 2,108,837 7.8
Samar-Leyte 1,488,668 5.5
Pampango 875.531 3.2
Pangasinan 666,003 2.5
IER PHILIPPINE LANGUAGES
Apayao Gadang Kulaman Sambal
Ata Ibanag Magindanao Sanggil
Bagobo Ifugao Mandaya Subanon
Bajao Igorot Mangguangan Tagabili
Blla-an Ilongot Mangyan Tagakaolo
Bontok Isinay Manobo Tagbanua
Bukidnon Ivatan Maranao Tausug
Chavacano Kalamian Negrito-Aeta Tinggian
Davaweno Kalinga Palawan Tiruray
Dumagat Ke-ney Samal Yakan

H.Otley Beyer, " L i s t of Philippine Languages and

Dialects," 1942. (Mimeographed.)
 Another i n t e r e s t i n g observation about Ilokano i s

the phenomenon which l i n g u i s t s c a l l "hybrid message" -

b i l i n g u a l or m u l t i l i n g u a l - such as the utterances combined

of Ilokano and English, f o r Instance:

naohangean [na 'tyeln dyan] ' i t was changed 1

fllnushna [ f l l 'nas naq] 'he flushed i t *

lyeschedulen £ql yes *ke dyU len] 'schedule i t now*

mayad-adjust to [ma yad qad 'dyas toq] ' h e ' l l become

adjusted*

or those of Ilokano and Spanish, f o r example:

asekasuek £qa se kas 'swek] 'I pay attention to*

from hacer caso de 'to pay attention to*

alamanuen £qa l a man *nwen] 'to shake hands with*

from a l a mano 'near a t hand*

The l i n g u i s t i c phenomenon just c i t e d has s i g n i f i c a n t

implications f o r Ilokano morphophonological structure, which

are summed up i n what Sapir said about how languages influence

each other. He wrote:

"The borrowing of foreign words always entails

t h e i r phonetic modification. There are sure to
1

be foreign sounds or accentual p e c u l i a r i t i e s that

do not f i t the native phonetic habits. They are
then so changed as to do as l i t t l e violence as
possible to these habits. Frequently, we have
phone11c compromis es."5

5
Sapir, o£. o i t . y p. 197.
 6

lv2 Purpose and Importance of the Study

This t h e s i s attempts t o e s t a b l i s h the phonemes and

prosodemes o f a d i a l e c t of Ilokano, and to d e l i n e a t e the

restrictions of c o m b i n a b i l i t y of the emlc u n i t s - i . e.,

the phonological patterns which the emic u n i t s e n t e r into.

Specifically, the study w i l l seek answers t o the following

questions:

(a) What a r e the emic u n i t s o f t h e c u l t i v a t e d

Ilokano d i a l e c t as s p o k e n i n Bayombong, N u e v a

Vizcaya:

1) s e g m e n t a l phonemes?

2) s u p r a s e g m e n t a l prosodemes?

(b) What p h o n o l o g i c a l patterns of occurence r e l a t i o n s

between the emlc u n i t s d o e s t h e dialect permit?

With I t s d e t a i l e d analyses and i t s descriptions of

how the i n d i v i d u a l s o u n d s and features are produced and clas-

sified, how they vary and d i s t r i b u t e i n permitted phonological

patterns, and with the g e n e r o u s examples i l l u s t r a t i n g the

linguistic p r i n c i p l e s involved;' the r e s u l t s of t h i s study

should be u s e f u l (1) as a b a s i s f o r a contrastive analysis of

Ilokano and other l a n g u a g e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y E n g l i s h and Tagalog,

the r e s u l t s of which w i l l i n turn serve (2) as basis f o r pre-

paring instructional materials i n E n g l i s h and Tagalog for

Ilokano s p e a k e r s , and (3) as sourcenmaterialflfor the teaching

and l e a r n i n g of Ilokano as a s e c o n d language."

 7

1.3 Review o f R e l a t e d S t u d i e s

Two d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n s and a master's thesis

have d e a l t p a r t l y w i t h the phonological analysis of d i f f e r e n t

dialects of Ilokano.
6
Constantino wrote a complete g e n e r a t i v e grammar -

phrase s t r u c t u r e , grammatical transformations, and morpho-

phonemics - of the I l o k a n o d i a l e c t as s p o k e n i n S a n t o Domingo,

Nueva E c i j a . The morphophonemic component o f the grammar i n -

cludes a phonemic a n a l y s i s and a generative phonological

grammar o f the d i a l e c t c o n s i s t i n g o f 15 string structure

r u l e s and 2 transformational rules. The phonemic analysis

revealed 25 phonemes, as follows:

3 vowels: /a i u/

16 consonants: / p t k b d g c m n n

h s 1 r w y/

a word a c c e n t : /•/

an emphatic s t r e s s : /*/

3 junctures: / [ / /#/ /Jj/

a s y l l a b l e boundary: /-/ ^ [?3 or £.]

A contrastive analysis of the f o r m and d i s t r i b u t i o n

6
E r n e s t o A n d r e s C o n s t a n t i n o , A G e n e r a t i v e Grammar
o f a D i a l e c t o f I l o c a n o . ( U n p u b l i s h e d P h . D. d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y , J u n e 1959. 200 pp.)
7
Ibid., pp. 182-198.
 8

8
of English and Iloko segmental phonemes was made by
9
Sibayan. As a basis f o r contrast he established the
following segmental phonemes of the La Union-Baguio C i t y
10
dialect:
16 consonants: / p t k ? b d g s h

m n n 1 r y w/

5 vowels: /l e a a u/

7 diphthongs: / i y ©y ay uy iw aw uw/.

11
HcKaughan and Forster developed a pedagogical

grammar f o r Ilokano based on the La Union d i a l e c t . The

f i r s t group of lessons includes very b r i e f descriptions of

the phonemes. The d i a l e c t has 19 segmental phonemes,

/ p t k b d g m n n s j l r w y i a a u/, and a suprasegment-

a l phonemic stress, /'/. No phonetic t r a n s c r i p t i o n of the

8
The word forms, Iloko, Ilocano, and Ilokano, have
been used by d i f f e r e n t writers i n refering to the language;
the l a s t two only to the native speaker. In l i n e with the
Philippine national orthography, however, the form, Ilokano,
Is used i n the present study to r e f e r either to the language
or to the native speaker.
9
Bonifacio P a d l l l a Sibayan, English and Iloko Segmental
Phonemes. (Unpublished Ph. D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , The University of
Michigan, 1961, 188 pp.)
10
I b i d . / pp. 100-101.
11
Howard McKaughan and Jannette Forster, Ilocano: An
Intensive Language Course. (Published M. A.' thesis, Cornell
University, June, 1952), Grand Forks, N.D.: Summer I n s t i t u t e
of L i n g u i s t i c s , 1957, PP. 1-8.
 9

text material i s given. While t h i s study is helpful in

pointing o u t how dialects of Ilokano differ In t h e i r phonemic

s y s t e m s , i t has little t o o f f e r to the present study i n terms

of l i n g u i s t i c procedures, like p h o n e t i c d e s c r i p t i o n and phon-

emlzation.

The t h r e e s t u d i e s , on t h e w h o l e , c a n only serve to

emphasize the i n c r e a s i n g importance of s c i e n t i f i c analyses -

that are both comprehensive and deep - o f t h e phonological

systems of a m u l t i d i a l e c t a l language l i k e Ilokano.

1;4 Scope and D e l i m i t a t i o n

Modern s t r u c t u r a l l i n g u i s t s advocate t h a t the des-

c r i p t i o n - i . e.,
t h e grammar - o f a l a n g u a g e be considered
12 13
w i t h i n a wide scope. Chomsky, K a t z a n d P o s t a l , and

s e v e r a l others, share the concept t h a t "an integrated linguis-

tic d e s c r i p t i o n of a n a t u r a l language c o n s i s t s of t h r e e com-

"14
ponents: s y n t a c t i c , semantic, and p h o n o l o g i c a l . " Studies

12
Noam Chomsky, A s p e c t s o f t h e T h e o r y o f S y n t a x ,
C a m b r i d g e : The MIT P r e s s , 1965, p . 16; " C u r r e n t I s s u e s _
i n L i n g u i s t i c T h e o r y , " I n K a t z a n d F o d o r , The S t r u c t u r e
o f L a n g u a g e . New J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e H a l l , I n c . , 1964, p p . 50-
118.
13 -
J e r o l d J . K a t z a n d P a u l M. P o s t a l , A n I n t e g r a t e d
T h e o r y o f L i n g u i s t i c D e s c r i p t i o n s . H e s e a r c h Monograph No. 26,
C a m b r i d g e : The MIT P r e s s , 1964.
14
I b i d . ' , pp. 11-29.
 10

y i e l d i n g such a comprehensive and integrated body of knowledge

about any one language could well be the occupation of many

generations of l i n g u i s t s . This trend i n l i n g u i s t i c research

has, however, been o p t i m i s t i c a l l y encouraging especially f o r

English and Russian. Por Ilokano, the grammar written by

15
Constantino i s a bold step i n the right d i r e c t i o n .

The present study deals mainly with the description

of the phonological component of a projected grammar of

another d i a l e c t of Ilokano. I t covers both the taxonomic

and explanatory levels of l i n g u i s t i c study as distinguished

by Saumjan, thus;

"... l i n g u i s t i c science i s concerned above a l l

with an exact description and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of
observable f a c t s . .".. That i s the taxonomic l e v e l
of l i n g u i s t i c science. But l i n g u i s t i c s goes beyond
a mere description and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of observable
facts; i t sets i t s e l f the task of revealing the
underlying immanent relations among elements inacces-
s i b l e to d i r e c t observation. That i s the explanatory
l e v e l of l i n g u i s t i c science." ''
1

The writer's interpretation of the above scheme i s

r e f l e c t e d i n the scope of her research. The taxonomic

l e v e l embraces the phonetic and phonemic analyses i n

15

1
S. K. Saumjan, Discussion on the paper of Henning
!

Spang-HanssenV "Mathematical L i n g u i s t i c s - A Trend i n Name

or i n Pact?"; read at the Ninth International Congress of
L i n g u i s t s . Published In Horace G. Lunt, (ed.) Proceedings
of the Ninth International Congress of L i n g u i s t s . The Hague:
Mouton & Co., 1964, pp. 61-71.
17
Ibid., p. 70.
 11

Chapters 3 and 4 . Chapter 5 r e f l e c t s the explanatory

l e v e l of the research - the phonological grammar which i s

a system of unordered rewrite rules underlying the struc-

ture of the c u l t i v a t e d Ilokano d i a l e c t as spoken In the

town proper of Bayombong, p r o v i n c i a l c a p i t a l of Nueva

Vlzcaya.

I t i s i n s t r u c t i v e to consider that the Nueva Vlzcaya

Ilokano i s an admixture of a l l the other d i a l e c t s mentioned

i n Sec. 1.1.
!
This fact renders I t d i f f i c u l t to base the

descriptive statements and generalizations on l i n g u i s t i c

features and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that can be ascribed to a l l

speakers of the d i a l e c t i n question. In view of t h i s l i m i -

t a t i o n , the descriptive analysis w i l l inevitably be based on

the writer's I d i o l e c t which i s representative of the c u l t l -

18
vated speech i n the area.' However, i n order to allow f o r

the inherent d i v e r s i t y of d i f f e r e n t speakers, and also to

f o r e s t a l l accusations of being prescriptive rather than

descriptive, the statements and examples i n t h i s study w i l l ,

' 18
Since the writer i s the investigator-informant,
facts about her i d i o l e c t might be mentioned here f o r the
sake of the reader.' She was born to the La Unlon-Pangasinan
variety of Ilokano, which i s her home d i a l e c t ; grew up and
attended elementary and high schools i n Bayombong, Nueva
Vlzcaya where she learned the Gadang language; and, taught
f o r ten years i n the towns where Gadang and Isinay are the
native languages. Besides Ilokano and Gadang, she speaks
Tagalog, Pangasinan, Pampango, Isinay, English, and has a
f a i r knowledge of Japanese, Spanish, and French.
 12

wherever f e a s i b l e , be general enough as to admit variations

of structures and systems.

Languages d i f f e r i n many respects, therefore, i t i s

to be expected that most of the English glosses given with

the examples are not the exact semantic equivalents of the

word forms c i t e d ; they only serve to i d e n t i f y or describe,

not define.

1.5 D e f i n i t i o n s of Terms Used

Por the sake of brevity and conciseness, the follow-

ing terms and concepts are defined and interpreted as to

19
t h e i r pertinence to t h i s study.

Grammar. The term grammar i s used i n t h i s thesis i n

Its modern concept: that i s , i t i s a system of rules which

characterizes the native speaker-hearer's competence (his

knowledge of his language) and performance (his actual use

of the language i n concrete s i t u a t i o n s ) . Grammar can be

s p e c i f i c a l l y defined i n terms of i t s three components, name-

l y , syntactic, semantic, and phonological.

A phonological grammar of a given language or d i a l e c t ;

19
Based on the works by: Chomsky, op. c i t . ; Bernard
Bloch, "A Set of Postulates f o r Phonemic Analysis," Language,
24:1:3-46; Charles C. Fries and Kenneth L. Pike, "Coexistent
Phonemic Systems," Language; 25:29-50; Mario P e l , Glossary
of L i n g u i s t i c Terminology, New York: Doubleday & Co., 1966.
 13

therefore, refers t o the system of r u l e s characterizing

t h e n a t i v e s p e a k e r - h e a r e r ' s k n o w l e d g e o f t h e phonemic code

o f h i s l a n g u a g e and h i s u s e o f t h a t code i n actual speech

situations.

Dialect. A s u b d i v i s i o n of a language spoken in a

given geographical area, d i f f e r i n g sufficiently from the

official s t a n d a r d form of the language i n one or a l l of

the l e v e l s o f the language (pronunciation, syntax, vocabu-

lary, a n d i d i o m a t i c u s e o f words) t o be v i e w e d a s a distinct

entity, yet not s u f f i c i e n t l y d i f f e r e n t from the o t h e r d i a l e c t s

o f t h e l a n g u a g e t o be r e g a r d e d a s a s e p a r a t e l a n g u a g e . In

linguistic studies, the term d i a l e c t Is n o t used i n i t s popu-

lar p e j o r a t i v e sense of "vulgar, uneducated, foreign, or

rustic speech."

I d i o l e c t . The i d e a l minimum phonemic s y s t e m o f one

individual; h i s personal variety o f t h e community language

system. A speech sound i n a given i d i o l e c t Is c a l l e d an

ldlophone ; and t h e phoneme, a n i d l o p h o n e m e . A c l a s s of idio-

l e c t s w i t h t h e same p h o n o l o g i c a l s y s t e m c o n s t i t u t e s a dialect.

Phonology. The third component o f a grammar o f a parti-

c u l a r l a n g u a g e o r d i a l e c t w h i c h d e a l s w i t h (1) the d e s c r i p t i o n

and a n a l y s i s o f t h e raw m a t e r i a l s o f s p e e c h - t h e v o c a l sounds

o r phones, and (2) t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e phones I n t o f u n c -

tional units, t h e phonemes, a n d i n t u r n the o r g a n i z a t i o n of

t h e phonemes I n t o p e r m i t t e d ^ s e q u e n c e s or patterns. The first

is the province of P h o n e t i c s , the second, Phonemics.

 Ik

The productive forms, e t i c and emic. are used quite

extensively i n t h i s t h e s i s , thus: e t i c (from phonetic) to

r e f e r to the non-functional units and processes, while emic

(from phonemic), to the functional and d i s t i n c t i v e units

and processes. Some of the following terms may not be con-

ventional to professional l i n g u i s t s , but i n any case they

are here Included and defined i n the sense that they are

used i n t h i s study:

Unit of: Non-functional Functional Variant

or E t i c or Emic or A l l o -

sound phone phoneme allophone

/•pitch
ton-1 tone toneme allotone
^•intonation

stress strone stroneme allostrone

juncture junctone junctoneme allojunctone

form morph morpheme allomorph

meaning seme sememe alloseme

Phoneme. The minimal bundle of relevant sound features

c a l l e d d i s t i n c t i v e features or contrastive components d i s t i n g -

uishing one utterance from another. A phoneme i s not a sound;

i t i s a class of sounds actualized or r e a l i z e d i n a d i f f e r e n t

way i n any given p o s i t i o n or environment by i t s representative

the allophone.

Prosodeme. A prosodeme i s an emic suprasegmental feature

i n the sense that a phoneme i s an emic segmental u n i t .

 15

Phonemic P a t t e r n . T h e phonemic p a t t e r n o f a language

consists o f (1) its finite set of distinctive features or

c o n t r a s t i v e components u s e d t o i d e n t i f y i t s phonemes, (2) its

finite s e t o f phonemes, a n d (3) its finite s e t of rules f o r

g r o u p i n g t h e phonemes i n t o s e q u e n c e s . The s e t o f r u l e s , i . e. t

the a r b i t r a r y s t r u c t u r a l arrangements, which a language impos-

es o n i t s phonemes makes l t d i s t i n c t from o t h e r languages.

T h u s , I l o k a n o a n d E n g l i s h s h a r e t h e phonemes, /m, p , s , t / ,

b u t due t o t h e d i s t i n c t phonemic p a t t e r n o f e i t h e r language,

t h e s e phonemes f u n c t i o n a n d a r e a r r a n g e d d i f f e r e n t l y i n each.

In E n g l i s h they can f u n c t i o n i n a c l u s t e r , as i n glimpsed

/glimpst/; i n I l o k a n o , however, t h e y must combine w i t h vowels,

as I n impusot / q i m p u s 6 t / 'weaned'.

Utterance. A s t r e t c h of meaningful speech put f o r t h

b y a s i n g l e p e r s o n b e f o r e a n d a f t e r w h i c h t h e r e i s maximum

silence by t h a t p e r s o n . A n u t t e r a n c e may be a m o n o s y l l a b i c

word o r a l o n g complex s e n t e n c e . F o r example, t h e s i n g l e

u t t e r a n c e , Umay n g a t a d i a y u b l n g ? / q u mSy n a t a d y a y q u b i n /

'Will the c h i l d p r o b a b l y come? * becomes t h r e e u t t e r a n c e s i n

the f o l l o w i n g situation:

Speaker 1: Umay n g a t a . . .

Speaker 2: Play?

Speaker 1: Ublng.

Segment. A f r a c t i o n o f a n u t t e r a n c e b e t w e e n a n y two

Immediately successive change-points. The change-points

that define the l i m i t s o f a segment a r e c h a n g e - p o i n t s i n

 16

the a r t i c u l a t i o n of a speech o r g a n o r o f two different

organs. T h u s , [ n ] i s a segment i n t h e u t t e r a n c e Umay n g a t a

[ q U mal na f
taq]. I n t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e segment, the

raised p o s i t i o n o f t h e back o f t h e tongue against the roof

o f t h e mouth, a n d the lowered p o s i t i o n of t h e velum begin

and end a t t h e same t i m e s a s t h e segment itself.

Segmental and Suprasegmental Units. Linguistic units

which c l e a r l y f o l l o w each o t h e r i n the stream of speech are

called segmental or l i n e a r . Those which clearly extend over

a series of s e v e r a l segmental groupings are c a l l e d supraseg-

mental, n o n l i n e a r or p r o s o d i c . F o r example, t h e positions

of a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e phonemes i n u b l n g /^qu-^bin/, i n t h e

first sample u t t e r a n c e a b o v e , a r e s e g m e n t a l , while the t o n -

ernes s u p e r p o s e d on them a r e suprasegmental.

To a v o i d t o o much v e r b o s i t y , t h e t e r m phoneme, i n

general discussions at least, w i l l be t a k e n t o r e f e r to both

segmental phonemes a n d suprasegmental prosodemes. Distinc-

t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e two a r e o n l y made where s p e c i f i c a l l y neces-

sary.

20
1.6 Theoretical Framework

The p h o n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y u n d e r l y i n g the present study

20
B a s e d on t h e v i e w s o f s e v e r a l l i n g u i s t s . For d e t a i l s ,
s e e : Noam Chomsky, o n . c i t . ; M o r r i s H a l l e , The S o u n d P a t t e r n
 17

i s contained i n certain assumptions about the nature of

l i n g u i s t i c structure and l i n g u i s t i c pattern. These assump-
tions are stated i n terms of formal conditions which the
phonological analyses and descriptions must s a t i s f y .

(1) In phonology, speech events are represented as

sequences of segments and as interlocking suprasegments.
(2) Every segment or suprasegment can be uniqaely
i d e n t i f i e d as a phoneme i n the language by a feature ( a r t i -
culatory, auditory, or acoustic), or a combination of f e a t -
ures, of sound known as d i s t i n c t i v e features or contrastive
components.

(3) A borrowed sound i s considered assimilated

into the native phonemic system when the loan i s i n common
use by native speakers of the language.
(4) Phonology i s non-autonomous. Some pnonetic
processes depend on syntactic and morphological structures
f o r t h e i r interpretation.

(5) Any one language code has a phonemic pattern

which i s analyzable and stateable.

of Russian. The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1959, PP. 20-41;

R. Jakobson, C. G. M. Pant, and M. Halle, Preliminaries to
:

Speech Analysis. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1965, pp. 1-15;

Bernard Bloch, op. c l t . . Kenneth L. Pike, •Grammatical
Prerequisites to Phonemic Analysis,' Language. 3:3:155-172;
C. C. Pries and K. L. Pike, op_. c i t . et passim.
 18

1£7 Methodology and Procedure

Linguists differ c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o m one a n o t h e r i n

t h e i r methods o f s t u d y i n g a l a n g u a g e . I n terms of linguistic

units, l e v e l s , and d i r e c t i o n o f a n a l y s i s a n d description, one

s c h o o l of thought advocates p r o c e e d i n g from sound to sentence,

w h i l e a n o t h e r moves conversely,'• i . e., f r o m s e n t e n c e t o sound.

The present study i s oriented t o b o t h methods: i t p r o -

ceeds from wholes (utterances) to parts (segments and supra-

segments) and t h e n t o wholes (generalizations or rules).

The taxonomic p r o c e d u r e o f s e g m e n t a t i o n and classifica-

tion will be employed i n t h i s phonology of Ilokano. Given

t h e raw m a t e r i a l o f speech - t h e sample s e t o f m e a n i n g f u l

u t t e r a n c e s r e p r e s e n t e d as s t r i n g s o f sound segments o r phones -

the f i r s t task w i l l be t o i d e n t i f y the r e c u r r i n g speech sounds

and t o d e s c r i b e how they are produced. The principles of arti-

culatory phonetics w i l l dominate i n t h i s study f o r the simple

r e a s o n t h a t many a s p e c t s o f s p e e c h c a n be d e s c r i b e d more easily

and simply i n a r t i c u l a t o r y terms than i n a c o u s t i c terms. The

a c o u s t i c parameters o f sound s u c h as s t r e s s , length, juncture,

p i t c h and intonation w i l l , however, be c o n s i d e r e d .

The n e x t s t e p i s p h o n e m i z a t i o n which involves classify-

ing the v a r i a n t etic units into invariant (under c e r t a i n con-

ditions) functional units, t h e phonemes a n d prosodemes.

A f t e r t h e emic u n i t s of the d i a l e c t have been e s t a b -

l i s h e d , g e n e r a l statements about their basic patterns or

 19

regularities of co-occurrence r e l a t i o n s are formulated. 1

The g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s w i l l be stated i n the form of phonolo-

g i c a l rules.'

I n sum, t h e a n a l y t i c - s y n t h e t i c method w i l l be employed

in this study.' The steps a r e as follows:

(a) Segmentation or Phonetic A n a l y s i s : Segmenting

the sample I l o k a n o u t t e r a n c e s (the phonetic data) i n t o etic

u n i t s / and d e s c r i b i n g the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and production of

each r e c u r r e n t unit;

(b) P h o n e m i z a t l o n o r Phonemic A n a l y s i s : Classifying

the etic units i n t o the "ernes" o f the Ilokano d i a l e c t ; and/

(c) Generalization: Stating generalities - the

phonological r u l e s - about the patterns of emic combinability.

The d e s c r i p t i v e procedure i n a l l the three steps;

particularly (b) and ( c ) , employs t h e trimodal theory of

analysis/

Contrast
Unit a Variation
Distribution

which i s d i s c u s s e d at length i n Sec/ 4.23 of t h i s thesis.

 Chapter 2

METHODOLOGICAL PRELIMINARIES

Certain r e f e r e n t i a l frames which are basic to the

understanding of the detailed phonetic and phonemic analyses

and descriptions of Ilokano require discussion i n this chap-

ter. These include (1) the organs of speech, (2) the types

of speech sounds and the ways i n which they are c l a s s i f i e d

and described; (3) the s y l l a b l e , (4-) t r a n s c r i p t i o n signs

and symbols, and (5) the phonetic data.

2.1 The Organs o f Speech

The primacy of a r t i c u l a t o r y phonetics i n this study

of Ilokano speech sounds supposes an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the

organs of the body d i r e c t l y involved i n phonatlon, the

so-called "organs of speech."

Generally, speech sounds are produced with the out-

going breath stream. The perceived differences i n speech

sounds while one i s speaking are the r e s u l t and correlate

of the control and modification of the outgoing lung a i r

In various ways at one or more points In the vocal t r a c t .

The speech organs which control and modify the

egressive breath stream are either movable or stationary.

The movable parts, c a l l e d a r t i c u l a t o r s , include the l i p s ,

tongue, velum, uvula, vocal bands, and of course the lower

jaw. A r t i c u l a t i o n s involving the tongue can be s p e c i f i c a l -

 21

ly described i n terms of its s u b d i v i s i o n s / namely, tip/

blade/ front/ back, and r o o t . The s t a t i o n a r y parts include

the teeth, alveolar ridge o r gum r i d g e / hard palate/ velum

or soft palate/ and the back w a l l of the pharynx. Fig. 2

on the next page shows these a r t i c u l a t o r y structures as well

as the four resonance chambers: oral cavity/ nasal cavity,

the pharynx, and the larynx. The l a r y n x c o n t a i n i n g the

vocal bands is the lowest place of articulation.'

2
» 2
Types of Speech Sounds

Speech is a continuum o f sounds i n which each unit

merges imperceptibly into another. For the purpose of

description/ it may b e segmented into discrete elements

in order to analyze and symbolize the articulatory move-

ments involved i n its production. The sound segments

resulting from such q u a n t i z a t i o n are; therefore/ to be

considered as mere a b s t r a c t i o n s of the physical phenomenon

of speech;

The stream of speech of Ilokano is to be segmented

21
and classified into two m a i n types:

(1) Contolds, those speech sounds which are articu-

lated w i t h complete stop or audible friction. The outgo-

ing a i r stream is obstructed at one o r more points in the

21 d>
The terms v o c o i d and c o n t o i d used i n r e c e n t
p h o n e t i c l i t e r a t u r e t o d e s i g n a t e the p h o n e t i c types as
d i s t i n g u i s h e d from the vowel-consonant phonemic categories,
a r e due p r i m a r i l y t o K e n n e t h L . P i k e . See h i s Phonemics:
A. T e c h n i q u e f o r R e d u c i n g l a n g u a g e s t o W r i t i n g / ' A n n A r b o r :
T h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n P r e s s / 1 9 6 4 , p p / 131 1 4 / 2 4 .
 22

F i g . 2.' C r o s s s e c t i o n o f t h e head

showing t h e organs most d i r e c t l y involved

2
in t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f speech-sounds.

O r a l C a v i t y (Mouth) Nasal Cavity' Velum

(Soft
Palate)

Hard P a l a t e

Alveoles (Gumridge)

pips

Tongue
1. T i p
2. B l a d e
3. F r o n t
4. Back
5. Root
Trachea

R o b e r t J . Gregg, A S t u d e n t s Manual o f F r e n c h
1

P r o n u n c i a t i o n . T o r o n t o : The M a c m i l l a n Company o f Canada, L t d ,

i 9 6 0 , p. 5. (Reproduced w i t h p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e a u t h o r . )
 23

vocal t r a c t either by stopping the passage of a i r complete-

l y or by f o r c i n g i t into narrow channels producing audible

friction.

(2) Vocoids, sounds produced with the continuous

stream of a i r passing through resonance chambers, - e. g.,

through the larynx and f i n a l l y out through the o r a l or nasal

cavity - r e l a t i v e l y unimpeded and without producing any

audible f r i c t i o n . Vocoids function as s y l l a b l e n u c l e i .

Intermediate between the two types are the semi-

contoids. These are vocoids patterning as contoids. They

are not s y l l a b i c .

A sequence of two vocoids produced with a single

23
emission of the voice i s a vocoid chain.

2?21 How Vocoids are Described and C l a s s i f i e d

A vocoid d e s c r i p t i o n i s based mainly on auditory

judgments of sound relationships. Since there i s no

contact of the tongue with the roof of the mouth, only

the l i p shape can be described by v i s u a l or t a c t i l e means.

Differences i n the degrees of tongue elevation and tongue

advancement are so minute that i t i s impossible to assess

them quite accurately. I t i s not f e a s i b l e to say, f o r

instance, that a given Ilokano vocoid i s produced with the

23
The term vocoid chain i s used at the s t r i c t l y
phonetic l e v e l i n t h i s study - i n p a r a l l e l terminology
with vocoid and contoid. Diphthong w i l l be used to r e f e r
to the same sound sequences at the phonemic l e v e l .
 24

back o f t h e tongue r a i s e d t o w i t h i n 4 m i l l i m e t e r s o f t h e

velum.

A f i n e r d e s c r i p t i o n of vocoids can be a c h i e v e d by-

reference to the phonetic g r i d which l i n g u i s t s c a l l the

24
C a r d i n a l Vowel S c a l e . I t c o n s i s t s of a s e r i e s of e i g h t

b a s i c vowels o f known f o r m a t i o n and a c o u s t i c qualities,

independent o f t h e vowel sounds of any p a r t i c u l a r l a n g u a g e .

"The s e l e c t i o n o f t h e s e e i g h t c a r d i n a l vowels i s based upon

t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t no two o f them a r e so n e a r each o t h e r as

25
t o be i n c a p a b l e o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g words." These vowels

and t h e i r p o s i t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e shown on a t r a p e z i u m

below.

F i g / ' 3. The E i g h t B a s i c C a r d i n a l Vowels

24
A s t a n d a r d and i n v a r i a b l e s c a l e d e v i s e d by D a n i e l
Jones,- a B r i t i s h l i n g u i s t / and adopted by t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l
P h o n e t i c A s s o c i a t i o n . * See D a n i e l J o n e s , An O u t l i n e of E n g l i s h
P h o n e t i c s , Cambridge: W. H e f f n e r and S o n s / L t d . , I960, ppT 3 1 - 3 9 .
 25

T h e t r a p e z i u m may be t a k e n a s a conventionalized

representation o f t h e human mouth, w i t h t h e l i p s t o the

left and t h e pharynx t o the r i g h t . The dots r e p r e s e n t the

relative positions o f t h e tongue i n t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e

27
vox?els. I n t h e c a r d i n a l v o c o i d s £ i ] and [ u ] t h e tongue

is r a i s e d as c l o s e as p o s s i b l e to the palate without fric-

t i o n b e i n g p r o d u c e d , a n d f o r C [ a ] , i t i s b r o u g h t as. l o w a s

possible with s l i g h t r a i s i n g a t t h e extreme back. These

three sounds d e f i n e what a r e known a s t h e v o w e l l i m i t s -

that i s , i f t h e t o n g u e were r a i s e d e v e n a f r a c t i o n o f a n

i n c h h i g h e r than c [ i ] o r c£u], o r r e t r a c t e d f a r t h e r back

t h a n c£a]» t h e s o u n d s p r o d u c e d w o u l d be f r i c a t i v e contolds.

Thus, cCi]>[y], a s i n y e t ; C [ u ] > [ w ] , a s i n wet; a n d

Cct3>C^] w h i c h ,
c
f o r typographical convenience, i s w r i t t e n
28
[jR]* a s
i n "the F r e n c h word a r b r e [aRbS] 'tree*.

Close, h a l f - c l o s e , half-open, a n d open r e f e r t o t h e

degrees o f tongue e l e v a t i o n ( s e e F i g , 5). S t a r t i n g from

the c£i3 p o s i t i o n , t h e f r o n t o f t h e tongue i s lowered

I n t e r n a t i o n a l P h o n e t i c A s s o c i a t i o n , The P r i n c i p l e s o f t h e
I n t e r n a t i o n a l P h o n e t i c A s s o c i a t i o n . London: U n i v e r s i t y
College, 1965.
25
Ibid., p . i+.
26 "
I b i d . , p , 5, (See v a l u e s o f t h e vowels on p . 27
of this thesis.
27
F o r c o n s i s t e n c y and b r e v i t y , t h e c a r d i n a l vowels
w i l l h e n c e f o r t h be c a l l e d c a r d i n a l v o c o i d s , a n d w r i t t e n a s
C [ i ] , C [ e ] , c[e], C [ a ] , a c[ ],
C ( > ] C [ o ] , and c [ u ] .
f

28
R. J . G r e g g , op,, c i t . , p . 52.
 26

gradually at a u d i t o r i l y equidistant points representing

the values f o r c[e, e , a ] . Prom t h e c[a] p o s i t i o n , t h e

tongue i s r a i s e d a l s o a t e q u i d i s t a n t p o i n t s representing

t h e v a l u e s g i v e n t o C[o, o, • u ] ,

V o c o i d s s i t u a t e d on t h e l i n e i - a o r n e a r t o i t a r e

c a l l e d f r o n t v o c o i d s , and those i n t h e l i n e a-u o r s l i g h t l y

I n advance o f i t , t h e b a c k v o c o i d s . The t e r m c e n t r a l i n d i -

cates that the highest p o i n t of t h e tongue i s i n the center

o f t h e m o u t h , midway b e t w e e n f r o n t a n d b a c k . A t r i a n g u l a r

area representing the r e g i o n of the c e n t r a l vocoid types

i s drawn s e p a r a t i n g t h e f r o n t v o c o i d s from the back vocoids.

T h e a d d i t i o n a l f e a t u r e s a r e shown b e l o w .

F i g . 4. The C e n t r a l V o c o i d Triangle
 27

The values of the d i f f e r e n t cardinal vocoids may

be i l l u s t r a t e d from d i f f e r e n t types of English i n which

29
the vocoid types are found;
c [ i ] see [si:] (General)

C[e] day. [de:] (Scottish)

c[e] [set] (Northern B r i t i s h English)

Ct>] back [bak] (Northern B r i t i s h English)

c[a] half [ha:f] (Southern B r i t i s h English)

c[o] hot [hot] (Scottish)

c[o] coat [ko:t] (Scottish)

C[u] too [tu:] (General)

c[a] about [ 3 »baUt] (General)

Ilokano vocoid a r t i c u l a t i o n s are to be described

and c l a s s i f i e d according to four c r i t e r i a , namely:

(1) tongue height - close, h a l f - c l o s e , half-open, open;

(2) tongue advancement - front, central, back;

(3) tenseness or laxness; and

(4) l i p p o s i t i o n - spread, neutral, rounded.

A l l Ilokano vocoids are of the o r a l type. Therefore,

the p o s i t i o n of the velum - 1." e., raised f o r o r a l vocoids,

lowered f o r nasalized vocoids - i s not d i s t i n c t i v e . Tense-

ness and laxness are not d i s t i n c t i v e either - may be safe-

l y ignored.

29
International Phonetic Association, o£. c i t . ,
pp. 8-9.
 28

The lip-tongue p o s i t i o n a l relationship i s summed up

i n the p r i n c i p l e of normal vowel opposition or b i p o l a r i t y :

1. e., the front vocoid series [ i , e, e, a] and [ a ] of the

back series are pronounced with l i p s spread or open and

pulled back, whereas i n the three other back vocoids

[l>, o, u], the l i p s are rounded i n varying degrees and are

pushed forward.

The relationships between the features of tongue

height and tongue advancement are shown as a matrix, thus:

Front
Central

F i g . 5. Vocoid Matrix
 29

2,22 How Contolds are Described and C l a s s i f i e d

For the a r t i c u l a t o r y description of Ilokano contoids,

two factors are to be considered, namely, (1) point of

a r t i c u l a t i o n , and (2) manner of a r t i c u l a t i o n . The presence

or absence of* vocal band v i b r a t i o n characterized as voiced

or voiceless (breathed), respectively, iSwalso taken into

account.

Point of a r t i c u l a t i o n refers to the place of contact

or near contact of an a r t i c u l a t o r with another a r t i c u l a t o r ,

or with a stationary part (Sec. 211). The following l i n g -

u i s t i c terms are used to describe the a r t i c u l a t o r y s t r u c -

tures involved i n r e l a t i o n to t h e i r speech function:

L i n g u i s t i c Terms Structures Involved

B i l a b i a l (or l a b i a l ) both l i p s

Labio-dental lower l i p , upper teeth

Dental tongue t i p and rim, upper

teeth

Alveolar tongue blade, or t i p and

blade, alveolar ridge

or gum ridge

Retroflex tongue t i p , hard palate

Palatal tongue back, hard palate

Velar tongue back, soft palate

Uvular tongue back, extreme back

of velum known as the uvula

Glottal vocal bands
 30

Manner of a r t i c u l a t i o n r e f e r s t o the degree of obs-

t r u c t i o n - r a n g i n g from complete c l o s u r e t o s l i g h t narrow-

i n g - made by the speech organs a t the p o i n t of a r t i c u l a -

tion. I n terms of manner of a r t i c u l a t i o n , the Ilokano

.contoids a r e t o be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o the f o l l o w i n g types,

enumerated i n d e c r e a s i n g degrees of c l o s u r e :

Plosive

Nasal

Lateral

Flap

Fricative

Semivocoid

These c o n t o i d types a r e d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l i n S e c . 3 . 2 2

a l o n g w i t h the speech segments which c o n s t i t u t e them.

The r e l a t i o n s h i p between the two dimensions of

c o n t o i d a r t i c u l a t i o n can be regarded as a m a t r i x i n which

the columns r e p r e s e n t the p o i n t of a r t i c u l a t i o n , and the

rows, the manner o f a r t i c u l a t i o n . A p a i r i n g o f the

v o i c e d (v) and breathed (b) v a r i e t i e s of the c o n t o i d s

appear a t the p o i n t of i n t e r s e c t i o n .

The c o n t o i d s of I l o k a n o a r e t o be charted and des-

c r i b e d i n terms of the m a t r i x shown i n F i g . 6.

 31

P i g . 6. Contoid Matrix;:

Labial Labio- Dental & Velar Glottal

Dental Alveolar

Plosive

Nasal

Lateral

Flap

Fricative

Semivocoid

2.3 The S y l l a b l e : I t s F u n c t i o n and Structure

The s y l l a b l e , a p h o n o l o g i c a l u n i t , i s the b a s i c

framework w i t h i n which the r e l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n and pos-

s i b i l i t i e s of occurence of phones and phonemes can be

stated. Thus, Ilokano phonemes of ambivalent s t a t u s such

as the semivowels /w/ and /y/ may be c a t e g o r i z e d as e i t h e r

consonants o r vowels depending upon how they p a t t e r n with

other consonants o r vowels i n the s y l l a b l e . Furthermore,

s i n c e Ilokano has a s y l l a b l e - t i m e d rhythm, a s a t i s f a c t o r y

d e s c r i p t i o n of the suprasegmental f e a t u r e of s t r e s s can

be made w i t h r e s p e c t to the s y l l a b l e s t r u c t u r e of word

forms.

"The s y l l a b l e , " E i n a r Haugen s t a t e s , " i s the smallest

u n i t of r e c u r r e n t phonemic sequences" which c o n s i s t s of

 32

"an i r r e d u c i b l e minimum which we may c a l l the nucleus and

an optional remainder which we may c a l l margin. Margins

i n turn may either precede or follow the nucleus... Each

of the constituents of the s y l l a b l e consists of one or

more phonemes, with vowels usually occupying the peak, the

30
consonants the margins."

In t h i s study, the pre-nuclear margin and the post-

nuclear margin are - adopting the terms invented by C. F.

Hockett - referred to as onset and coda, respectively.

Many l i n g u i s t s speak of the nucleus as the "peak

of sonority" i n the s y l l a b l e , and of the vowels - being

more sonorous than consonants - as the s y l l a b l e n u c l e i .

The main function of a vowel, therefore, i s s y l l a b i f i c a t i o n ,

and a consonant that of i n i t i a t i n g and terminating a s y l l a -

ble. For example, the s i x vowels, /a u u i o e/, represent

the s i x s y l l a b l e s i n the Ilokano word aggurgurlgoren /qag

gur gu r i go ren/ 'He has a fever now.'

By Hockett's c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of s y l l a b l e systems,

Ilokano i s of "the onset-peak type... i n that every s y l l a b l e

includes both an onset and a peak; l t may or may not include
32
also a coda." This writer takes I t that the obligatory

30
Einar Haugen, "The S y l l a b l e i n L i n g u i s t i c Descrip-
t i o n , " i n Morris Halle, and others, (eds.), For Roman
Jakobson; Essays. The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1955» PP. 216-21?.
51
Charles F. Hockett, op. c i t . , p. 85.
32
Ibid., p. 9 9 .
 33

onset includes the glottal stop, / q / , because although

printwise a syllable begins with an orthographic symbol
representing a vowel, e. g . , a in ala 'get', phonetically,
there is a glottal obstruction (symbolized by [q]) preced-
ing the articulation of the vocoid - i . e., [qa]. This
prevocalic glottal obstruction can be perceived by slight-
ly pressing the fingers on the "Adam's apple" while a r t i -
culating i , e, a, o, u, thus*, [ q i ] , [qe], [qa], [qo], [qu].
To Haugen and Hockett, the coda is optional. The
writer, however, believes that for Ilokano i t is only the
syllables i n i n i t i a l and medial positions which "may or may
not Include also a coda;" in final position, the syllable
ending with an orthographic symbol representing a vowel
sound, e. g . , - l a in ala, is closed by a glottal stop. She
postulates a post-vocalic-glottal-stop coda in such final
syllables, since this is clearly perceptible in ala ['qa
lotqjt and comes out equally clearly when a suffix is added,
e. g., i n alaen [qa ' l a qen] 'to get'. Other examples w i l l
further illustrate the concept of the glottal-stop onset
and coda, thus:

al-o / q a l qoq/ 'pestle*

tal-o /tal q6q/ •lift'
alto /qfil toq/ •alto'
agaltoak /qa gal t6 qak/ ' I ' l l sing alto'
agaltoka /qa gal td kaq/ 'You'll sing alto'
 34

Although the glottal stop, / q / , is not reflected in

the conventional orthography, i t is structurally relevant
to the Ilokano syllable system, and w i l l be so indicated i n
this study.
Ilokano exhibits the following syllable structures:

cv ubing /gu bin/ •child*

CVG nganga /na njiq/ 'open mouth 1

CCV blusa / b M saq/ 'blouse'

GGVG trenta /trSn taq/ 'thirty'
CVCC komiks /kd miks/ 'comics'
cV waya /wa yfiq/ •spare time'
CcV lualo /lwfi loq/ •prayer*
cVC wang-it /w^n, q i t / •head shake'
CVv nguy-a /nuv, qfiq/ •agony*
cVv duyaw /du y£w/ 'yellow•
CcVv ruay /rway/ •abundance'
CCcV empleado /qem plya"' doq/ •employee'
CCcVC nasaprian /na sap pryfin/ •rain-sprihkled'
In summary, the syllable.structures (SS) of Ilokano
can be briefly described using the following rules:
Onset Nucleus Coda
SS Rule 1: S ^ * (C)(C)C V (c)(c)

SS Rule 2: S,
» (c)(c)c V c(c)
'(c)c
SS Rule 3*. Sdn<) » V
c
 35

Where: C = Consonant
V = Vowel
33
c = S emi c ons onant
V = Semivowel
Syllable i n i n i t i a l or
3
{IV medial position
Syllable i n final position
Syllable, with a diphthong,
in I n i t i a l , medial, or
final position

2;4- Transcription Signs and Symbols

The phonetic and phonemic transcriptions in this
thesis make use of the conventional symbols of the Inter-
national Phonetic Association, with some additions used by
34
many British and American phoneticians today. It w i l l be
noted, however, that some of the signs and symbols have been
modified to suit the grammar of the Ilokano dialect under
study, as well as for typographical convenience. Thus, the

33
Por the phonemic interpretations of /w/ and / y /
as c or v, see Sec. 4.2511 of this thesis.
3%
International Phonetic Association, o £ . c i t . ,
pp. 7-14; A. C. Gimson, An Introduction to the Pronuncia-
tion of English. London: Edward Arnold (Publishers), L t d . ,
1962, ppi: v i i - i x x James Carrell and William R. Tiffany,
Phonetics: Theory and Application to Speech Improvement.
New York: McGraw-Hill, I960, p. x v i i .
 36

symbols, C ] » C a ] . and C°]» which have t h e q u a l i t i e s of

e
<3C"£••].
c£"&], and C [ D T | , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a r e used i n t h i s study s i n c e ,

i n I l o k a n o , t h e r e i s no c o n t r a s t I n v o l v e d , e i t h e r p h o n e t i c a l -

l y o r phonemically, between C ] and C&]; between Ca] and C* ®].

e 1

and between Co] and C ] « 3 T n e

symbols C l ] and Cu] stand f o r

Ci] and [v]» respectively.

Segmental Symbols

Symbol Example
Ci] ima C 'qi:.maq] 'hand'

Ci] bltbit Cblt.'bit] 'load'

Ce] verde C'ver.deq] 'green'

Ca] petpet [p8t.'pat] 'grasp'

Ca] bado ['ba: .doq] 'dress'

Ca] bato [ba.*toq] 'stone'

Co] bo l a C'bo:.laq] •ball'

Cu] buok [bU. «qok] 'hair'

Cu] ulo C'qu:. l o q ] 'head'

CP] Papag C'pa: .pog] 'bamboo bench'

Ct] tatang ['ta:.tan] 'father'

M kuko CkU.«koq] 'fingernail'

Cb] babal [ba.'ba:.qlq] 'girl'

Cd] dagidl Cda.gl.'diq] 'those 1

Cs] gaget Cga.'get] 'diligence 1

Cm] mameg .[ma.*meg] 'oppression'

 37

Cn] nanang C 'na: .nan] 'mother*

ngangaw Cna.*nau] 'palate'

al-al C^al.*qal] •panting'

Cf] fino ['fi:.noq] •fine'

Cv] votos C'vo:.tos] 'votes'

[s] saludsod [sa.lUd.'sod] •question'

Ch] husto [hHs.«toq] •right'

Cfi] kolehlo Cko.*le:.Gyoqf) 'college'

Ci] lalaki [la.'la:.klq] 'boy'

Cr] rlro C'ri:.roq] 'confusion'

Cw] mi C wal]
,
•rattan•

Cy] yuyem C *yu:.yem] •cloudy'

Suprasegmental and Other Modifying Signs and Symbols

Symbol Description Example

C'0 Phonetic stress (before the daydlay Cdql.'dyal] 'that'

stressed s y l l a b l e )

/V Phonemic stress (above the /day dyfiy/

vowel of the stressed

syllable)

C*] P a l a t a l i z a t i o n (above the contoid) [dal.'dyal]

CO Length: the sound represented l n l t [ ' q l : . n l t ] 'sun'

by the preceding l e t t e r i s ut-ot [qUt:.'qot] 'pain'

long dakkel Cdak.'kel] «big«

Note: Consonant length i s r e a l i z e d as gemination.

 38

L>] Very high p i t c h level

Nakapinpintas j
[3] High p i t c h level

[2] Normal p i t c h l e v e l L^noka % i n 3 p l n t s ] 2

a

[1] Low p i t c h level 'It's very b e a u t i f u l ! '

L e v e l i n t o n a t i o n and Ngem, [ n e m j ] 'But,...'

s h o r t pause

F a l l i n g i n t o n a t i o n and Napintas. [ na. 2

'pin.Has^J

l o n g pause 'It's beautiful.'

Rising I n t o n a t i o n and Napintas? [ n a . ' p l n . ^ t a s ^ ]

2

l o n g pause 'It's beautiful?'

143 Rising-falling intonation Ay, wen, ["^qal ' w e A £ ]

2

and l o n g pause •Oh, yes ( S u r e , i t i s ) . '

Falling-rising intonation Agpayso? [ q a g . p a l .

2 1
'soq^J]
and l o n g pause 'Is l t t r u e (or...)?'

C 3 Brackets t o enclose e t i c

transcriptions luto [*lu: .toq] 'cook*

/'/ S l a s h e s t o e n c l o s e emic /1H t o q /

transcriptions

CD S i n g l e d o t t o mark s y l l a b l e

boundary i n e t i c trans-

c r i p t i o n s ; r e p l a c e d by a

l e t t e r space i n emic trans-

criptions

# # Crossed bars t o enclose #luto# + #-ek#

morphemes •cook* *I»

 39

* / / Asterisked barred slashes */lutoek/ [lU.'to:.qek]

to enclose hypothetical 'cook i t I '

word forms
^ "becomes * /pen pen/ > [pem 'pen] 'stack*
^ "comes from* */lutoek/<#luto# + #-ek#
-—^ "is rewritten as" or
"is represented by" /n/ > [m]/

/ "in the context (or environment)"

^ j Braces to enclose a set: C . _ ]
"Choose only the item(s) that
apply each time."
( ) Parentheses: "items enclosed
are optional"
[...] "the rest of the items i n
the syllable -unit"
<f> "native Ilokano word form"

@ "loan word form" ®kafe [ka.'feq] 'coffee'

2.5 Phonetic Data

This section Includes a corpus of utterances occurlng

in Ilokano from which a l l the recurring speech sounds may
be picked out and specified, and on which statements about
the distributional relationships among the features of the
sounds are based. The corpus as a sample of the language -
more specifically, of the Ilokano dialect i n question - is
admittedly restricted, i . e., i t is not exhaustive enough
t o i n c l u d e a l l p o s s i b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l d e t a i l s o f each

speech sound. T h i s l i m i t a t i o n , however, i s n o t r e a s o n

enough t o c o n s i d e r t h e subsequent g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s i n v a l i d .

The gaps i n t h e corpus w i l l be f i l l e d i n by t h e c o p i o u s

examples i n t e r s p e r s e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n s . Moreover, t h e

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e t o be t a k e n t o a p p l y t o t h e d i a l e c t

as a whole and n o t t o t h e corpus a l o n e .

35
T i Amlan k e n t i I n l t

A g s i n s i n n u n g b a t t i amian k e n t i i n i t no a n i a k a d a -

kwada nga dua t i n a p i g p i g s a , i d l h u s t o nga sumungad t i maysa

nga v i a h e r o nga adda naimeng nga kagay na nga k a s l a kapa t i

reyna.' N a g t u l a g da nga no a n i a kadakwada t i a g b a l l i g i nga

mangpauksob i t i v i a h e r o i t i kagay n a , i s u t i makuna nga n a p i g -

pigsa. Saan a nabayag, nagpug-ay t i amian i t i n a k a p i g p i g s a ,

k e t u r a y l a nga naguy-oy t i d i l a n a . Ngem, no kasano t i p i g s a

t i panagpug-ay n a , ad-adda pay nga i n k a y e t k e t a f i r m e t i v i a -

h e r o t i kagay na i t i b a g i na; k e t kamaudiianan na, s a a n nan

nga i n t u l o y t i nagpug-ay. Nagtalna ket nagpaliiw. "Mapauksob

n g a t a t i i n i t d a y d i a y v i a h e r o ? " s i n a l u d s o d na i t i b a g i na,r

I d i kuan, l i m g a k t i i n i t . Nadagaang t i a l d a w , k e t dagus a

naguksob t i v i a h e r o . Anansa n g a r u d , i n k a p i l i t a n nga inannugot

t i amian nga n a p i g p i g s a t i i n l t ngem i t i i s u . '

35
An I l o k a n o t r a n s l a t i o n o f "The N o r t h w i n d and t h e Sun,"
I n t e r n a t i o n a l P h o n e t i c A s s o c i a t i o n , pj>. c i t . , p. 2 0 . I t has
been c o n s i d e r a b l y m o d i f i e d and augmented t o i n c l u d e a l l t h e
speech sounds o c c u r i n g i n t h e I l o k a n o d i a l e c t .
 41

% 1 2 , 1
it cjam'myan k s n t i 'cjUhit

The N o r t h w i n d and t h e Sun

qag'smsinnurj'bat il a a m ' m y a n ken h 'cji'.mtj

Arguing t h e northwind and t h e s u n

no cjartnya: kacla'kwa:da rja dwa: t i napicjpig's&cj |

if which o f them two t h e s t r o n g e r

cjjdi h v s rocj r j a & v ' m a : r j a d t i m a x ' s a : r j a vyahe'.^ocjj

when just then approach t h e one traveler,

rja cjadda n a ' c j i : rne-Q QO- k a g a i ' n a q j rja k a s ! a ' k a : p a t i

viho had warm cloak h i s t h a t i s l i k e cape o f

Vegnacj^ nacj'fcujlag dacj | r j a n o a a n ' n y a : k a d a ' k w a : det |

queen. Agreed they t h a t i f which o f them

2 1 * i
ti (jagbal'lr.gicj rja m a r j p a q u k ' s o b a i h v y a ' f i e i r o ^ aifci
the s u c c e s s f u l t o make undress the traveler the

k a g a i 'nscj J c j i ' s u : ki m a w ' n e q rja napxqpicj sacj 1 saqan

cloak h i s , he the said stronger. Not

t i 1 Z 1
l 4 5 X

aa naba'yaql nacjpvg'cjai t i cjam'myan qiti nakapigpig'sacj

l o n g time blew the northwind very strong

nacj jJ\,, I no
1 Z 1

ket 'qu'.rai'la-, na n a j u i ' c j o i h d i : l a rjemj i 2

n o kasaVio
Kasa'n

and until dangle t h e tongue h i s . B u t , i f hovj^ver

il pxg'sac| t i pctnagpugcjai'naqj c^adcjad da: pax rja
the s t r e n g t h t h e b l o w i n g his a l l t h e more that

qzrjkaystUdt Cja firm© t i vya'Pie . r o c j j t x kacjai

1
'na: cji
huddled up firmly the t r a v e l e r the cloak h i s t

j 1 2 2
ba'gi-, na| k©t kamacj-ud'dya-. nannaq| sacjanVjan rja

body h i s and finally n o t anymore he

qxrVtu:loi i A i
2 1 1 2

ti nagpugqai^ ^agtal'nacj k©t nacjpct'li-.

continued the blowing. Kept s t i l l and observed.
7. * 2 3
- mapacjuk'sob U cji:ni-t dcudyax \zya'Re.roq|
"Gan make undress p r o b a b l y t h e s u n t h a t traveler?"

1 ,2 1 1 Z 2
ainalvjclsod n a : ejitx bagi r\dcj ^ cjidi'kwQ-.nl linVgak
asked he to self h i s . Then shone out

1 2 1 "•
ti 'eji:rnl|^ nadacja:cjarj *i cjal'dev| kst'dU^VS rja
the s u n . Warm t h e day and Immediately

1 2
naq\j|c5ob ti vya'fie:r<ac|^ cjanan'sa*. t-jaVcucl |
undressed the t r a v e l e r . Therefore,

i ( 2 1 2 1 2
c^irjkapi'livlan «]a cjman'nu:goi ti cjarn'myanl
obliged admitted the northwind

1 Z i 1 1

that stronger the sun than he..

 Chapter 3
THE SOUNDS OP SPEECH : A PHONETIC ANALYSIS

Speech, i t must be re-emphasized, is a continuum

of different articulations produced by the vocal organs;
the division of this continuum into discrete segments and
suprasegments is an abstraction, an a r t i f i c i a l process,
nevertheless, a sine qua non in linguistics. As Nadel
aptly puts i t , "If scientific insight is insight into the
order of things, observation must be directed towards break-
ing up the continuum of data into units - units which can be
manipulated or ordered i n a fashion more systematic than the
ambiguous and fortuitous ordering inherent i n naive observa-
36
tion." It i s , however, only the record of the speech event
that can be segmented and manipulated.
This chapter is concerned with a detailed phonetic
description of the raw materials of speech - the different
segmental sounds and suprasegmental features - extracted
from the corpus of utterances recorded in Sectiohxi2.5 of this
thesis.
The phonemization procedures in the next chapter w i l l
reveal that not a l l of the etic units enumerated and described
here w i l l ultimately prove to be separate emic units of the
dialect.

36
F. S. Nadel, The Foundations of Social Anthropology.
London: Cohen and West, L t d . , 1 9 5 1 . P. 7 5 .
44
 Fig; 1
9. A Chart of Ilokano Contolds

Labial Labio- Dental & Velar Glottal

Dental Alveolar

Plosive M Ct] M [q]

M Ca] Cs]

Nasal M Cn]

Lateral Ci]

Flap Cr]

Fricative Cf] Cs] Ch]

Cv] Ch]

Semivocoid 1 [w] Cy]

3»12 The Suprasegmental F e a t u r e s

Length: Cq 1 : n
It] 'sun'

C qccm. myan] * northwind'

Stress: C'da.gUs] 'immediately 1

£ sU.*mu.nad] 'to"approach *

Cna.plg.plg.*saq] ' s t r o n g e r '

 46

r 1
2 , 2 1 j_
Pitch, [ql.dl «kwa:n 11m.'gak t i «qi:.nltj,j

Intonation, 'Then the sun shone out.*

r 2 1
& Juncture; yma.pa.qUk.*sob na.ta t i ' q i ; . n i t d a l . d y a l

vya.'ne: .roq'p ] 'Can the sun make the

t r a v e l e r take o f f h i s c l o a k ? '

3.2 THE SEGMENTS IN DETAIL

3.21 Vocoids

A l l the vocoids o f Ilokano, l i k e those o f French, a r e

pure and simple, I . e., they do not have the d i p h t h o n g a l

q u a l i t y of the E n g l i s h v o c o i d s . The f o l l o w i n g a r e examples

compared i n terms of C [ i 3 :

Ilokano: blit [bl.'qit] ' f o r a moment*

French: vlte [vit] *fast*

English: beat [biyt] (Standard E n g l i s h )

V o c o i d l e n g t h and s t r e s s a r e i n t e r r e l a t e d . The

s t r e n g t h o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n m o d i f i e s the q u a n t i t y of [ i , e , a , o , u ] .

In f a c t , some l i n g u i s t s use the term, s t r e n g t h , as a portman-

t e a u form of s t r e s s p l u s l e n g t h . C o n s i d e r i n g the s t r e s s - l e n g t h

co-occurence, a t l e a s t i n n o n - f i n a l s y l l a b l e s i n Ilokano, the

l e n g t h symbol, [ : ] , c a n D e
s a f e l y l e f t out i n the examples fol-

lowing each v o c o i d d e s c r i p t i o n .

The treatment of each Ilokano v o c o i d i n c l u d e s an a r t i -

c u l a t o r y d e s c r i p t i o n and an assessment o f q u a l i t y i n terms of

the C a r d i n a l Vowel S c a l e , and examples of d i s t r i b u t i o n a l feat-

ures i n u t t e r a n c e and s y l l a b l e .
 4-7

3.211 The Front Vocoids: [ i , I, e, a]

3.2111 [i]
[ i ] is the closest of the Ilokano front vocoids.
It is articulated with the front of the tongue slightly-
backed and raised to a height just below the close front
position of c [ i ] ; the teeth nearly in occlusion; and, with
the lips spread and drawn back. This speech sound may be
classified as a close, front, tense, rounded vocoid.
The Ilokano £ i ] occurs only i n stressed syllables,
37
in a l l positions.
[ i ] in i n i t i a l syllable:
bllang^ [•bi.lon] •number'
dlla ['di.laqj 'tongue'
gita ['gi.taqQ C 'venom'
init ['qi.nlt] 'sun*
kilo [•ki.loq] •kilogram'
lipay [•li.pal] 'a leguminous vine*
mikl ['ml.klq] 'noodle'
nlpa C'ni.paq] •a species of palm'
ngina ['ni.naq] 'price; value'
pilaw C'pi.laU] 'blemish'
rimas ['rl.mas] •breadfruit'
slka [•si.kaq] 'dysentery'
tlbung ['ti.bUn] •vibration'

37
A l l positions means i n i t i a l l y , medially, and finally
in the utterances.
The examples are arranged according to the indicated
 &8

[ i ] i n medial s y l l a b l e :
ibingay [ql.'bi.nal] 'to share with'
ad iff! [qa.'di.glq], •post'
sagiden [sa."gl.den] 'to touch'
ahitan [qa.'ni.tan] 'to shave'
pit-ingan [plt.'qi.nan] 'to chip o f f
akikid [qa.'ki.kld] 'narrow 1

u i i la [qU.'li.laq] 'orphan'
kamiring [ka.'mi.rln] •nettle rash'
manipud [ma.'ni.pUd] 'start from'
napintas [na.'pin.tas] 'beautiful'
barikes [ba.'ri.kes] 'belt; g i r d l e '
kusilap [kU.'si.lap] 'pout»
batibat [ba.*ti.bat] 'nightmare'
kawitan [ka.'Vi.tan] 'rooster*

] i n final syllable:

ubing [qU.'bin] 'child'

diding [dl.'din] •wall'
rugl [rU.'giq] 'beginning*
suil [sU.'qil] 'pry or lever*
bakl [ba.'kiq] 'chicken coop'
nagalis [na.ga.'lis] *slippery*

position of occurrence of the sound i n the utterance, e. g.,

i f the sound i n question i s Indicated as occurring i n u t t e r -
ance f i n a l , the utterances are enumerated according to the
alphabetical order of t h e i r f i n a l s y l l a b l e s .
 49

ikumit [ql.kU.»mit] 'to entrust*

dandani [dan.da.*niq] 'almost*

kupin [kU.»pin] •fold*

tagari [ta.ga.'rlq] •talk, p r a t t l e *

pus i t [pU.«sit] •squid'

pating [pa.'tln] 'whale*

awit [qa.'wit] •load'

3.2112 [I]

The c l o s e , f r o n t , semi-tense , v o c o i d , [ i ] ,

duced w i t h the tongue t i p n e a r e r to c e n t e r than to f r o n t ,

and r a i s e d j u s t above the h a l f - c l o s e p o s i t i o n of c [ e ] ; l i p

and tongue muscles are r e l a t i v e l y l a x compared w i t h the ten-

sion for [ i ] .

[i] occurs i n u n s t r e s s e d syllables i n a l l positions,

[i] in Initial syllable:

blgat [bl.'gat] 'morning 1

dildiLan [dll.'di.lon] •to l i c k , lap'

gita [ g l .ta;q] ' o i l y t a s t e of n u t s '

ited [ql.'ted] •give*

kiklt [kl.'kit] 'ear f i n g e r '

libas [ll.'bas] •a s p e c i e s of f l o w e r i n g vine'

mi l a t [ml.«lat] •grime *

pilaw [pi.«laU] •pool of stagnant water'

rikep [ri,'kep] •shutter'

slka [si.'kaq] 'you*

tiritir [tl.'ri.tlr] ' t w i s t , wring*

wlngiwing [wi.'ni.wln] •to shake the head i n d i s s e n t *

 50

[ i ] i n medial s y l l a b l e :

rabii [ra.bl.»qiq] •night'

agadiwara [qa.ga.dl.»wa.raq] 'diffuse fragrance'

rugitan [rU.gl.'tan] 'to s o i l '

nakiro [na.kl.'roq] •disorderly, confusing'

aglibak [qag.H.'bak] •to r e f r a i n from divulging

maminsan [ma.mln.'san] 'once•

aniniwan [qa.nl.'ni.wani] ' shadow •

kanginaan [ka.nl.'na.qan] 'the most expensive'

kupinen [kU.pl.'nen] 'to f o l d '

karison [ka.rl.'son] •cart pulled by an ox'

kasinsin [ka.sin.'sin] •cousin'

kutingi [kU.tl.«niq] 'the smallest of a l i t t e r *

siwlwidawld [sl.wl.wl.*da. wld] 'empty-handed *

[] i n f i n a l s y l l a b l e :

tagibi [ta.'gi.blq] 'foster c h i l d *

padl [•pa.dlq] •priest *

aggidigid [qag.gl.'di.gld] 'to rub against a post'

sull ['su.qll] 'a kind of hoe*

lalaki [la.'la.klq] •boy, man'
sabali [sa.'ba.llq] •another 1

amin ['qa.mln] 'all'

agani [qa.'ga.nlq] 'harvester'

angin ['qa.nln] •wind'

 51

palpit [pa.»qi.plt] 'carpenter's vise'

saririt [sav'rl.rlt] 'sagacity'

nakusim [na.•ku.slm] •fastidious in food'

kamatis [ka.•ma.tls] 'tomato*

kawiwit [ka.'wi.wlt] 'to clasp with the legs

3.2113 [e]

Articulation of the Ilokano vocoid [e] calls for a

tongue p o s i t i o n l o w e r and more c e n t e r e d than that for c[e],<

and just above the tongue height f o r c[£]. The tongue is

humped t o w a r d the front of the mouth,* t h e .jaw o p e n w i d e r

than that f o r cCe], and the lips spread and o n l y s l i g h t l y

retracted. This half-open, front, spread, tense vocoid

occurs i n both stressed and unstressed syllables; in a l l

positions.!

Ce] i n stressed initial syllable:

. ©Belo C'be.loqJ •short for Isabelo'

@fecha ['fet.tyaq] 'date•

©gerra C'ger.raq] •war*

©hefe C»he.feq] •chief 1

ken C *ken] •and 1

©kendi C'ken.dlq] •candy*

©Leah C•le.qaq] 'a g i r l * s name*

met C'met] •also'

©medias C'me.dyas] •stockings *

 52

®Nena [ 'ne.naq] 'a g i r l ' s name*

©pecho ['pet.tyoq] 'chicken breast'
©reses ['re.ses] •recess'
©selyo ['sel.lyoq] 'stamp, seal'
©tela C'te.laq] •fabric'
©verde [*ver.deq] •green'
wenno ['wen.noq] 'or'
©yerro ['yer.roq] 'galvanized iron roofing'

[e] i n stressed medial syllable:

@kobeta [ko.'be.taq] 'toilet'
©kandela [kan.'de.laq] 'candle*
©Falguera [fal. 'ge.raq]
i
'a family name'
©ahente [qcu *nen.teq] •agent'
©bangkete [barj.'ke.teq] 'banquet'
©blslkleta [bl.slk.'kle.taq] 'bicycle'
©America [qa.'me.rl.kaq] 'America'
©chlnelas [ t y l . ' n e . las ] ' s Uppers '
©supero [sU.'pe.roq] 'soup bowl'
©sirena [sl.'re.naq] "sirenf nymph 1

©kasera [ka.'s e.r aq] 'landlord; tenant *

©kafetera [ka.fe.'te.raq] 'coffee pot*
©S evero [se.'ve.roq] 'a boy's name'

[e] i n stressed final syllable:

rebbeng [reb.'ben] 'responsibility'
baddek [bad.»dek] 'step, tread'
 53

raem [ra. •qem] •respect'

@kaf e [ka. •feq] •coffee'
agek [<la. •gek] 'kiss'
©kahel [ka. •fiel] •a variety of oranges'
baket [ba. •ket] •old woman 1

ules [<lU. •les] 'blanket'

simek [ s i . •mek] •utterance, conversation'
buneng [bU. •bolo'
tengnged [ten .«ned] •neck*
reppet [rep .•pet] •bundle'
gargaret [gar .ga.'ret] 'belongings 1

pisel [ p l . sel]
r
•pressure (hand)'
art em [qar, .'tern] 'pickle'
tawen [ta.' 'wen] •year; age'
kuyemyem [kU.yem.*yem] 1
cloudy 1

[e] i n unstressed i n i t i a l syllable:

bengngat [ben.. •nat] •accent i n s p e a k i n g
derraas [ d e r . •ra.qas] 'precipice 1

emma [qem. •maq] •meekness'

ftetteng [ g e t . •ten] •scissors'
kebba [ k e b . 'baq] •breathlessness•
leppas [ l e p . •pas] 'completion'
melmel [ m e l . •mel] •mouthful 1

nengneng [neij. 'stupid'

ngernger [ n e r . •Her] •snarl, growl'
 54

peggad [peg.'gad] 'danger'

rebba [reb.'baq] •wreckage'

seldan [sel.'dan] •large water j a r *

tengnga [ten. 'jaq] •middle, c e n t e r '

wenno [wen. *noq] 'or'

[yeg.'yeg] ' tremble'

[e] i n unstressed medial s y l l a b l e :

nabenfebeng [not.ben. 'berj] ' t h i c k , close-woven' i

agdeppa [qccg.dep. 'paq] 'to e x t e n d the arms s l d e w i s e 1

paggelgelan [pag^gel.ge.'Ian] 'starch s t r a i n e r *

kagkadked [qag.ked.*ked] 'to r e s i s t payment'

isaleksek [ql.sa.lek.'sek] 'to s t u f f

dumenden [dU.men.'den] 'to move t o a g i v e n p o i n t

paheknek [pa.nek.'nek] 'proof 1

dengngepen [ d e i j . i j e . 'pen] 'to a p p l y h o t compress'

agpessa [ q a g . p e s . * s a q ] 'to h a t c h 1

iremrem [ql.rem.'rem] 'to submerge'

salensenan [sd.len.se.'nan] 'to o v e r b u r d e n d n 1

agteddak [ q a g . t e d . ' d a k ] 'to b u r s t a b s c e s s e s '

ayek-ek [qa.yek.'qek] 'audible laughter'

[e] i n unstressed f i n a l syllable:

plnakbet [ p i Aiak.bet] 'a k i n d of v e g e t a b l e r e c i p e 1

sardeng [ •sar.deij] 'stop'

laeng ['la.qeri] 'only'

 55

©Cleofe ['klyo.feq] 'a g i r l ' s name'

©asoge [qa.'so.geq] •mercury'

©ehe ['qe.neq] 'axle'

barikes [ba.'ri.kes] 'belt'

uleg ['qu.leg] »snake'

timek ['ti.mek] 'voice'

©sine ['si.neq] 'movie, cinema'

anges ['qa.nes] •breath•

ipes [*qi.pes] 'cockroach'

bareng ['ba.ren] • i f perhaps'

awisen [qa.•wi.sen] 'to invite'

©bote ['bo.teq] 'bottle'

©lyave [•lya.veq] 'key; wrench'

agaweng [qa.'ga.wen] 'to r i n g , t o resound*

©kalye ['kal.lyeq] 'street'

3.'2114 [a]

The I l o k a n o [ a ] , t h e openest o f t h e f r o n t v o c o i d s , i s

s l i g h t l y centered. I t i s a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h jaws and l i p s w i d e -

l y open, and w i t h no p a r t o f t h e tongue coming i n c o n t a c t w i t h

the upper m o l a r s .

T h i s open, f r o n t , l a x v o c o i d occurs i n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e
in a l l positions.

[a] i n i n i t i a l syllable:

agum ['qa.gttm] 'greed, covetousness'

banga ['ba.iiaq] 'earthen p o t '

 56

daniw ['da.niu] ' l y r i c poem'

galip [ 'ga.llp] 'slice'
kayo [«ka.yoq] •tree*
langka [ 'larj.kaq] «jackfruit'
mangga ['marj.gaq] 'mango'
nanam ['na.nam] •taste'
ngalug ['na.lUg] •purslane (Portulaca
payong [«pa.yog] 'umbrella*
ramay ['ra.mal] 'finger*
sangi ['sa.nlq] 'molar tooth'
tabo [*ta. boq] 'a kind of dipper'
vale ['va.leq] •credit coupon'
was ay [•wa.sal] 'axe'
yaman ['ya.kan] 'thanks'

i] i n medial syllable:
naata [not. 'qa.taq] 'unripe *
abaga [qa.'ba.gaq] 'shoulders'
ladawan [lav'da.wan] 'picture'
sagaba [sa.'gaibaq] •sufferings•
akaba [qa.'ka.baq] 'wide, broad'
balayang [ba^'la^yan] •a variety of banana'
kamakam [ka.'ma.kam] 'overtake'
kanawa [ka.'na.waq] 'defense *
sungani [sU.'na.nlq] 'contrary, oppos i t e '
lapayag [la.'pa.yog] •ear'
 57

arasaw [qa. 'ralsaU] •rice washing'

lansangan [ l a n . 'sa.nan] 'street'

kawayan [ka.'wa.yan] 'bamboo' 1

bayabas [ba.*ya.bas] 'guava'

a] i n f i n a l s y l l a b l e :

tay-ak [tal.'qak] 'meadow'

saba [sa.'baq] 'banana'
adda [qad.'daq] •there i s , there are'
daga [da.'gaq] •earth, land'
saka [s .«kaq]
a •to redeem mortgaged property
galad [ga.'lad] 'rank, a b i l i t y 1

raman [ra.'man] 'taste, f l a v o r '

baknang [bak. 'narj] 'wealth; a wealthy person'
sanga [s .'naq]
a 'branch*
tinapa [tl.na.'paq] 'smoked f i s h '
nadaras [na.da.'ras] 'quick'
rasa [r .*saq]
a •large edible crab'
mata [ma.'taq] 'eye'
lawag [la.'wag] 'light'
laya [la.'yaq] 'ginger'

3.212 The Central Vocoids: [©. a]

3.2121 [9]
The Ilokano [d]» a central, lax vocoid, i s a r t i c u l a t e d

with neutral l i p and tongue positions, i . e., the tongue, with

 58

i t s r i m i n c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h t h e upper m o l a r s , i s midway

"between t h e h e i g h t f o r c[S] and c [ e ] . I n t h e p h o n e t i c con-

t e x t o f t h e v e l a r c o n t o i d s , [ k , g, r p , however, t h e tongue

may be s l i g h t l y more r a i s e d and r e t r a c t e d , e. g., t h e m e d i a l

and f i n a l s y l l a b l e s o f g e t t e n g e k [g©t.ta.*nak3 ' I c u t i t . '

G e n e r a l l y , t h e I l o k a n o schwa, [©]', i s produced w i t h t h e

l e a s t e f f o r t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f any o f t h e v o c o i d s . Although,

t h e r e a r e some I l o k a n o speakers who pronounce i t w i t h r e l a -

tive tenseness.

The v o c o i d , substitutes freely for [e] i n a l l

p o s i t i o n s o n l y i n n a t i v e I l o k a n o word forms, never i n l o a n

38
words.

3.2122 []
a

This normally short vocoid i s a r t i c u l a t e d with l i p s

and jaws more open t h a n t h a t f o r and more c l o s e t h a n

that f o r [ a ] , A s h i f t from [ a ] t o [ a ] b r i n g s t h e r i m o f t h e

tongue i n n e a r c o n t a c t w i t h t h e upper m o l a r s , [ a ] may be

c l a s s i f i e d as a half-open, l a x , c e n t r a l v o c o i d .

I n I l o k a n o , [ a ] occurs i n u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s i n a l l

positions.

[a] i ni n i t i a l syllable:

al-al [qal.'qal] 'laborious breathing 1

babawi [ba.'ba.wlqj 'repentance 1

38
Examples o f l o a n words a r e marked @ i n Sec. 3.113
of t h i s t h e s i s . ~"
 59

dalayap [da.'la.yap] 'lemon•

gandat [gan.'dat] 'intention*
kalapaw [ka.la.'paU] •a hovel'
lastiko [las.tl.'koq] 'rubber band'
mamati [ma.'ma.tlq] 'to believe*
nalaka [na.la.'kaq] 'cheap, easy*
nganngani [ijan. 'na.nlq] 'almost•
papaya [pa.'pa.yaq] 'papaya'
rangkap [rag.'kap] 'donation'
sardam [sar.'dam] 'evening *
tayab [ta.'yab] 'flight'
wagwag [wag.'wag] •a variety of r i c e '
yantangay [yan.'ta.gal] 'whereas *

t] i n medial syllable:
aalunusen [qa.qa.lU.'nu. sen] *can be eaten
ababa [qa.ba.'baq] 'short'
adayo [qa.da.'yoq] •far, distant'
agama [qa.ga.'maq] 'father and child*
dakami [da.ka.'miq] 'we»
kulalanti [kU.la.lan.»tiq] 'firefly'
manmano [man.ma.'noq] 'few'
panateng [pa.na.'terj] 'cold, catarrh'
sangapulo [sa.na.'pu.loq] 'ten'
sapata [sa.pa.taq] 'oath'
karatay [ka.ra.'tal] 'knapsack'
 60

pasaray [pa.sa.'ral] 'sometimes'

natalna [ n e t . t a l . *naq] 'peaceful'

wayawaya [wa.ya.wa.'yaq] 'freedom, liberty'

[a] in final syllable:

baak [ 'ba.qak] 'aged'

baribar [ba. •ri.bar] •crosswise'

dadag [ 'da.dag] • r i p e n i n g pods of legumes'

adelfa [<la. • d e l . f a q ] 'a f l o w e r i n g s h r u b '

sagad [ ' s a .gad] 'broom *

raha [ ' r a .naq] •a Moro chieftain'

saka [ ' s a .kaq] •foot'

dalan ['da . l a n ] ' r o a d , way*

apaman [ q a . ' p a .man] •as s o o n a s '

ganat [ 'ga .nat] 'hurry*

gangat ['ga. • n a t ] 'kindle'

kapas [«ka,•pas] 'cotton'

nabara [ n a . 'ha.raq] 'red-hot•

agbasa [qag. . 'ba.saq] •to read'

katawa [ka. 1
ta.waq] 'laughter'

kawayan [ka. 1
wa.yan] •bamboo'

3;'213 The Back V o c o i d s : [u;- U,' o ]

3.2131 [u]

The I l o k a n o [ u ] i s a c l o s e , back, t e n s e , rounded

vocoid. In i t s articulation the l i p s a r e almost puckered;

 61

the jaws a r e p a r t e d a b o u t t h e same d e g r e e a s f o r [ i ] ; a n d

the tongue i s r a i s e d as c l o s e as p o s s i b l e t o t h e p a l a t e

without producing f r i c t i o n . The q u a l i t y I s t h a t o f c [ u ] .

The I l o k a n o [ u ] o c c u r s i n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s i n a l l

positions.

[u] i n i n i t i a l syllable:

bulo c •bu.loq] •a v a r i e t y o f bamboo 1

dulang c 'du.lozj] •a l o w t a b l e 1

guyod [•gu.yod] «pull«

kudil [' k u . d l l ] •skin'

lugan c •lu.gan] 'ride; vehicle 1

muging c 'mu.glrj] 'forehead *

nupay c •nu.pal] •although'

pukaw [•pu.kaU] 'loss'

rupa [• r u . p a q ] 'face'

sukat [• s u . k a t ] 'measurement•

turog c •tu.rog] 'sleep'

umok [•qu.mok] 'nest'

yuyem [•yu.yem] 'overcast (weather)'

[u] i n m e d i a l syllable:

abungot [qa.'bu.not] a head wear'

baduya [ba.'du.yaq] banana o r r i c e fritters'

dagudug [dU.'gu.dUg] northeast wind'

agkurang [qag. 'ku.ratj] insufficient«

kulukol [kU.'lu.kol] auger'

 62

maldumuaum [ma.ql .dU.'mu.dUm] 'to f a l l prone'

pantmot [pa.•nu.not] 'thought'
anguyob [<la. *nai.yob] 'blowpipe'
malapunos [ m a . l a . ' p u . n o s ] ' t o be f l o o d e d '
murumor [mU.'ru.mor] 'seedling'
asukar [qa.'su.kar] 'sugar'
patupat [pa.'tu.pat] ' r i c e pudding wrapped

i n p l a i t e d palm l e a v e s '
inaudl [ql.na.'qu.dlq] 'younger s i b l i n g '
ayuyang [qa.'yti.yan] 'resort'

[u] i n f i n a l syllable:
abut [qa.'but] 'hole'
adu [qa. duq]
f
•many*
gugut [gU.'gut] •gum ( o f t h e t e e t h ) •
parlkut [pa.rl.*kut] •problem, difficulty*
salup [sa.'lup] •a measure o f c a p a c i t y

equal t o three l i t e r s •
mamutmut [ma.mUt. 'mut] •comprehend t h o r o u g h l y 1

danum [da.'num] •water'

bang us [ba.'nus] 'milkfish'
putput [put.'put] 'sound o f horns (cars)'
ngarud [na.»rud] 'therefore'
isu [ql.'suq] 'he, s h e , i t 1

sag-ut [sag.'qUt] 'cotton yarn'

yubyub [yUb.«yub] 'sound o f c o n f l a g r a t i o n *
 63

3.2132 [u]

F o r Ilokano [u], the tongue i s r e l a x e d from the c l o s e

p o s i t i o n of [ u ] and i s advanced from t r u e back. There i s no

f i r m c o n t a c t made between the tongue and the upper m o l a r s .

The l i p s a r e l o o s e l y rounded. The r e l a t i o n s h i p of [u] with

[ u ] i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t between [ i ] and [ i ] . [u] has the

q u a l i t y o f a r e l a x e d , lowered and c e n t r a l i z e d c [ u ] . I t may

be c l a s s i f i e d as a c l o s e , back, semi-tense, rounded v o c o i d .

The I l o k a n o [u] occurs i n u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s i n a l l

positions.

[u] in initial syllable:

buok [bU. •qok] 'hair'

dukot [dU. 'kot] 'anxiety*

gubal Lsu. »bal] •coarseness *

husto [hUs .•toq] 'right, correct'

kulot [kU. • l o t ] 'curly (hair)'

[ l U p .«poq] 'thigh'

mulumog [mU. •lu.mog] •gargle*

nutnot [nUt .••not] 'thumbsucking *

ngurungor Cgu. •ru.nor] 'cutthroat *

pungdol [pun,. ' t o t ] *stump of a t r e e *

rurod [ r U . •rod] 'anger, resentment*

sulisog [sU. •li.sog]

: •temptation'

tuwato [tu. •wa.toq] 'dragonfly'

yubuyob [yu. •bu.yob] 'sound of the bellows*

 64

[ll] i n medial s y l l a b l e :

tlmbukel [tlm.bU.»kel] 'round'

sldunget [sI.dU.»net] 'serious looks'

gunguna [gUrj.gU.'naq] 'reward, gain'

llkudan [ll.kU.'dan] 'to turn one's back to'

lulunan [lU.lU.'nan] 'the soft part of a child's

cranium'
tamudo [ta.mU.'doq] 'index f i n g e r '
klnuna [kl.nU.«naq] 'said' j
bungunen [bU.nU.'nen] 'to wrap up'
allpuffpog, [qa.11.pUg.'pog] 'whirlwind'

sumaruno [sU.ma.rU.*noq] 'follow'

blsukol [bl.sU.'kol] 'a kind of mollusk'

batulang •[ba.tU. *la^] 'a large cage f o r enclos-

Ing chicken'
bayungubong [ba.yU.'nu.borj] 'diarrhea*

[u] i n f i n a l s y l l a b l e :
libut C'li.bUt] •procession'
agpidut [qag.'pi.dUt] 'to pick up'
umigup [qU.'ml.gUp] •ibo s i p '
irakus [ql.'ra.kUs] 'to t i e to a tree or post*
alus ['qa.aus] 'second hand (garment)'
imut [ 'ql.mUt] 'avaricious, stingy'
inut ['ql.nUt] «a l i t t l e at a time'
pingud ['pi.nUd] 'one-eared'
 65

ipus [•qi.pUs] «tail»

agparut [qag.'pa.rUt] 'to uproot'

sumusup [sU.'mu.sUp] 'to suck; t o i p u f f a t a c i g a r

gutung [ 'gu.tUrj] 'hidden r o c k s , stones•

laud ['la.qUd] 'west'

aguvus [qa.'gu.yUs] •to d o f f one's shirt'

3.2133 [o]

The Ilokano [ o ] i s a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h the back of the

tongue r a i s e d between the h a l f - o p e n and h a l f - c l o s e positions;

w i t h no c o n t a c t being made between the tongue and the upper

molars. I t has medium l i p rounding. I t s q u a l i t y i s that o f

a r a i s e d C[0]. T h i s speech sound may be d e s c r i b e d as a h a l f -

open, back, semi-lax* rounded v o c o i d .

In Ilokano, the v o c o i d [ o ] (1) v a r i e s f r e e l y w i t h [ u ]

except i n l o a n word forms; (2) normally occurs i n s t r e s s e d

f i n a l s y l l a b l e s ; and* (3) occurs a l s o i n u n s t r e s s e d final

syllables.

[o] i n stressed i n i t i a l syllable:

©bo l a [•bo.lccq] 'ball'

©dose ['do.seq] 'twelve'

©goma ['go.maq] 'rubber 1

©kola C'ko.laq] •paste, g l u e '

©lola ['lo.laq] 'grandmother'

©Moro ['mo.roq] 'Moor, Mohammedan'

 66

no [*noq] ' i f ; i n case that*

©oras ['qo.ras] 1
time; hour'
©poso ['po.soq] •artesian w e l l '
©rosas ['ro.sas] •pink'
©solo ['so.loq] •alone 1

@tono ['to.noq] 'tune 1

@votos [ vo.tos]
! 1
votes 1

@yoyo [ 'yoyyoci] 'yoyo*

[o] i n stressed medial s y l l a b l e :

©mabolo [ma.'bo.loq] 'a species of f r u i t t

©adobo [qa.*do.boq] 'pickled pork*
©Alfonso [qal.'fon.soq] 'a boy's name*
©pagoda [pa.'go.daq] 'a Chinese e d i f i c e '
©makopa [ma.'ko.paq] •a kind of f r u i t '
©Dolores [do.'lo.res] 'a g i r l ' s name'
©kamote [ka.'mo.teq] 'sweet potato'
©anonas. [qa.'no.nas] 'custard apple'
©laoya [la.*qo.yaq] 'stew'
©kapote [ka.'po.teq] 'raincoat'
©parokia [pa.'ro.kyaq] 'parish'
©Tesoro [te.'so.roq] 'a family name'
©pastores [pas.'to.res] 'shepherd'
©chayote [tya.'yo.teq] 'a kind of vegetable'
 67-

[o] i n stressed f i n a l syllable

sabot [ s a . •bot] •coconut shell'

kubbb [kUb .'boq] •humpbacked'

angdod [qarj .«dod] 'stench, o f f e n s i v e odor'

sumakdo [sU.mak.'doq] •to draw w a t e r '

gulgol [gUl . gol]

!
'shampoo'

sago [ s a . •goq] 'arrowroot'

taho [ t a . »hoq] 'ginger a l e '

sukog [ s U . »kog] 'mold, shape'

littuko [ l i t ,tU.'koq] •rattan f r u i t *

3kolor [ko. •lor] 'color'

tallo [tal . loq]

f
'three'
isakmol [ q l . s 3ak.'moi] 'to p u t i n t h e mouth'
ammo [qam .'moq] 'knowledge'
manok [ma. 'nok] •chicken 1

kasano [ka.£sa.'noq] 'how'

ngongoy [no. •nol] •whimpering'
dungngo [ d u g .«noq] •love, a f f e c t i o n '
sab-ong [ s a b .«'qog] •dowry'
rag-o [ r a g . • *qoq] •delight*

tumapog [tU.ma.'pog] •to jump i n t o t h e w a t e r '

dapo [ d a . 'Poq] •ashes•
pur ok [pU. •rok] 1 •group; h a m l e t 1

diro [ d l . roq] •honey*

 68

bugsot [bUg.'sot] 'agony 1

suso [sU.'soq] 'a k i n d o f f r e s h water snail'

llbtong [llb.'toij] 'pond'

bato [ba.'toq] 'stone'

paryok [par.'yok] 'a l a r g e f r y i n g pan'

bagyo [bag.'gyoq] 'storm'

[o] i n unstressed f i n a l syllable:

tabo ['ta.boq] 'dipper'

bado ['ba.doq] 'dress'

Rufo ['ru.foq] 'a boy's name'

pugo ['pu.goq] 'quail'

iho ['qi.hoq] 'son'

lukbt ['lu.kot] 'roll'

bilog ['bi.log] *a s m a l l b o a t '

damo ['da.moq] ' f i r s t time*

banor ['ba.nor] ' d r i e d meat'

alingo [qa.'li.noq] 'wild boar'

®tipo ['ti.poq] 'type'

©sero ['se.roq] 'zero'

kusot ['ku.sot] 'sawdust'

batog ['ba.tog] 'row*

©relievo [relfl.'yi.e.voq3 'relieve'

kayo ['ka.yoq] 'tree'

 69

3122 Vocoid Chains

A, vocoid chain was defined e a r l i e r as a s y l l a b i c

consisting of a continually changing blend of one pure

vocoid which i s the s y l l a b i c center, plus a semivocoid

38

which i s the nonsyllabic o f f g l i d e .

In describing this type of Ilokano speech sound,

two sub-types are to be distinguished:

(1) Fronting vocoid chains, those s y l l a b l e s which

have as t h e i r center one of a large choice of vocoids

followed by a close-front off glide.' Thus/ the movement

from s y l l a b i c to o f f g l i d e i s either forward or upward and

forward, as i n [ a l ] i n way [wal] • r a t t a n j and,

1

(2) Retracting vocoid chains, those with close-

back off glides,- i . e./ the movement from s y l l a b i c to o f f -

g l i d e i s either backward or upward and backward, e/ g.,

the [au] i n waw [wall] •thirst.*;

38
To account f o r s p e c i f i c d e t a i l s at the phonetic
l e v e l of analysis i n this study, the nonsyllabic o f f g l i d e
Is to be represented by the vocoid characters, [ i , I, u, u ] .
The semivowels, /w/ and /y// w i l l be used to represent the
o f f g l i d e s at the phonemic l e v e l /
Some l i n g u i s t i c analysts indicate the nonsyllabic
element by the d i a c r i t i c , [ „ ] / beneath the vocoid character,
e/' g./ pay [paly s t l l l * . But since no two i n d i v i d u a l vo-
t

coids can occur i n sequence without an i n t e r v o c a l i c contoid

including the g l o t t a l stop/ [q], no misinterpretation arises
J

i f the nonsyllabic o f f g l i d e i s l e f t unmarked, and the vocoid

chain i s then read o f f as a digraph or single phonetic e n t i t y /
and not as a d i s s y l l a b i c form/ [•pa.qlq].
 70

3.221 The F r o n t i n g V o c o i d Chains

3.2211 [ i i ]

The [ i i ] c h a i n o f I l o k a n o "begins w i t h t h e tongue and

jaw i n t h e p o s i t i o n s f o r [ i ] and g l i d e s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f

[l]* t h e r e b e i n g a v e r y s l i g h t c l o s i n g movement o f t h e

l o w e r jaw. T h i s speech sound o c c u r s v e r y r a r e l y and o n l y

i n i t i a l l y as t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e o f a r e d u p l i c a t i o n , t h u s :

iy-iyegko [«qll.ql.'yeg.koq] 'I'm b r i n g i n g i t '

I t w i l l be n o t e d t h a t t h e resonance g l i d e i s i n d u c e d

by t h e s e m i c o n t o i d [ y ] o f t h e r o o t morpheme, [ y e g ] ' b r i n g . '

 71

3.2212 [ei]

The I l o k a n o [ e i ] r e s u l t s from a r a p i d movement

upward f r o m t h e h a l f - o p e n tongue humping f o r [ e ] toward

the f r o n t v o c o i d [ i ] , a l t h o u g h t h e tongue p r o b a b l y n e v e r

r e a c h e s a p o i n t q u i t e as h i g h as i t does f o r [ i ] .

T h i s v o c o i d c h a i n has a l o w f r e q u e n c y o f occurence.

Immigrants from I l o c o s N o r t e s u b s t i t u t e [ e i ] f o r [ a l ] , thus:

dayta deyta ['dei.taq] 'that*

daytoy deytoy ['dei.tol] 'this*

mays a meysa [Ulmel.saq] 'one*

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e above p h o n e t i c c o n t e x t s , [ e i ]

o c c u r s o n l y I n t h e f o l l o w i n g word forms:

Leyte ['lei.teq] 'name o f a p r o v i n c e '

©Reynaldo ['rei.nal.doq] 'a boy's name'

©reyna ['rei.naq] 'queen'

tapey [ta.'pei] ' r i c e wine'

©Bassey [bccs.'sei] 'name o f a town'

©Ghristo Eey [ k r i s . t o . ' r e i ] ' C h r i s t t h e K i n g '

3.2213 [al]

The resonance s h i f t o f [ a l ] proceeds from t h e

Ilokano open-front [ a ] t o the vocoid q u a l i t y of [ i ] . The

g l i d e i s much more e x t e n s i v e t h a n t h a t o f [ e i ] . The l i p s

change from a n e u t r a l t o a l o o s e l y spread position.

This v o c o i d c h a i n g e n e r a l l y occurs i n s t r e s s e d f i n a l

syllables.
 72

[al] i n stressed f i n a l syllable:

nam-ay [nam.'qal] 'ease, c o m f o r t '

labay [la.'bal] 'a m i x t u r e o f b r o t h and

cooked r i c e '

biday [bl.'dal] *a v a r i e t y o f m i n t plant'

lakay * [la.'kal] ' o l d man'

balay [ba.'lal] 'house'

umay [qU.'mal] 'come'

Isinay [ql.sl.'nal] 'a n a t i v e language' i

langay [la. nal]

!
'romp and f r o l i c '

Paypay [pal.'pal] 'fan'

turay [tU.'ral] 'rule* authority'

klssay [kls.'sal] 'decrease'

patay [pa.'tal] 'death'

naruay [nar.'rwal] 'abundant'

3.2214 [ a l ]

Por I l o k a n o [al]» t h e tongue g l i d e b e g i n s a t a

c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n j u s t below h a l f - o p e n l e v e l and moves I n

the d i r e c t i o n o f [ i ] / Por the i n i t i a l resonance, the l i p s

a r e shaped s i m i l a r t o t h a t d e s c r i b e d f o r [ a ] , b u t have a

tendency t o s p r e a d f o r t h e second.

The d i s t r i b u t i o n a l relationship of [ a l ] with [ a l ] i s

s i m i l a r t o t h a t between [ a ] and [ a ] , i . e., [ a l ] o c c u r s

i n stressed s y l l a b l e s , and [ a l ] . e l s e w h e r e .
 73

[ a l ] i n i n i t i a l position:

ay-ayam [ q a l . 'qa.yam] ' p l a y , game'

bay-am [b I.'qam]
a •leave i t a l o n e '

dayta [d I.'taq]
t t
'that*

gayyem [gal. yem]

!
'friend'

kaybaan [kal.ba.*qan] • f a i r y o f t h e mound'

lay«asan [lal.'qa.son] 'to reduce h o r s e f e e d '
mays a [mal.'saq] 'one'
ngay [gai] 'an i n t e r r o g a t i v e adverb*
naynay [nal.'nal] 'frequently'
pay-us [ p a l . qus]
!
'a v a r i e t y o f r i c e '
ray-aben [ral.'qa.ben] •to t e a r garment by p u l l i n g '
say-open [sal.*qu.pen] •to smell'
tay-ak [tal.'qak] 'meadow *

way [wal] 'rattan'

[ a l ] i n medial s y l l a b l e :

nakaay-ay-ay [ n a . k a . q a l . q a l •*qal] 'woeful'

balaybay [ba.lal. bal] f

' l a u n d r y on t h e c l o t h e s l i n e *

agpayso [ q a g . p a l . 'soq] 'true *

narayray [na.ral.'ral] 'bright, burning'

[al] In flnalysyllable:

abay ['qa.bal] 'beside•

klday ['ki.dal] 'eyebrows'

pagay [»pa.gal] 'rice (unthreshed)'

Mabuhay [m .'bu.Eal]
a 'Long l i v e J '
 74

yakay C'ya.kal] •to d r i v e i n t o a h e r d 1

Pilay [•pi.lal] •lame•

ramay ['ra.malj 'finger'

anay ['qa.nal] 'termite 1

['bi.gal] •share'

apay ['qa.pal] 'why*

aray ['qa.ral] 'row, line'

wasay ['wa.sal] •axe'

patay C'pa.tal] •stand, support'

away ['qa.wal] •outskirts'

3i2215 [ai]
The g l i d e of [ d l ] "begins from the c[a] p o s i t i o n and

moves i n the d i r e c t i o n of the p o s i t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

Ilokano [i].

The f r o n t i n g v o c o i d c h a i n , [ & l ] , occurs only i n the

morpheme tapey ['ta.pal] ' r i c e wine.' I t i s pronounced [ e i ]

by some Ilokano speakers, hence, C'ta.pei],

3.2216 [ol]
The Ilokano [ o l ] f e a t u r e s a resonance glide from

the h a l f - o p e n back [ o ] t o the f r o n t - v o c o i d p o s i t i o n f o r [ i ] .

The l i p s a r e open rounded f o r the f i r s t resonancej changing

t o n e u t r a l f o r the second. J u s t as i t s pure v o c o i d counter-

p a r t , [ o ] , i s pronounced as [ t i ] , so i s [ o l ] r e a l i z e d as [ i l l ] ,

by a few c o n s e r v a t i v e n a t i v e speakers.
 75

[ol] has a more restricted phonetic context than

the pure-vocoid [o], i . e.y l t does not normally occur
i n i t i a l l y and medially. In reduplications, the u-o
sequential pattern operates, e. g . , aguy-oy Cqq.gUI.'qoll
•to dangle. 1
For some speakers, however, the i n i t i a l
element of the f i r s t chain is phonetically realized as
[o], hence, [qa.gol.'qol]. This variation is quite accept-
able .

[ol] i n stressed f i n a l syllable:

naraboy [na.ra.'bol] • f r a i l (body)'
aglusdoy [qag.lUs.'dol] 'to droop'
tangkoy [tag.'kol] 'a gourd-like vegetable•
agsalloy [qag.sal. lol]f
'to exhaust energy*
apjonnoy [qa.gon.'nol] •to moan*
langoy [la.'gol] •swim*
pul-oy [pUl.'qol] 'breeze'
agsuysoy [qag.sUT. 'sol] 'to ravel or fray'
kastoy [kas.'tol] •like this'
)l] i n unstressed f i n a l syllable:
baboy [ 'ba.bol] •pig'
dalayudoy [da.la.'yu.dol] •pulp'
guyugoy [gU.'yu.gol] 'enticement'
sarakoy [sa.'ra.kol] 'to buy i n gross without
choosing'
tuloy ['tu.lol] 'continuation'
 76

uyaoy [qU.'ya.qol] 'to d a n g l e '

agsalayusoy [ q a g . s a . l a . ' y u . s o l ] ' s a i d o f wind o r

w a t e r p a s s i n g t h r o u g h permeable m a t e r i a l s '

3.2217 [Ul]

The I l o k a n o v o c o i d chain,[ui], g l i d e s from a tongue

p o s i t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t used f o r [u]t towards t h e f r o n t

p o s i t i o n f o r [i] exactly opposite i t . The l i p s remain

s l i g h t l y rounded d u r i n g t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f b o t h elements

of t h e c h a i n . The Cl] i n t h i s c h a i n i s , t h e r e f o r e , some-

what abnormal,' i . e., i t i s produced w i t h t h e tongue and

l i p s both f r o n t e d .

[ui] p a r t i c i p a t e s as t h e f i r s t c h a i n i n a r e d u p l i -

c a t i o n , thus:

buyboy [bUI.«bol] 'a k i n d o f g r a s s '

nakuykoy [na.kUI.'kol] 'scraped together'

naluyloy [na.lUI.'lol] •oily'

panuynuyan [pa.nUI.'nu.yan] 'to condescend'to*

aguy-oy [qa.gUI.'qol] 'to dangle'

puypoy [pUI.'pol] •caudal f i n o f a f i s h '

agruyroy [ q a g . r U I . * r o l ] • t o wear o u t •

agsuysoy C q a g . s U I . ' s o l ] 'to r a v e l o r f r a y '

tuytoy [tUI .,'tol] 'a k i n d o f c r u e t f o r h o l d

Ing winde, o i l , e t c . J
 77

3.2218 [ul]
The abnormal t o n g u e - l i p c o r r e l a t i o n i n t h e o f f g l i d e

resonance f o r t h e I l o k a n o c h a i n , [ u i ] , i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t

described f o r [ u i ] . Of c o u r s e , i n [ u i ] , t h e r e i s r e l a t i v e

t e n s e n e s s ; t h e tongue i s c l o s e r t o t h e p a l a t e ; and t h e l i p s

a r e rounded d u r i n g t h e o n g l i d e and t h e o f f g l i d e r e s o n a n c e s .

A stronger s t r e s s i s concentrated on t h e o n g l i d e .

An i n s i g n i f i c a n t number o f n a t i v e speakers r e p l a c e

[ o l ] o r [ U l ] by [ u i ] , a l t h o u g h t h i s i s l i m i t e d t o such word

forms a s :

nakapuv [na.Jl'ka.pui] 'weak'

lruy ['qi.rui] 'a v a r i e t y o f r i c e '

kasuy [kcc.'sui] 1
cashew

3.222 The l e t r a c t i n g V o c o i d Chains

 78

3.2221 [iu]

She I l o k a n o [ i u ] i s s y m m e t r i c a l l y opposed t o [ u i ] .

The s t r e s s and l e n g t h a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the g l i d e i s concen-

t r a t e d on the i n i t i a t i n g element, [ i ] . The tongue and l i p

p o s i t i o n s f o r t h e o n g l i d e a r e , t h e r e f o r e , those f o r [ i ] , b u t

the l i p s move t o t h e p o s i t i o n f o r [ u ] , w i t h i n - r o u n d i n g

r a t h e r than puckered.

[ i u ] normally occurs i n f i n a l s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s ,

u s u a l l y as t h e second pomponent o f a r e d u p l i c a t i o n , t h u s :

klwklw [klU.'kiu] ' t a i l of a f i s h '

llwllw [llU.'liu] 'fishing tackle'

nglwngiw [nlU.'niu] 'upper l i p '
riwriw [rlU.'riu] 'thousands'
slwsiw [slU.'siu] 'sauce'

Other c o n t e x t s which a r e n o t r e d u p l i c a t i o n s a r e

the f o l l o w i n g :

tlliw [tl.'liu] 'to c a t c h '

klsslw [kls.'siu] 'epilepsy'

tlwatiw [tl.wct.'tiu] 'pendulum'

3.2222 [lU]

A s h i f t t o a lower v o c o i d - c h a i n q u a l i t y from t h e

s y m m e t r i c a l l y opposed [ u i ] and [ i u ] produces t h e c o r r e s p o n d -

ing o p p o s i t e s [ u i ] and [ i u ] .

Por t h e o n g l i d e o f t h e I l o k a n o v o c o i d c h a i n , [iu],

the tongue and l i p p o s i t i o n s a r e those f o r [ i ] . The tongue

 79

p o s i t i o n h e l d constant,' the l i p s move t o the p o s i t i o n f o r

[u]/ The s t r e s s of a r t i c u l a t i o n f a l l s on [ i ] which i s

s l i g h t l y lengthened, 1

[ i u ] occurs i n u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s / u s u a l l y but

not always the f i r s t component of a r e d u p l i c a t i o n .

[ I U ] i n i n i t i a l s y l l a b l e (see a l s o Sec. 3.2221):

glwgjwangan [ g l U . g l . *wa.nctn] •making a gap*

lw-lwa [qlU,•qi.waq] 'slices 1

kiwklwaren [klU.kl.*wa,ren] ' s t i r r i n g to mix 1

liwliwa [lIU/11.'waq] 'consolation'

nlwnlwen [nlU,*ni,wen] 'to squander 1

ngiwnglwat [ n l U . ' n i . w a t ] 'mouths•

plwplwlren [pIU.pl.'wi.ren] 'distortingothe lips*

siwsiwan [slU/'si.wan] 'sauce*

[IU] i n f i n a l syllable:

palliw [pai'li/qlU] 'observation'

lllw [•qi.liu] •homesickness *

danlw [•da.niu] ' l y r i c poem*

maatiw [mai qa.tiu]

!,
'to be d e f e a t e d *

3.2223 [aU]

A r t i c u l a t i o n of t h i s r e t r a c t i n g vocoid chain

proceeds from the r e l a t i v e l y more s t a b l e resonance of [ a ]

and g l i d e s o f f toward the c l o s e d p o s i t i o n f o r [ u ] . Just

as i n the case o f a l l the o t h e r v o c o i d c h a i n s , the f i r s t

element has c o n s i d e r a b l e l a t i t u d e of a r t i c u l a t i o n /
 80

[aU"3 occurs only i n stressed s y l l a b l e s , thus:

pan-aw [pan.*qaU] •cogon grass'

narabaw [na.ra.*bau] •shallow'

aldaw [qal.'daU] 'day'

kalgaw [kal. gaU]

f
'dry season'
pukkaw [pUk.»kaU] 'shout'

ullaw [qUl.'lalj] 'kite'

agslkmaw [qag.slk.'malj] •to take a bait (fish)'

nanawnaw [na.naU.'nau] 'dissolved'

ngangaw [jja.'nau] •palate'

kalapaw [ka.la.'pau] 'hovel'

puraw [pU.»raU] 'white'

p i saw [pi.«saU] •splash'

aglataw [qag.la.*tau] 'to f l o a t '

agsawaww [qag.sa.*wau] •to vent 1

uyaw [qU.'yaU] •criticism, s c o f f

3.'2224 [au]

The resonance s h i f t of Ilokano [aU] begins at a

c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n and moves i n the position f o r [u]. Por the

i n i t i a t i n g resonance the l i p s and tongue are neutral, but

the l i p s are s l i g h t l y rounded f o r the o f f g l i d e [ifj.

This l a x vocoid chain occurs i n unstressed s y l l a b l e s .

[aU] i n i n i t i a l s y l l a b l e :

aw-awagan [qaU.qa.'wa.gan] ' i s c a l l i n g '

baw-ing [baU.'qiij] 'swerve'

daw-as [daU.'qas] 'a b r i e f stopover*

 81

gawgaw [gaU. •gaU] •starch'

kawkaw [kaU. •kau] 'dip f i n g e r i n w a t e r '
lawlaw [ l a U . 'laU] 'surroundings'
nawnawen [ n u . 'na.wen]
a 'to d i s s o l v e '
paw-it [paU. • q i t ] •parcel'
raw-akan [ r U . 'qa.kanj
a •to p u l v e r i z e '
sawsawan [ s u . 'sa.wan]
a "sauce'
tawwatawwa CtaU.wa.'taU.waq] 'castor o i l plant

aU] i n f i n a l s y l l a b l e ?
1

igaaw [ql.'ga.qaU] ' f a i r weather'

kabaw [«ka.b u] a 'forgetful'
pudaw [•pu.daU] ' l i g h t complexion'
naagaw [na.'qa.gaU] 'snatched'
pukaw C'pu.kaU] 'loss'
ulaw C'qu.laU] 'dizziness *
kumaw [*ku.m u] a 'deadly dragon'
panaw ['pa.naU] 'departure*
bangaw E'ba.naU] •large housefly'
sapaw ['sa.paU] 'shade, s h e l t e r '
araraw [qa.'ra.raUj •lamentation'
basisaw [ba. 'sl.saU] 'bladder•
bulalayaw [ b U . l a . ' l a . y a U ] 'rainbow'
 82

3.23 Contolds
C o n t o i d s , as d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , a r e a r t i c u l a t e d

w i t h v a r y i n g degrees o f o b s t r u c t i o n o f t h e b r e a t h s t r e a m -

r a n g i n g from a complete s t o p t o a s l i g h t n a r r o w i n g which

produces a u d i b l e f r i c t i o n - a t one o r more p o i n t s i n t h e

speech t r a c t as i t passes outward from t h e l u n g s . In this

s e c t i o n * t h e I l o k a n o c o n t o i d s a r e a n a l y z e d i n ;some d e t a i l

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p l a c e a t w h i c h t h e o b s t r u c t i o n i s made and

how i t i s made. This Includes v o i c i n g or lack of i t .

The sequence o f p r e s e n t a t i o n i s as f o l l o w s :

Stops

Plosives p b t d k g q

Continuants

Nasals m n rj

Lateral 1

Flap r

Fricatives f v s h n

Semivocoids w y

3.231 Plosives

A complete p l o s i v e a r t i c u l a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e

s t a g e s : t h e onset o r i m p l o s i o n s t a g e , d u r i n g w h i c h t h e

speech organs i n v o l v e d move c l o s e t o g e t h e r t o o b s t r u c t

the outgoing lung a i r ; t h e h o l d o r compression s t a g e ,

d u r i n g which t h e a i r i s compressed behind t h e c l o s u r e ;

and* t h e r e l e a s e o r e x p l o s i o n , d u r i n g w h i c h t h e organs
 83

forming t h e o b s t r u c t i o n p a r t r a p i d l y a l l o w i n g t h e compressed
39
air t o escape a b r u p t l y .

I t w i l l be n o t e d t h a t I l o k a n o p l o s i v e s a r e never

a s p i r a t e d u n l i k e those o f E n g l i s h w h i c h a r e g e n e r a l l y a s p i r a t _

ed i n i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n at least i n strongly stressed s y l l a b l e s .

Furthermore, a l l the p l o s i v e s a r e a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h the s o f t

p a l a t e r a i s e d and t h e n a s a l r e s o n a t o r shut o f f . ' Other g e n e r a l

features of the Ilokano p l o s i v e s are the f o l l o w i n g :

(a) There i s no a u d i b l e r e l e a s e p r e c e d i n g other

p l o s i v e s , e. g., padto [ p a d . ' t o q ] 'prophesy'; u b b i n g [ q U b . ' b i g ]

'children.'

ybO) When f o l l o w e d by a homorganic n a s a l c o n t o i d ,

a p l o s i v e r e l e a s e i s n a s a l , e. g.y pudno [pUd.*noq] ' t r u e ' ;

i r i k e p mo [ q l . r l . ' k e p . m o q ] 'close i t . '

(c) I n t h e sequence o f a homorganic d e n t a l [ t ] o r [ d ]

p l u s [ l ] , t h e r e l e a s e o f a i r i s l a t e r a l , i . e., one o r b o t h

s i d e s o f t h e tongue a r e l o w e r e d t o a l l o w t h e a i r t o escape.

Such l a t e r a l r e l e a s e o c c u r s , f o r i n s t a n c e , i n m a i k a t l o

[mal .kat .'tloq] ' t h i r d ' £ and ^ a d l e s [ p a d . ' d i e s ] ' p r e d i c t i o n . '

(d) B i l a b i a l , d e n t a l and v e l a r p l o s i v e s a r e o f t e n

p a l a t a l i z e d when f o l l o w e d by t h e s e m i - c o n t o i d , [ y ] , e. g.,

pyek [ p y e k ] ' c h i c k ' , t y a n [t'yan] 'tummy*; kyosko [k'yos.'koq]

'kiosk'; blag [byag] ' l i f e ' * daydlay [ d a l . ' d y a l ] 'that';

bagyo [ b q g . ' g y o q l 'storm.'

39
A. C. Gimson, op_. c l t . ,
1
p. 1^5.
 84

(e) P o s t v o c a l i c I l o k a n o p l o s i v e s t e n d t o be gem-

m i n a t e d when f o l l o w e d by t h e a l v e o l a r sounds, [ r , l ] , i n

a s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e , as shown I n t h e f o l l o w i n g examples:

[pl] suplad [sUp. • l a d ] •wooden s h o v e l '

[bl] sublat [sUb.' • b l a t ] • exchange•

[pr] apro [q.ap.'•proq] •bile'

[br] sobra [ s o b . •braq] 'extra'

[tl] itlog [ q i t . •tlog] 'egg'

[dl] padles [pad. •dies] •prediction'

[tr] katre [ k a t . •treq] 'bed'

M Pedro [ ped.•droq] 'Peter'

Ckl] saklot [sak. •klot] 'laps'

[gl] slglot [ s l g . •glot] 'knot'

[kr] takrot [tcxk. • k r o t ] 'coward'

[gr] sagrapen [ s a g . •gra.pen] 'negative recompense'

3.^2311 B i l a b i a l P l o s i v e s [py b ]

Complete o b s t r u c t i o n o f t h e e g r e s s i v e a i r s t r e a m i s

made by t h e c l o s u r e o f t h e l i p s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e

r a i s i n g o f t h e velum s h u t t i n g o f f t h e n a s a l resonator.

W h i l e t h e a i r i s t h u s b e i n g compressed b e h i n d t h e b i l a b i a l

c l o s u r e V t h e v o c a l bands a r e h e l d wide a p a r t f o r [ p ] , b u t

a r e made t o v i b r a t e d u r i n g t h e compression s t a g e f o r [ b ]

giving i t i t s voiced quality.' L a b i a l i z a t i o n i s a s p e c i a l

f e a t u r e i n t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f [ p ] and [ b ] , i . e., t h e l i p

p o s i t i o n i s c o n d i t i o n e d by t h a t o f t h e a d j a c e n t v o c o i d : thus,
 85

t h e r e i s a n t i c i p a t o r y l i p s p r e a d i n g f o r [ p ] and r o u n d i n g

f o r [ b ] i n pabo ['pa.boq] ' t u r k e y . '

[ p ] and [ b ] i n i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n :

pilid [•pi.lid] •wheel'

pekkel [pek.'kel] 'knead'
pala ['pa.laq] 'shovel'
[«po,loq] 'polo s h i r t '
pulo ['pu.loq] 'ten'

bilid ['bi.lld] 'border o r r i m '

bekkel [bek.'kel] •strangle'
bala C'ba.laq] •bullet'
bola [•bo.laq] 'ball'
bulo ['bu.loq] 'a v a r i e t y o f bamboo'

)] and [ b ] i n m e d i a l p o s i t i o n
sipnget [sip.-'net] 'darkness»
reppet [rep.'pet] 'bundle'
tapno [tap.'noq] •so t h a t '
kopa ['ko.paq] 'tumbler, goblet'
tupra [tUp.'praq] •sputum'

agibtur [qa.glb.'tur] 'to endure*

rebbeng [reb.'beg] 'responsibility *
rabnisen [rab.'ni.sen] 'to snatch'
lobo [ 'lo.boq] •balloon*
tubngar [tub.»nar] •contradiction 1
 [p] and [ b ] i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n :

sirlp [•si.rlp] 'peep, peek'

ulep ['qu.lep] 'cloud'

naatap [na.'qa.tap] 'untamed*

narukop [na.rU.*kop] 'easily torn'

takup [t .'kop]
a
'patchwork*

sirib ['si.rib] •wisdom*

agdaleb [qag.da.'leb] •to f a l l prone*

isarab [ql.'sa.rab] •to sear 1

ungngob [qUg.'gob] 'noseless'

kalub [ka.'lub] •lid'

3/2312 D e n t a l P l o s i v e s [ t , d]
1

F o r t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f [ t ] and [ d ] , t h e main

o b s t r u c t i o n t o t h e b r e a t h s t r e a m i s formed by a^complete

c l o s u r e made between t h e t i p and r i m o f t h e tongue and

t h e f r o n t and s i d e t e e t h . D u r i n g t h e h o l d o r compression

s t a g e , t h e v o c a l bands a r e open f o r [ t ] , b u t a r e made t o

v i b r a t e producing the v o i c i n g f o r [ d ] .

J u s t l i k e t h e case f o r [ p ] and [ b ] , t h e l i p p o s i -

t i o n i s c o n d i t i o n e d by t h a t o f t h e a d j a c e n t sounds, e. g.,

s p r e a d l i p s f o r [ t ] i n l t l [ q l . ' t i q ] 'the'; a n t i c i p a t o r y

l i p r o u n d i n g f o r [ t ] i n t o [ t o q ] ' l a t e r ' ; and t w a l y a

[*twal.*lyaq] 'towel.'
 8?

A sudden s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e l i n g u a - d e n t a l c l o s u r e

a l l o w s t h e a i r stream t o escape w i t h f o r c e , u n l e s s i t has

been b l o c k e d by a second c l o s u r e and channeled elsewhere

i n a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e c o n t o i d f o l l o w i n g i t - i . e., b e h i n d

the a l v e o l a r r i d g e as f o r [ k ] i n kudkod [kUd.'kod] • s c r a t c h * ;

forward o f t h e a l v e o l a r r i d g e as f o r [ p ] I n kepkep [ k e p . ' k e p ]

•hug*; o r d i v e r t e d t h r o u g h t h e nose by t h e l o w e r i n g o f t h e

s o f t p a l a t e as f o r [IJ] i n ngetnget [ ^ e t . ' r j e t ] 'gnaw*.

The d e n t a l p l o s i v e s occur i n a l l p o s i t i o n s .

[ t ] and [ d ] i n i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n :

timek [*ti.mek] 'voice'

tengnga [teg.*naq] •middle»

tallo [tctl.loq] •three•

tolda [tol.»daq] •canvass s h e d 1

tuldek [tUI.«dek] •period 1

dila C'di.laq] ' tongue'

deppa [dep.'paq] 'fathom'

dalan [•da.Ion] 'path, way'

Domingo [ d o . •mirj.goq] •Sunday'

dulang ['du.lag] 'low t a b l e '

 88

[ t ] and [ d ] i n m e d i a l p o s i t i o n :

bitla [bit.'laq] 'speech'

ketdi [ket.'diq] 1
rather'

patneng [ p a t . 'nerj] ' n a t i v e , d e n i z e n by b i r t h '

votos ['vo.tos] 'votes'

puto ['pu.toq] ' r i c e pudding'

biddut [bid.'dut] •mistake'

beddal [bed.«dal] 'rude person*
pad t o [pad.'toq] 'prophesy'
boda ['bo.daq] •wedding 1

pudno [pUd.*noq] 'true'

[ t ] and [ d ] i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n :

ikit ['qi.klt] 'aunt'

baket [b .'ket]
a • o l d woman'
igat ['qi.gat] 'eel'
karot [ka.'rot] 'a w i l d e d i b l e
libut ['li.bUt] •procession'

ifiid [•qi.gld] 'edge, b o r d e r '

baked [b .'ked]
a 'brawn'
igad ['qi.gad] 'grater'
rukod [rU.«kod] 'measurement 1

ngarud [ r j a . 'rud] 'therefore'

 19

3.2313 Velar Plosives [ k , g]

A complete o b s t r u c t i o n t o t h e b r e a t h stream i s

formed by a c l o s u r e made between t h e back of t h e tongue and

the s o f t p a l a t e o r velum. The l u n g a i r i s compressed b e h i n d

the v e l a r c l o s u r e , d u r i n g w h i c h t h e v o c a l bands a r e wide

open f o r [ k ] , but a r e s e t i n v i b r a t i o n p r o d u c i n g t h e

voicing for [g]. L a b i a l i z a t i o n f o r [ k ] and [ g ] i s c o n d i t i o n e d

by t h a t of a d j a c e n t sounds, i . e l , t h e r e i s a n t i c i p a t o r y l i p

r o u n d i n g f o r t h e p l o s i v e s b e f o r e back v o c o i d s and t h e s e m i -

c o n t o i d [ w ] , e. g., kukwa ['ku.kwaq] 'one's b e l o n g i n g s ' ;

and a n t i c i p a t o r y l i p s p r e a d i n g f o r t h e p l o s i v e s b e f o r e f r o n t

vocoids, e. g., g i g i r [ ' g l . g l r l 'apprehension.'

Advancement o r r e t r a c t i o n of t h e l i n g u a - v e l a r closure

i s i n d u c e d by t h e a d j a c e n t v o c o i d s . Thus, b e f o r e o r a f t e r

f r o n t vocoids* t h e [ k , g ] c l o s u r e s a r e n e a r p a l a t a l , whereas

i n t h e c o n t e x t o f back v o c o i d s , e s p e c i a l l y [ u ] , the contact

i s correspondingly retracted. The compressed l u n g a i r i s

r e l e a s e d w i t h f o r c e upon t h e sudden s e p a r a t i o n of t h e l i n g u a -

v e l a r c l o s u r e , otherwise the r e l e a s e Is n a s a l , p a l a t a l or

lateral.

Ilokano v e l a r p l o s i v e s occur i n a l l p o s i t i o n s :

[ k ] and [ g ] i n i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n :

klta [«ki.t q] a 'look'

kebba [keb.'baq] 'convulsive r e s p i r a t i o n '

karit ['ka.rlt] 'impudence'

koreo [ko.re.'yoq] 'mail'

kura ['ku.raq] 'clergy'

 Rita C'gi.tccq.j 'venom 1

gebba [igeb.'baq] 'to burn c l a y *

garlt ['ga.rlt] 'stripe'

Gorlo ['gor.ryoq] 'a boy's nickname'

gura [ 'gu.rccq.] 'hatred'

[k] and [g] In medial position:

lklt ['qi.klt] 'aunt'

sekka [sek.*kaq] 'clay'

sako ['sa.koq] 'sack'

tokwa n*to.kwaq3 'bean cake'

ruklt [rU.'kit3 ' t i l l the s o i l '

igld [ qi.gld]
,
'edge'

segga [seg.'gaq3 'anxiety'

sago [scc»'goq3 'arrowroot*

toga [ to.gaq3
f
'gown, t o g a '

ruglt [rU.'git3 'dirt'

[k3 and [g3 i n f i n a l position:

irik [ql.'rik3 'unhusked r i c e '

pusek [pU.'sek3 'compactness'

slak [syak3 'I'

batok [«ba.tok3 'dive'

Taruc ['ta.rUk3 'a f a m i l y name'

 9*

arig ['qa.rlg] ' l i k e , as i f

pus eg ['pu.seg] 'navel'

siag ['syag] 'swerve'

batog ['ba.tog] •row o r f i l e '

Tayug [t .*yug]
a
•name o f a town'

3.2314 Glottal Plosive

In the a r t i c u l a t i o n of the p l o s i v e * [ q ] , the breath

s t r e a m i s c o m p l e t e l y o b s t r u c t e d by t h e c l o s u r e o f t h e v o c a l

bands.' The h o l d o r c o m p r e s s i o n s t a g e o f i t s a r t i c u l a t i o n

c o n s i s t s o f s i l e n c e , w h i c h i s p e r c e i v e d a u d i t o r i l y by t h e

sudden s t o p o f t h e p r e c e d i n g sound o r by t h e sudden onset

of t h e f o l l o w i n g sound.

[ q ] f u n c t i o n s as a s y l l a b l e onset when t h e i n i t i a l

o r t h o g r a p h i c symbol o f t h e s y l l a b l e r e p r e s e n t s a v o c o i d ,

e. g., aldaw C q q l . 'daU] 'day'; rang-ay [ r a n . . ' q a l l 'progress';

and as a s y l l a b l e coda when t h e f i n a l o r t h o g r a p h i c symbol

r e p r e s e n t s a v o c o i d , e. g., bado ['ba.doq] ' d r e s s * .

Thus, i n c o n v e n t i o n a l o r t h o g r a p h y , [ q ] i s not repre-

sented, although ' . l i n g u i s t i c a l l y , i t f u n c t i o n s as e i t h e r of the

c o n t o i d s i n t h e CVC s y l l a b l e p a t t e r n , e. g., adda [qad.daq]

'there i s ' (see a l s o S e c . 2.3).

A s i g n i f i c a n t number o f I l o k a n o speakers s u b s t i t u t e

[ q ] f o r [ p , t , k ] i n s y l l a b l e final» u t t e r a n c e m e d i a l position.

Examples:

slpnget [slp.'r^et] > [slq.'net] 'darkness*

lutlot [lUt.'lot] > [lUq.'lot] «mire«

bukbok [bUk.'bok] > [bUq.'bok] 'wood b o r e r '

 92

A few immigrants from I l o c o s N o r t e s u b s t i t u t e [ q ]

f o r [ p , t , kO i n u t t e r a n c e f i n a l p o s i t i o n . P o r example:

taep [tou'qep] > [ta.'qeq] 'chaff

met [met] "> [meq] 'also'

badok ['ba.dok] > ['ba.doq] 'my dress'

LJ i n I n i t i a l position;
Hot ['qi.lot] 'massage *
ellek [qel."lek] 'mute w i t h crying*
awan [qa.'wan] 'nothing'
oras ['qo.ras] 'time, h o u r '
urat [qU.'rat] 'nerve*

[ q ] i n medial p o s i t i o n :

pait [pa.'qit] 'bitterness'

raem [ra.'qem] 'respect'
saan [ s a . 'qan] •no'
buot ['bu.qot] •mold, mildew'
sag-ut [sag.'qut] 'yarn'

[q] i n f i n a l position:

bagl [ba.'giq] 'body'

bote ['bo.teq] 'bottle'

sika [sl.'kaq] 'you*

slko ['si.koq] 'elbow*

adu [qa.*duq] 'many'

 3.232 Nasals [mv n* n ]

I l o k a n o n a s a l c o n t o i d s a r e a r t i c u l a t e d i n a manner

s i m i l a r t o t h e p l o s i v e s , except f o r two f e a t u r e s : (1) f o r

t h e n a s a l s , t h e velum i s l o w e r e d a l l o w i n g t h e l u n g a i r t o

escape t h r o u g h t h e nose; and (2)) t h e n a s a l s a r e always v o i c e d ,

so t h e r e i s no v o i c e - b r e a t h o p p o s i t i o n .

U n l i k e those o f E n g l i s h * I l o k a n o n a s a l c o n t o i d s a r e

always n o n s y l l a b i c .

3.2321 B i l a b i a l Nasal [m]

The speech sound [m] r e s u l t s from a complete b i l a b i a l

c l o s u r e as f o r [ p , b ] and a l o w e r i n g o f t h e velum w h i c h g i v e s

the outgoing breath stream a predominantly n a s a l resonance.

[m] i n i n i t i a l position:

misa ['mi.saq] •mass ( c h u r c h ) '

met [met] 'also 1

mata [ma.'taq] •eye 1

mo [moq] 'your'

mula ['mu.laq] •plant

[m] i n m e d i a l position:

rimas [ ' r i .mas] •breadfruit'

kemmeg [kern.*meg] 'pounce *

raman [ra.'man] 'taste'

lomo ['lo.moq] 'loin'
lumut ['lu.mUt] •moss'
 Cm] i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n :

siim [si.«qim] 'spy 1

i s em ['qi.sem] •smile•
uram ['qu.rom] • o o n f l a g r a t i on

naluom [na.lU. qom] f

•ripe•

danum [da.'num] •water'

3.2322 Dental Nasal [n]

The I l o k a n o [ n ] i s r e a l i z e d w i t h a l i n g u a - d e n t a l

o b s t r u c t i o n as f o r [ t , d ] and a l o w e r e d velum. The l i p

p o s i t i o n i s c o n d i t i o n e d by t h a t o f t h e a d j a c e n t vocoids,

e. g., t h e l i p s a r e s l i g h t l y rounded i n no ] n o q ] 'if;

n e u t r a l i n na [ n a q ] ' h i s , h e r , i t s ' ; and s p r e a d i n n i

[ n i q ] 'prenominal a r t i c l e (used w i t h p r o p e r names).' I n

Ilokano, t h i s contoid i s normally given a dental rather

t h a n an a l v e o l a r a r t i c u l a t i o n .

[ n ] f r e q u e n t l y a s s i m i l a t e s to the f o l l o w i n g b i l a -

b i a l or v e l a r contoid, thus:

penpen [pen.'pen] > [pem.'pen] 'stacks'

banban [bani'ban] > [bam'ban] 'bamboo

strips'

saanman [sa.qan.'man] > [sa.qam.'man] •why n o t '

kenka [ken.'kaq] > [ken.'kaq] 'to y o u '

gingined [ g l n . g l . ' n e d ] ~? [ g l i j . g l . ' n e d ] ' e a r t h -

quake '
 96

[n] in initial position:

nipa [ 'ni.pccq] 'a s p e c i e s of swamp palm

nepnep [nep.'nep] 'rainy days'
nak em ['na.kem] 'idea'

Norma ['nor.maq] 'a g i r l ' s name'

nupay ['nu.pal] 'although'

[n] i n medial position:

anlniwan [qa.nl.'nl.wan] 'shadow'

bennek [ben.'nek] 'a s p e c i e s of e d i b l e c l a m '

annad [qan.'nad] 'caution'

cono ['ko.noq] •rice m i l l '

buntog [bUn.'tog] •sluggish'

[n] i n final position:

kupin [kU.'pln] •fold'

baen [ba.'qen] 'sneeze'

uban ['qu.ban] •white h a i r '

duron [dU.'ron] 'push'

arun [qa.'run] 'kindling material*

3.2323 Velar Nasal

Por t h e n a s a l c o n t o i d , L^Jt a complete o r a l c l o s u r e

i s formed between t h e back o f the tongue and t h e s o f t p a l a t e

resembling that f o r the p l o s i v e s [ k , g ] . W i t h the tongue

and velum i n t h i s p o s i t i o n , t h e v o i c e d b r e a t h s t r e a m i s
 96

emitted through t h e n a s a l c a v i t y . L i p position i s deter-

mined by t h a t o f t h e p r e c e d i n g o r f o l l o w i n g v o c o i d , i . e.,

s p r e a d and withdrawn l i p s , as i n nglwat [ ' n i . w a t ] 'mouth ; 1

s l i g h t l y s p r e a d , as i n t e n g n g e l [ t e g . ' g e l ] ' h o l d ' ; rounded

i n ungngo [qUg.*noq] ' k i s s . '

I n I l o k a n o , t h e n a s a l c o n t o i d , Cg]» o c c u r s p r e - and

post-vocalic i n a l l positions.

[np i nI n i t i a l position:

ngipen ['gl.pen] 'tooth'

ngem [ 'gem] 'but'

ngata [ga.'taq] * perhaps *

ngoak [ 'no.qok] 'cry of t h e water buffalo'
ngudel [gU.'del] 'dullness (knife)'

[r-j] i n m e d i a l p o s i t i o n :

singin ['si.gin] 'twin'

dengngep [deg.'''nep] 'hot compress•

dangaw ['da.gaU] •stinkbug'

agngungot [qag.gUt.'rjot] 'to gnaw'

dungngo [dUrj.-'goq] 'affection'

[IJ] i n f i n a l position:

gusing [gU.'sig] 'harelip'

slleng [si.'leg] 'glitter'

nanang [ 'na.nag] 'mother'

alsong [qal.*sog] •mortar'

gutung [ 'gu.tUn.] 'hidden r o c k s *

 3.233 L a t e r a l [l]

The Ilokano [ l ] , :
an a l v e o l a r l a t e r a l , i s a r t i c u l a t e d

w i t h a complete v e l o - p h a r y n g e a l c l o s u r e s h u t t i n g o f f the

n a s a l r e s o n a t o r * and w i t h a p a r t i a l c l o s u r e between the

3

tongue margins o r r i m and the upper t e e t h . W i t h the tongue

i n t h i s p o s i t i o n , the v o i c e d b r e a t h stream i s r e l e a s e d , es-

c a p i n g l a t e r a l l y on b o t h s s i d e s of the l i n g u a - a l v e o l a r con-

t a c t ."

[ l ] i s s l i g h t l y d e v o l c e d a f t e r the v o i c e l e s s bilabial,

a l v e o l a r , and v e l a r p l o s i v e s , f o r example:

plaka C'pla.kaq.] 'turntable 1

itlog [qlt.'tlog] 'egg'

aklo [qok.'kloq] 'laddie'

o

The a c t u a l l p o i n t of c o n t a c t of the tongue f o r [ l ]

i s a n t i c i p a t e d by the p o i n t of a r t i c u l a t i o n of the f o l -
33
lowing contoid. Thus, [ l ] i s d e n t a l i z e d i n paltat

[ p a l . ' t a t ] ' c a t f i s h * ; p a l a t a l i z e d i n kalye [ k q l . ' l y e q l

•street'; v e l a r i z e d In talged [ta*.*ged] 'reliance.*

[ l ] i n i n i t i a l position:

lima [ll.'maq] 'five*

letteg [let.'teg] 'boil, furuncle'

lasag [la.'sag] 'flesh'

33
These v a r i a n t a r t i c u l a t i o n s w i l l not be marked
elsewhere throughout the t h e s i s i n the p h o n e t i c n o t a t i o n s .
 98

lola ['lo.laq] 'grandmother'

lunes [lU.«nes] •tarnish*

[ l ] i n medial p o s i t i o n :

killo .[kll.'loq] •crooked'

belnas [ b e l l * *nas] 'rinse'

kalding [kal.'dlg] 'goat'

soldado [sol.'da.doq] •soldier 1

bulsek [bul.«sek] 'blind'

L] i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n :

kudil ['ku.dll] •skin'

bukel [bU.'kel] •seed'

adal ['qa.dal] 'learning

isakmol [ql.'sak.mol] 'to mouth

asul [qa.'sul] 'blue'

3/234 A l v e o l a r F l a p [r]

The n a s a l r e s o n a t o r i s c o m p l e t e l y shut o f f by

the v e l o - p h a r y n g e a l c l o s u r e . The tongue t i p i s r a i s e d up

toward, b u t n o t t o u c h i n g , t h e a l v e o l a r r i d g e . The back

margins o f t h e tongue t o u c h t h e upper molars - t h i s makes

a h o l l o w a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e tongue i n t o w h i c h t h e b r e a t h

stream i s c h a n n e l l e d and t h e n e m i t t e d through t h e a l v e o -

l l n g u a l contact. The I l o k a n o [ r ] i s u s u a l l y produced w i t h

a s i n g l e f l a p , i . e., t h e tongue t i p taps o n l y once a g a i n s t

the a l v e o l a r r i d g e , as i n p e r a [ ' p e . r q q l 'cent.' I n the

case o f g e m i n a t i o n , however, t h e [ r ] i s produced w i t h a

 99

l i n g u a l r o l l ; 1. e., a r a p i d s u c c e s s i o n of f o u r o r more

taps by the t i p of the tongue on the a l v e o l a r r i d g e . The

rolling of the [ r ] i s p e r c e p t i b l e i n p e r r e s [per.'res]

'lemon j u i c e 1
but not i n p e r a above. Other examples a r e :
kirriit [klr.'ri.qlt] 'dried fruit'

gerret [ger.'ret] 'slice'

karra [kar.'raq] ' s p i n n i n g awry of tops

torre [ 'tor.req] 'tower*

gurrood [gUr.'ro.qod] 'thunder'

Lip p o s i t i o n f o r [ r ] depends upon t h a t of the a d j a -

c e n t v o c o i d * t h u s , the l i p s a r e s p r e a d f o r the f i r s t [ r ]

and t h e n rounded f o r the second i n r i r o [ ' r i . r o q ] 'confusion.'

[r] i n i n i t i a l position:

rigat ['ri.gat] 'difficulty'

regta [reg.'taq] 'righteousness

rakit ['ra.klt] 'raft'

rosal [ro.'sal] 'gardenia'

rusat ['ru.sat] 'start'

[ r ] i n medial p o s i t i o n :

slrlb ['si.rlb] 'wisdom'

verde ['ver.deq] •green'

korona [ko.'ro.naq]
1
crown'

kurang [ 'ku.rajj] 'insufficient'

 100

[r] i n f i n a l position:

bangir ['ba.glr] •the o t h e r s i d e '

taer [ta.*qer] 'elegance'

agungar [qa.'gu.gar] 'to r e v i v e *

kasaor [ka.'sa.qor] 'east w i n d '

kurikur [kU.'ri.kUr] ' earpick'

3;&35 F r i c a t i v e s [ f ? v* s* h, h]

F r i c a t i v e contoid articulations involve a p a r t i a l

o b s t r u c t i o n made by two speech organs brought s u f f i c i e n t l y

c l o s e t o g e t h e r f o r the o u t g o i n g b r e a t h stream t o produce

audible f r i c t i o n . The f r i c t i o n may be v o i c e d o r b r e a t h e d .

The velum i s r a i s e d and the n a s a l r e s o n a t o r shut o f f .

3.2351 L a b i o - D e n t a l F r i c a t i v e s
;
[ f , v]

A p a r t i a l o b s t r u c t i o n t o the a i r stream i s formed

between the i n n e r s u r f a c e of the l o w e r l i p and the edge of

the upper t e e t h , ;
The f r i c t i o n i s v o i c e l e s s or breathed f o r

[ f ] and i s v o i c e d f o r [ v ] . The a c t u a l p o i n t of l a b i o -

d e n t a l c o n t a c t v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o the p o i n t of a r t i c u l a -

t i o n of the a d j a c e n t v o c o i d s . Thus, t h e c o n t a c t on the

l o w e r l i p tends t o be more f r o n t e d i n veses ['ve.'ses]

' t i m e s ' t h a n i n voses ['vo.ses] ' v o i c e . '

[ f ] and [ v ] o c c u r o n l y i n l o a n words, i n i n i t i a l

and m e d i a l p o s i t i o n s , never s y l l a b l e f i n a l o r word f i n a l .

 101

[f] and [v] i n i n i t i a l position

fino [»fi.noq] 'fine»

f eria [*fer.ryaq] 'holiday fair'

falda ['fal.daq] »skirt»

forma ['for.maqj •form, shape'

fundo [»fun.doq] •firnd'

vislta [vl.*sl.taqj 'visitor'

verde [*ver.deq] 'green'

vapor [va.»por] •boat, s h i p '

votante [vo.*tan.teq] •voter'

f] and [ v ]In m e d i a l p o s i t i o n :

Teoflla ['tyo.fl.laq] 'a g i r l ' s name'

Kafe [ka.'feq] •coffee'

Josefa [ho.'se.faaq] 'a g i r l ' s name'

Rufo ['ru.foq] •a boy's name'

servisio [ser.*vi.syoq] 'service'

S everino [ s e . v e . ' r i . n o q ] 'a boy's name*

lavandera [ l a . v a n . • d e . r a q ] •laundry woman*

Navotas [na.'vo.tas] 'name o f a town*

3.2352 Dental F r i c a t i v e [ s ]

F o r the Ilokano [ s j , the upper and t h e lower t e e t h

a r e i n near o c c l u s i o n . The s i d e margins o f the tongue touch

the upper s i d e t e e t h . T h i s forms a narrow groove i n the

c e n t e r o f t h e tongue i n t o which the b r e a t h stream i s chan-

 102

n e l e d and f o r c e d through the d e n t a l p o i n t of near o c c l u s i o n ,

producing a h i s s i n g f r i c a t i v e sound. L i p position for [ s ]

depends upon t h a t of the a d j a c e n t v o c o i d , e. g., the l i p s

a r e rounded f o r the f i r s t [ s ] and then spread f o r the second

i n susIk [ ' s u . s l k ] 'dispute. 1

[ s ] i s the o n l y Ilokano frica.

t i v e c o n t o i d without a v o i c e d counterpart.

[s] i n i n i t i a l position:

slit [sl.'qit] 'thorn'

sellag [sei.'lag] 'moonlight *

sao [scc.'qoq] 'word, u t t e r a n c e *

Soledad [so.le.'dad] »a g i r l * s name*

Suka [sU.'kaq] •vinegar*

[ s ] i n medial position:

rissik [rls.»sik] •spark'

kessen [ k e s . 'sen] 'shrinkage*

kasla [kas.*aq] • l i k e , same as *

kosina [ko.'sl.nctq] »kitchen«

kuspag [kUs.'pag] •arrogance'

5] I n f i n a l position:

arbis [qar.'fels] •shower 1

anges [ 'qa.rjes] •breath 1

agas [ 'qa.gas] •medicine'

bulos ['bu.los] •astray 1

dalus [da. »lus]

;
•cleanliness'
 103

3.2353 Glottal Fricatives [hi- h]

I l o k a n o has bothhthe v o i c e l e s s [ h ] and t h e v o i c e d [ f i ]

g l o t t a l f r i c a t i v e contoids. 1
[ h ] occurs o n l y i n s y l l a b l e

i n i t i a l , prevocalic position. I t i s produced by t h e pas-

sage o f a s t r o n g v o i c e l e s s b r e a t h stream t h r o u g h t h e open

g l o t t i s - t h e opening between t h e v o c a l bands.' A c t u a l l y ,

t h e f r i c t i o n i s produced i n t h e o r a l c a v i t y r a t h e r t h a n

a t t h e g l o t t i s , - and i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f

the f o l l o w i n g v o c o i d . T h i s s i t u a t i o n makes f o r t h e d i f f e r -

ent p a t t e r n s o f resonance f o r [ h ] i n [ h i ] , [ h e ] , [ h a ] , [ h o ] ,

and [hu].*

Since a l l vocoids are voiced, the v o i c e l e s s [ h ]

becomes v o i c e d [ n ] i n i n t e r v o c a l i c p o s i t i o n because i t

partakes of the voiced q u a l i t y of the adjacent vocoids.

The p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f [ f i ] , t h e r e f o r e , seems t o be accompanied

by v o c a l band v i b r a t i o n ; 1

[h] i n I n i t i a l position:

hlstorla [his•»tor.ryaq] 'history'

hefe [•he.feq] 'chief

harana [ha.'ra.naq] 'serenade*

Jorge ['hor.heq] 'a boy's name'
husto [hUs.'toqc] 'right'
 104

[n] i n medial position:

ahlt [»qa.nlt] •shave*

kahel [kai'nel] green oranges

kaha [•ka.h'aqj »box*

Bohol [bo.«nol] *name o f a p r o v i n c e *

3.236 Semivocoids [w, y ]

Prom an a r t i c u l a t o r y s t a n d p o i n t t h e s e m i v o c o i d s / [w]

and [ y ] / d i f f e r from t h e c o n s t r i c t i v e c o n t o i d s i n t h e degree

of o r a l s t r i c t u r e present.' I n t h i s s e c t i o n / however, they

are treated as c o n t o i d s mainly because they f u n c t i o n and

d i s t r i b u t e as such - i / e./ as s y l l a b l e margins r a t h e r than

syllable nuclei/ [w] and [ y ] i n i t i a t e s y l l a b l e s and p a r t i -

cipate as t h e second o r t h i r d member o f a p r e v o c a l i c contoid

cluster/

3 ^236l
k
L a b i o - v e l a r Semivocoid [w]

In the a r t i c u l a t i o n o f [w], t h e velum i s r a i s e d , t h e

v o c a l bands v i b r a t e , and t h e tongue assumes t h e p o s i t i o n

f o r [ u ] and g l i d e s rapidly t o the p o s i t i o n o f the f o l l o w i n g

vocoid/ Lip position f o r [w] depends upon t h a t o f t h e a d j a -

cent v o c o i d / e.' g.y t h e l i p s a r e s l i g h t l y rounded i n t h e

f i r s t [w] and then spread i n t h e second/ i n wawek [wa. *wek]

* i n s e r t a dagger i n a wound. * 1
[w] i s d e v o i c e d a f t e r [ t j and

[ k ] ^ as i n twalya [ t w a l . * l y a q ] *towel*; kwlntas [*kwin.tas]

*necklace*/
 105

[w] I n i n i t i a l and m e d i a l p o s i t i o n s :

wlnglwlng [wl.'ni.wln] 'shake head i n d i s s e n t '

welwel [wel.*wel] 'slothful'

watlwat [wa.'ti.wat] 'long d i s t a n c e '

3.2362 P a l a t a l Semivocoid [y]

F o r t h e v o i c e d p a l a t a l s e m l v o c o i d [ y ] , t h e tongue

assumes t h e p o s i t i o n f o r [ i ] and g l i d e s i m m e d i a t e l y t o t h e

p o s i t i o n of the f o l l o w i n g v o c o i d . [ y ] i s d e v o i c e d when i t

follows the voiceless plosives, [ p , t , k ] , i n a contoid

cluster. B e f o r e [ y ] * [ t , d, k, g, n, n, l ] a r e p a l a t a l i z e d ,

[ y ] i n i n i j b l a l and m e d i a l p o s i t i o n s :

yegyeg [yeg.*yeg] 'tremble*

yakayak [ya.'ka.ycck] 'sieve*

yubuyub [yU.'bu.yUb] *sound o f t h e b e l l o w s *

3.24 Contoid Clusters

A sequence o f two o r more c o n t o i d s w i t h o u t a n i n t e r -

vening vocoid or s y l l a b l e d i v i s i o n constitutes a contoid

cluster. I n t h e i n d i g e n o u s p h o n o l o g i c a l system o f I l o k a n o ,

t h e r e were no c o n t o i d c l u s t e r s a p a r t from t h e sequence o f

i n i t i a l p l o s i v e s , [ p , t , k, b, d ] p l u s a s e m l v o c o i d [ w ] o r

[ y ] , and t h e g e m i n a t i o n o f p l o s i v e s f o l l o w e d by [ l , r , w, y ] .

[gwj ,chowjever, r e p r e s e n t s a " h o l e " o r case v i d e i n t h e system.

 106;

The f o l l o w i n g examples i l l u s t r a t e t h e p o i n t :

puak [«pwak] 'caudal f i n '

tuad ['twad] •a l o n g f i s h n e t '
kuak ['kwak] 'mine 1

buaya ['bwa.yaq] 'crocodile *

dua [»dwaq] 'two'
gu

piek ['pyek] 'chick'

tian [ •t'yan] 'tummy'
kiad ['kyad] •walk w i t h abdomen p r o t r u d i n g '
blag C'byag] 'life'
diay C'dyal] 'that'
giak ['gyak] 'a k i n d o f h o r n e t '

aplat [qap.'plat] 'aphid'

apro [qap.'proq] 'bile'
tapuak [tap.'pwak] 'dive'
lupias [lUp.»pyas] 'overflow'
bitla [bit.«tlaq] •speech, d i s c o u r s e *
pastreken [pas.tre.»ken] •to l e t i n '
bituen [bit.«twen] 'star'
patiem [pat.'tyern] 'believe i t '
aklo [qak.'kloq] 'laddie'
takrot [tak.»krot] 'coward'
sikuan [slk.'kwan] 'a.native s p o o l '
takiapj [tak.'^yag] 'arm'
 10£
ablat [qctb. « b l a t ] •lash'

sabrak [sab.'brak] •discourtesy 1

subual [sUb.'bwal] •shoots, suckers•

gabion [ g a b . ' b y on] 'grub hoe'

padles [pad.'dies] •prediction'

kudrep [kUd.»drep] 'dimness'

kadua [kad.'dwaq] 'companion, partner

gidiat [ g l d . »<fyat] 'difference'

siglot [slg.'glot] •knot'

madigra [ma.'dig.graq] •to be scared'

taguab [tag.*gwab] 'lean-to roof

bagvo [bag.'gyoq] 'storm'

Thus, contoid clustering, other than the types illus-

trated above, does not fit the native phonetic habits of

most old people, and the resistance to it is shown by the

following phenomena in their pronunciation of loan words:

(1) An intrusive vocoid between the clusters:

plato ['pla.toq] > [pa.'la.toq] 'plate'

prinslpe ['prin.sl.peq] > [pi.'rin.sl.peq] 'prince'

trabaho [tra.'ba.hoq] > [ta.ra.'ba.hoq] 'sork'

klase ['kla.seq] > [ka.'la.seq] 'class; kind'

braso ['bra.soq] > [ba.'ra.soqQ *arm'

Andres [qan.«dres]>[flan.de.'res] 'Andrew'

 108

(2) A p r o s t h e t i c v o c o i d i n t r o d u c e d b e f o r e the s - c l u s t e r s

o c c u r i n g i n i t i a l l y i n E n g l i s h l o a n words:

ispellng [qls.'pe.lln] 'spelling'

lsplker [qls.'pi.ker] 'speaker'

istambay [qls.torn.'bal] 'stand by'

eskeleton [qes.'ke.le.ton] 'skeleton'

The p r o s t h e t i c v o c o i d phenomenon may be a t t r i b u t e d

to t h e i n f l u e n c e of S p a n i s h l o a n words i n the I l o k a n o l e x i c o n ,

for example:

estas ion [qes.tcc.syon] 'stateion'

espeslal [qes,pe.'syal] 'special'

eskoba [qes.'ko.baq] 'shoe b r u s h '

(3) The e l i s i o n of e i t h e r element i n a c o n t o i d c l u s t e r ,

as i n the f o l l o w i n g few cases:

report [re.'pot] 'report'

post (office) [*pos] 'post'

oompadre [kom.'pa.req] 'one's c h i l d ' s godfather'

The f i r s t and t h i r d phenomena a r e d e v i a n t phonetic

r e a l i z a t i o n s t h a t can s a f e l y be Ignored s i n c e t h e y do not

f o l l o w t h e s n o r m a l p a t t e r n w h i c h has become f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h -

ed. And s i n c e S p a n i s h and E n g l i s h l o a n words a r e i n common

use by a g r e a t m a j o r i t y of the n a t i v e speakers of I l o k a n o ,

many f o r e i g n sounds and sound p a t t e r n s have become a s s i m i l a t e d

i n t o the n a t i v e p h o n o l o g i c a l system. I n cases where the a s s i -

m i l a t i o n e n t a i l e d g r o s s v i o l a t i o n of the n a t i v e p h o n e t i c h a b i t s ,
 109;

p h o n e t i c compromises were o f t e n made, such a s t h e g e m i n a t i o n

of t h e p l o s i v e s i n i t i a t i n g m e d i a l c l u s t e r s i n S p a n i s h loan

words, e. g.:

kopra ['ko.praqj > [kop.'praq] •copra 1

katre ['ka.treq] > [kat.'treq] •bed'

lakre ['la.kreq] > ['lak.kreq] • s e a l i n g wax'

libro ['li.broq] > [llb.'broq] 'book'

eroplano [qe.ro.'pia.noq]>[qe.rop.'pia.noq] 'airplane'

tabla ['ta.blaq] > [tab.'blaq] 'board, s l a b '

regla [•re.glaq] > [reg.'glaq] 'foot ruler'

Thus, t h e r e a r e t h r e e c o n t o i d c l u s t e r t y p e s p e r m i t t e d

i n t h e sound p a t t e r n o f I l o k a n o . They a r e :
40

P r e v o c a l i c , I n i t i a l C l u s t e r s (IK)

C
1 2 -
C V

Prevocalic, Medial Clusters (MK)

CV.C-^V

or
cvc .c c (c )v
1 1 2 3

P o s t v o c a l i c , P i n a l C l u s t e r s (FK)

- v e
i° 2

40.
Where: I , M, P = I n i t i a l , M e d i a l , F i n a l , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
K = Contoid C l u s t e r .
 110

3.241 Prevocalic,- I n i t i a l Contoid C l u s t e r s

In Ilokano, prevocalic i n i t i a l clusters are l i m i t e d

t o two c o n t o i d s , hence t h e p a t t e r n

• IK * C,C~V-.
.41
w h i c h i s r e p r e s e n t e d by f o u r p h o n e t i c rules:-
P. k, -*

IK > C. b, g» +
n C
2 [1]
f
Urn 4

" P. t , k,"

IK, > C- . ' d, +

2 [r]
D
St C

P. t , k,"
b, d, S»

IK. > C. m, n, + C
2 M
f , v,
_.s, h

P. t , k,

b. d,
m, n,
IK, J + 2 [y]
> C C

1, r ,

f , v,

• s

E x c e p t i o n : The c o n t o i d , [ q ] , a g l o t t a l s t o p , does
not e n t e r i n t o c l u s t e r s of any t y p e .
 Ill

The f o l l o w i n g examples i l l u s t r a t e t h e IK r u l e s :

T& 1 [ p i ] plegls ['ple.gls] 'fold, plait'

plasa ['pla.saq] 'plaza, square'

pluma ['plu.maq] 'plume, w r i t i n g pen*

[kl] klima ['kli.mccq] 'climate*

Clemente [ k l e . ' m e n . t e q ] *a boy's name'

klase ['kla.seq] 'class, kind'

kloro ['klo.roq] 'chlorine'

[bl] blangko ['blan.koq] 'blank'

bloke ['bloikeq] 'block'

blusa ['blu.saq] 'blouse'

[gl] Gllcerla [gll.'ser.ryaq] *a g i r l ' s name'

Glenda [ 'glen.dcxq] 'a g i r l ' s name'

g l a d i o l a [glgd.'dyo.lno1 'gladiola'

gloria ['glor.ryaq] 'glory'

glu [*gluq] 'glue'

[fl] flete ['fle.teq] 'fare'

flan ['flan] 'cus t a r d '

florera [flo.'re.raq] 'flower vase'

IK 2 [pr] primo ['pri.moq] 'cousin'

presio ['pre.syoq] 'price'
praktis [prcck. ' t i s ] 'practice, exercise'
pronto ['pron.toq] 'ready'
tripa ['tri.paq] 'tripe, entrails*
trese ['tre.seq] 'thirteen'
 112

trahe tra.neq] •gown 1

troso tro.soq] • l o g o f wood'

trumpeta [ trUm.'pe.taq] 'trumpet'
[kr] krlsls [ kri.sls] 'crisis'
krema [ kre.maq] 'cream•
kraker [ kra.ker] * cracker'
kroslng [ kro.sln] •crossing'
krus [ krus] •cross'
[br] briliamte b r l 1 . ' l y a n . t e q ] 'diamond'
Brenda bren.daq] 'a g i r l ' s name'
braso bra.soq] •arm'
brocha b r o t ,'t'yaq] 'painter's brush'
bruha bru.naq] 'witch'
[dr] dril dril] •strong c l o t h '
drama( dra.maq] 'drama, p l a y '
drowlng [ dro.wln] •drawing'
[gr] gris [ gris] 'gray'
greko gre.koq] •Greek'
grado gra.doq] •grade *
groto gro.toq] 'grotto•
grupo gru.poq] •group'
[fr] frito fri.toq] 'fried'

f reno fre.noq] 'brake, c o n t r o l '

franko fran.koq] 'frank'
Fronda fron.daq] 'a f a m i l y name'
frutas fru.tas] 'fruit(s)»
 113

puede pwe.deq] •can, may 1

puak c pwak] •caudal f i n , t a i l *

[tw] tualia [' twal.lyaq] •towel'

[kw] kuintas ['k w i n . t a s ] •necklace'

kuetes ['•kwe.tes] 'fireworks'

kuarta [ 'kwar.taq] •money*

[bw] buis [ •bwis] 'tax'

buenas [ 'bwe.nas] •good l u c k '

bua [ 'bwaq] •betel (areca) n u t '

[dw] due t o [ •dwe.toq] 'duet«

dua [ 'dwaq] 'two'

guantes [ •gwan.tes] 'gloves'

guapo [ 'gwa.pbq] •handsome'

[mw] muebles [ 'mweb.bles] 'furniture•

muelye [ •mwel.lyeq] 'metal s p r i n g '

[nw] nueve [ •nwe.veq] 'nine'

nuang [ •nwan] 'water b u f f a l o '

Cfw] fuera [ •fwe.raq] •besides'

fuersa [ •fwer.saq] •force, strength'

[vw] vuelo [ 'vwe.loq] 'swift motion'

vuelta [ »vwe.l.taq] •turn 1

[sw] suitik [»swi.tlk] 'cheat'

sueldo [ 'swel.doq] »salary 1

suako [ 'swa.koq] 'cigar pipe'

[hw] hues [ •Ewes] 'judge•

Hueves [ 'nwe.ves] 'Thursday•

Juan [ 'nwan] •John'

 114

Cpy] Piek [«pyek] 'chick'

pia C'pyaq] 'health'
Pio L pyoq]
f
*a boy's name'
Cty] chismis [ * t y l s . 'mis] 'gossip'
cheke C'Sye.keq] 'cheque'
tian C'tyan] •tummy'
Choleng C•tyo.len] 'a g i r l ' s nickname'

C&] kiet C 'k*yet] •crouch'

kiad C 'Icyad] 'walk w i t h abdomen proferud:
kiosko ['kyos.koq] •kiosk'
Cby] bienes C'bye.nes] 'property'
biang ['byan] 'care, c o n c e r n '
CdV] dies C'dyes] 'dime* t e n '
diaya C'dya.yaq] 'offer'
Dios [*dyos] 'God'
Cmy] m l e n t r a s ['myen.tras] •while'
Mierkoles f'myer.ko.lesl 'Wednesdav'•

CnV] Nieves ['nye.ves] 'a g i r l ' s name'

nipg C'hyog] 'coconut'
ngiaw C'|yau] 'meow'

Ciy] lievo C'lye.voq] 'carry'

liave ['lya.veq] 'key'
Cry] rienda C'ryen.daq] 'reins (horse)'
riat C *ryat] • s l i t on c l o t h e s 1

riuma C Tyu.maq] 'rheumatism'

 115

[fy] f i a m b r e r a [ f y a m . 'bre.rctql •dinner pail*

r-

fiar [ fyar]
f
•trust'

fiesta [ «fyes.t<xq] •feast, holiday'

[vy] Viernes ['vyer.nes] •Friday*

vlahe ['vya.heq] ' t r a v e l , voyage'

violinr [ vyo.lIn]
f
'violin'
viuda ['vyu.dccq] •widow'

[sy] siete ['sye.teg] 's even'

slam [«syam] 'nine'

sludut ['syu.dUt] 'peevishness•

3;242 P r e v o c a l i c , Medial Contoid C l u s t e r s

The m e d i a l c l u s t e r s r e f e r r e d t o a r e those sequences

of two o r t h r e e c o n t o i d s o c c u r i n g i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e

s y l l a b l e boundary, ( . ) . I l o k a n o has no p o s t v o c a l i c m e d i a l

c l u s t e r s - i . e., o c c u r i n g b e f o r e a s y l l a b l e boundary -

except f o r t h e l o a n word, e k s t r a [»qeks.trctq] ' e x t r a . 1

Therefore,

MK > - V C ( ) . 0 ^ 2 ( 0 )V-
X

C ^ 2 j . i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s always a pre-boundary
C, w h i c h may o r may n o t be t h e f i r s t element o f a gemination.
F o r example, compare -VC-jCC-jCgV-

kopra ['kop.praq] 'coconut, copra'

katre [kat.'treq] 'bed'
to -VC.C^gV-
kompra ['kom.praq] 'buy'
sastre [ 'sas.treq] 'tailor'
 116

.C^CgC^ i s a m a r g i n a l sequence p a t t e r n ; i s always

a s e m i v o c o i d , [w] o r C y ] .

The r u l e s f o r t h e I l o k a n o m e d i a l c o n t o i d clusters

(MK) a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e f o r t h e i n i t i a l c o n t o i d clusters,

IK-^ g 3 v There a r e , however, a few e x c e p t i o n s and addi-

t i o n s , thus:

MK IK 1 except C-, [ f ] "but i n c l u d i n g [ t , d ]

1

IK 2

IK except C-, [ v , h ]
3 3

MK IK but including C, £g, h]

Three a d d i t i o n a l r u l e s t o account f o r i n the

•^1^2^3 c l u s t e r p a t t e r n a r e as f o l l o w s :

MK
5

MK 6 > Q
1 [p] + C 2 [l] + C 3 [y]

MK ? > C x [p] + C 2 [r] + C 3 [w]

Por t h e MK r u l e s t h e f o l l o w i n g examples a r e adduced:

MK-^ [ p i ] supplemento [sUp.pie.'men.toq] 'supplement*

kuplat [kUp.'plat] 'peel o f f *

 templaen [tern.'pla.qen] 'to moderate'

[tl] kapitlo [ka.'pit.tloq] ' t h i r d degree c o u s i n '

[kl] buklis [bUkAlis] •greedy'

buklen [bUk.'klen] •to form i n t o a whole'

biklat [bik.klat] 'cobra'
saklot [sok.'klot] •laps'
[bl] subli [sUb.'bliq] 'return'
sable [sab.'bleq] •saber, c u t l a s s *
ablat [qab.'blat] •lash'
nablo [nab.'bloq] 'maimed'

[dl] padles [ p a d ."dies] 'prediction'

Csi] paglen [Pag.'glen] •to p r o h i b i t '

reglamento [reg.glrr.. 'men . t o q ] ' r e g u l a t i o n '

piglat [pig.'glat] 'scar'
siglot [slg.'glot] 'knot'

[pr] sapri [sap.'priq] ' r a i n passing through

interstices'
repres entante [reo.ore.s en. tan.tea1 1

•representative'
tupra [tUp.'praq] •sputum'
apro [qap.'proq] 'bile'
[tr] P a t r i c i o fbrr/t. ' t r i . s v o a l • P a t r i c k '
matrera [mat.'tre.taq] 'shrewd woman'
kontra ['kon.traq] 'inimical, against'
maestro [ma.'qes.troq] 1
male t e a c h e r '
[kr] konkreto [kon.'kre.toql 'concrete'

napokray [na.'-pok.kra.il 'friable, crumbly'

bukros [bUk.«kros] ' c o r p u l e n t , obese'
[or] Abril [qab.'bril] 'April'
sobre [sob.'breq] 'envelope *
sobra [sob.'braq] 'extra'
masabrot [ma.sdb.'brot] 'can compensate f o r *
[dr] padrino [pad.'dri.noq] 'godfather'
madre [mad.'dreq] •nun'

A l e j a n d r o [qa.le.'han.drool 'Alexander'
[gr] ingreso [qln.'gre.soq] 'submit, d e p o s i t '
ingrata [qln.'gra.taq] 'ingrate'
logro ['log.groq] 'profit'
[fr] Alfredo [qal.'fre.doq] 'Alfred'

[pw] tapwak [tap.'pwak] 'dive'

[tw] bituen [bit.'twen] 'star'
batuag [bat.'twag] ' t i l t e d , seesaw'
[!kw]i'; akoen [qak.'kwen] •to admit g r a c i o u s l y '
eskwela [qes.'kwe.laq] 'school'
sanikua [sa.nl.'kwaq] 'property'
[bw] rubuat [rUb.«bwat] •preparation t o leave'
[dw] kadua [kad.'dwaq] 'partner} c ompani on'
[gw] agua ['qa.gwaq] 'perfume'
taguan [tag.'gwan] 'oar'
[mw] ammoen [qam.'mwen] •to know, f i n d out

rumuar [rUm.'mwar] •to e x i t '

[nw] an-anoen [qan.qan. nwen]f

•How?'

banuar [ban.'nwar] 'hero *

[nw] sangoanan [son.'nwa.ncin] ' i n f r o n t o f

dungngoen [dUn.'nwen] 'to l o v e '

[sw] passuit [pas.'swit] 'whistle'

assuang [qas.»swan] 'witch'

•Epy] apien [qap.'pyen] •to c u t o b l i q u e l y '

kopia [»ko.pyaq] 'copy'

limpio ['lim.pyoq] •clean, neat'

[ty] koche [kot.«£yeq] 'car'

achara [ q a t . 'tfya.raq] •pickles'

ancho [ 'qan.tfyoq] 1
width, breadth'

O] pakiaw [pok.'kyaU] 'gross p u r c h a s e '

E u s t a q u i i D [ y U s . »ta.k"yoq] 'a boy's name'

[^] a b - a b l e n [qab.qab.'byen] 'to v i l l i f y '

kamblo [kam.'byoq] 'gearshift'

[ay] daydiay [dal.'d"yal] 'that'

Hudio [hUd.'d'yoq] •Jew'

[gy] pagyanan f Pag.gya. nan] 1

'location*

bagyo [bag.'gyoq] 'storm*

[my] amianan [qam.'mya.nan] 'north'

premio [prem.'myoq] 'prize'

 120

MO baniera [ban.'riye.raq] •bathtub 1

banias [ban.'nyas] 1
iguana 1

panio [pan.*nyoq] •handkerchief'

sangyo [son.'nyoq] 'shrew•
[&] kalye [kal.'lyeq] 'street•
al-alya [qal.qal.•iyaq] 'ghost•
repolyo [re. 'pol.l'yoq] •cabbage 1

parla [par.'ryaq] 'bitter melon'

pariok [par.*fyok] 'large frying pan'
rosario [ro.*sar.ryoq] 'rosary'
[^] infierno [qln. *fyeriinoq] ' h e l l '
conflansa [kon.'fyan.saq]'confidence, trust'

[vy] Noviembre [no.'vyem.breq] 'November'

novlo ['no.vyoq] 'fiance'

[sy] pasear [pas.'syar] 'stroll'

pasion [pas.'syon] ' p a s s i o n ( L e n t e n hymns)'

[hy] r e l i h i o n [re.II.'hvon] 'religion'

MK5 [ P i y ] empleado [qem.'plya.doq] 'employee'

empleo [qem.'piyoq] •employment'

M&6 [ p r y ] n a s a p r i a n [ n a . s a p . ' p r y a n ] ' b e s p r i n k l e d '

[try] Industrla [qln.'dus.tryaq] 'industry'

[bry] nabriat [hcxB. ' b r y a t ] 'torn'

[dry] Adriano [ q a d . ' d r y a . n o q ] "a boy's name'

MK 7 [prw] aproan [qap.'prwan] 'add b i l e t o '

 121

3/243 P o s t v o c a l i c , F i n a l Contoid Clusters (FK)

F i n a l c l u s t e r s a r e v e r y r e s t r i c t e d i n occurence -

1. e., o n l y i n E n g l i s h l o a n words - i n the I l o k a n o phonolo-

g i c a l system. I t w i l l be n o t e d t h a t most of the English

l o a n words i n w h i c h t h e y o c c u r have been I l o k a n i z e d .

The sequential pattern f o r f i n a l contoid clusters

i n Ilokano is

FK > -VC-jCg

w h i c h i s p h o n e t i c a l l y r e a l i z e d i n the f o l l o w i n g r u l e s :

n
FK-j^ } C + C ? [s]
J
r

FK 2 -—> C X

[I] + c 2 [k]

t
FK 3 > C x [r] + C,
d

FK^ > C 1 [s] + C 2 [t]

 122.

The f o l l o w i n g examples i l l u s t r a t e t h e f o u r EK r u l e s :

FK X [ k s ] Felixa- ['fe.llks] 'a boy's name'

komiks ['ko.mlks] 'comics'

Alex ['qa.leks] 'a boy's name'

kyuteks ['kyu.teks] 'nail polish 1

[ns] b i n s (pork and) [ ' b i n s ] 'beans'

C 3
ns
hangs ['bans] 'a type o f h a i r d o '

[rs] nars ['nars] 'nurse'

FK 2 [ n k ] Frank ['frank] 'Frank'

[rk] pork ( b a r r e l ) ['pork] 'pork'

FK^ [ r t ] Bert ['bart] 'a boy's nickname*

ekspert [ '<feks.part] * expert'

erport ['qer.port] 'airport'

report [re.'port] 'report *

[rd] kard ['kard] 'card *

b l a k b o r d [ b l a k . 'bord[J. 'blackboard'

FK^ [ s t ] post ( O f f i c e ) ['post] 'post'

 1231

3 23 THE SUPRASEGMENTS IN DETAIL

The p h o n e t i c a n a l y s i s of I l o k a n o t h a t has so f a r

"been p r e s e n t e d d e a l s l a r g e l y w i t h the sounds of speech as

i n d i v i d u a l l i n e a r segments and s e p a r a b l e u n i t s . Since

speech i s a dynamic continuum r a t h e r t h a n a s t r i n g of s t a t i c

i n d i v i d u a l sounds, i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t the

way i n w h i c h the d i s c r e t e phones a r e grouped t o g e t h e r i n

actual discourse. Thus, i n the f o l l o w i n g s u b s e c t i o n s will

be d e s c r i b e d the u n i f y i n g f e a t u r e s of the speech continuum:

t h e s u p r a s e g m e n t a l f e a t u r e s of s t r e s s , l e n g t h , j u n c t u r e , and

p i t c h and i n t o n a t i o n . These extend over s t r e t c h e s of many

l i n e a r segments, hence some l i n g u i s t s c a l l them p l u r i s e g -

mental f e a t u r e s .

Suprasegmental f e a t u r e s i n I l o k a n o a r e r e s t r i c t e d t o

the phenomena of s t r e s s , l e n g t h , and p i t c h and i n t o n a t i o n -

j u n c t u r e t y i n g i n v e r y c l o s e l y w i t h p i t c h and i n t o n a t i o n .

Along with t h e i r u n i f y i n g i n f l u e n c e , a l l three features w i l l

be c o n s i d e r e d i n terms of t h e degree of prominence each g i v e s

t o a s y l l a b l e i n comparison w i t h o t h e r s y l l a b l e s i n the linear

sequence.

3. 31
!
S t r e s s and Rhythm

S t r e s s r e f e r s t o the r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t b r e a t h e f f o r t and

the l o u d n e s s w i t h which a sound o r s y l l a b l e i s a r t i c u l a t e d .

I t i s a f e a t u r e of a c c e n t or prominence. Ilokano syllables

a r e e i t h e r s t r o n g l y s t r e s s e d (') o r weakly s t r e s s e d (unmarked).

 :i2>

Thus, i n t h e p o l y s y l l a b i c word, f o r example:

agllllnnemangan [ q q g . l l . 'lin.nem.me. 'nan] 'play h i d e and seek'

the t h i r d and l a s t s y l l a b l e s a r e g i v e n prominence by t h e s t r o n g

stress, t h e o t h e r s s u b o r d i n a t e d by weak stress.

Subsequent examples w i l l show t h a t t h e s t r e s s p a t t e r n

of I l o k a n o i s f i x e d , I n t h e sense t h a t t h e s t r o n g s t r e s s always

f a l l s on a p a r t i c u l a r s y l l a b l e o f any g i v e n word.^ Thus, t h e

strong stress f a l l s regularly:

(1) on t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e i n t h e d i s s y l l a b i c forms

tudo ['tu.doq] 'rain'

slpit ['si.pit] 'tongs'

bayad [ • ba. yqd] ' payment' ;

(2) on t h e me&lsgl s y l l a b l e i n t h e p o l y s y l l a b i c forms

kawayan [ka.'wa.yan] 'bamboo'

nalabaslt [na.lcc. ' b a . s l t ] 'red*

bullalayaw fbUI.lq.'la.yqU] 'rainbow';

(3) on t h e l a s t s y l l a b l e i n t h e d i s s y l l a b i c and

polysyllabic forms

adu [qq.'duq] 'many'

aluten [qa.lU.'ten] 'firebrand'

kulalantl [kU.la.lan.«tiq] 'firefly'.

But t h e s t r e s s i s f r e e and dynamic, i n t h e sense t h a t i t i s

not t i e d t o any p a r t i c u l a r s y l l a b l e I n t h e p r o c e s s o f mor-

p h o l o g i c a l expansion using a f f i x e s .

I l o k a n o , as p o i n t e d out e a r l i e r , i s a g g l u t i n a t i v e ,

i. e., i t makes g r a m m a t i c a l use o f many a f f i x e s . Thus, t h e

 12.5

a n a l y s i s of i t s s t r e s s p a t t e r n s s t a r t s w i t h the base o r

r o o t morphemes and proceeds t o the word forms w i t h bound

morphemes, the a f f i x e s : p r e f i x , i n f i x , and s u f f i x . Delv-

ing i n t o morphological d e t a i l s , such as d e f i n i n g the types

of the bound morphemes, i s beyond the scope of t h i s a n a l y s i s .

I t m e r e l y aims t o demonstrate the s t r e s s dynamics of Ilokano

a t t h e morpheme l e v e l , t h u s :
42
Stress Pattern Example
'xx bilang ['bi.lan] •count•

o'xx agbllang [qag.•bi.lan] •to count (v.i.)'

x'xo bilangen [bl.'la.nen] •to count ( v . t . ) *

ox'xo ibilangan [ql.bl.*la.nan] 'to count

f o r someone'
o'xo'xo agblnnllangan [qag.'bln.nl.'la.nan]

•to count f o r each o t h e r '

oo * xo * xo agbibinnllangan [qag.bl.'bin.nl.'la.nan]

'to count f o r one another'

oo'xo'xo maklbinnilangan [ma.kl.'bin.nl.'la.nan]

'to j o i n I n the m u t u a l c o u n t i n g '

oo'xo'xoo makiblnnilanganen [ma.kl.'bin.ni.'la.na.nen]

'to j o i n i n the m u t u a l c o u n t i n g now'

*xx pudot ['pu.dot] 'heat*

o 'xx napudot [na.'pu.dot] 'hot'

42
Where: x:,:= s y l l a b l e of the base morpheme.
o = s y l l a b l e of the bound morpheme o r a f f i x .
t . s t r e s s mark b e f o r e the s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e ,
 OQ'XK napudpudot [na.pUd.'pu.dot] 'hotter'

ooo'xx nakapudpudot [na.ka.pUd.'pu.dot] 'very hot'

ox'xo kapudutan [ka.pU.'du.tan] 'hottest'

oox'xo kapudpudutan [ka.pUd.pU.'du.tan] 'while s t i l l hot'

oo'xo'xo maki p l n n u d u t a n [ma.kl.'pin.nU.'du.tan]

' i d i o m - t o f a n t h e embers'

x'xx palilw [pa.'li.qlU] 'observation'

ox'xx agpalllw [ q a g . p a . ' l i . q l U ] 'to observe (v.i.)'

oox'xx agpalpaliiw [qag.pal.pa.'11.qlU] ' i s observing*

xx'xo palllwen [pa.H.'qi.wen] *to observe (v.t.)'

o'xo'xxo a g p l n n a l l l w e n [qag.'pin.na.'li.ql.wen]

'to observe each o t h e r now'

o'oxx'xo pagpalpalllwan [pag.'pal.pa.II.'qi.wan]

'time a l l o t e d t o o b s e r v a t i o n '

oo'xo'xx agplpinnalliw [qag.pi.'pin.na.'11.qlU]

' t o o b s e r v e one a n o t h e r '

ooo'xoo'xx maklpagpinpinnaliiw [ma.kl.pag.'pin.pin.na.'li.qlU]

'uncalled f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n an observation'

x'x ayat [qa.'yat] 'love'

ox'x naayat [na.qa.'yat] 'loving'

xx«o ayaten [qa.ya.'ten] 'to l o v e '

oo'ox'x nakaay-ayat [na.ka.'qal.qa.*yat] 'lovely'

oox'x panagayat [ p a . n a . g a . * y a t ] 'way of loving'

oxx'o pagayatan [pa.ga.ya.'tan] ' l i k i n g , desire'

oo'ooox'x m a k i l n n a y a n - a y a t [ m a . k l . 'qin.na.32aa.qa. ' y a t ]

' t o be i n l o v e with'
 12?

x'x lemmeng [lem.'men] ' i n h i d i n g *

ox'x ilemmeng [ql.lem.'men] 'to h i d e '

oxx'o llemmengan [ql.lem.me.'nan] 'to h i d e from'

o•xox o 1
aglinnemmengan [qag.'lin.nem.me.'nan]

'to h i d e from each o t h e r '

ox'oox'o aglilinnemmengan [ q c c g . l l . 'lin.nem.me. 'nan]

'to p l a y hide-and-seek'

oo'xoox'oo makilinlinnemmenganen [ma.kl.'lin.lin.nem.me.'na.nen]

' i s now p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the game of h i d e - a n d - s e e k '

The p h o n e t i c s t r e s s p a t t e r n s of I l o k a n o may be summarized

43
as f o l l o w s :

Stress Pattern Example

Word Forms w i t h One S t r o n g S t r e s s

(a) Ultimate

x'x sandi [san.'diq] 'substitute'

xx'x balinsuek [ b a . l l n . ' s w e k ] 'upside down'

xxx'x batlkuleng [ba.tl.kU.'len] 'gizzard'

(b) Penultimate

'xx sagad ['sa.gad] 'broom'

x'xx apigod [qa.'pi.god] 'left-handed'

xx'xx talimudaw [ta.ll.'mu.daU] 'vertigo'

xxx'xx alumplpinig [ q a . l U m . p l . ' p i . n i g ] 'wasp'

i+3
D i s r e g a r d i n g the morpheme t y p e - base o r a f f i x -
t o which t h e s y l l a b l e s b e l o n g . S t r e s s i s the p e r t i n e n t
a s p e c t i n q u e s t i o n . Each "x" r e p r e s e n t s a s y l l a b l e .
 128

(c) Antepenultimate

x'xxx karlssabong; [ka.*ris.sa.bon]

'young f r u i t 1

xxx xxx 1
agparintumengen [qag.pa.rln.'tu.me.nen]

•to kneel kown now 9

44
Word Forms with Two Stresses

(a) Pre-ultimate

xx'xx'x nakaay-ayat

x'xxx'x agllnnemmengan

xx'xxx'x agllnllnnemmengan

xx'xxxx'x makiinnayan-ayat

(b) Pre-penultimate

x * xx * xx agblnnilangan

xx'xx'xx maklblnnllangan

x xxx xx
l ,
pagpalpaliiwan

xxx'xxx'xx makipagplnplnnalliw

xx'xxxx'xx maklllnlinnemmenganen

(c) Pre-antepenultimate

x^x'xxx agplnnalllwen

xx'xx'xxx makiblnbinnllanganen

Rhythm results from the occurrence and recurrence of

strongly stressed and weakly stressed s y l l a b l e s i n utterances

44
For the phonetic transcriptions and glosses, r e f e r
to pages 124 through 126.
 129

longer than the word. In Ilokano,- the syllable stress found

at the word level generally retains i t s isolate-word identity
in connected speech. Por example,
Palliwen no saan a napudot t i aglilinnemmengan.
[pa.ll.'qi.wen no sa.'qan qa na.'pu.dot t i q a g . l l . ' l i n .
nem.me.'nanj 'Observe i t i t is not too hot to play hide-
and-seek.'

3.32 Length
The suprasegmental feature of length/ [:], is associ-
ated with the duration of articulation of sounds or syllables.
This duration or length of sounds is also called their quan-
tity./
In Ilokano, length is a feature of prominence which is
a complex of stress and length i t s e l f - at least in an open
syllable occurring i n i t i a l l y and medially. Thus, the f i r s t
syllable is longer and, therefore, more prominent in plto
[*pi:.toq] 'pipette than i t is in pito [pl.'toq] 'seven.'
1

A syllable in f i n a l position/ however, is always short,

whether or not i t is strongly stressed. It takes as much time
to pronounce [toq] as i t does ['toq] in the examples above.
Other examples illustrate the point further.

Compare: bagl [»ba:.glq] 'share' and bagl [ba.'giq] 'body'}

basa C'ba:.saq] 'read' and basa [ba.*saq] wet'. ,
 1.39

C o n t o i d l e n g t h I s r e a l i z e d as g e m i n a t i o n . The onset

i n t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e f i r s t c o n t o i d o f a geminate i s

f o l l o w e d "by a h o l d o r tenue , and t h e n , w i t h a renewed momen-

tum a c r o s s t h e s y l l a b l e boundary, t h e second c o n t o i d i s

r e a l i z e d as t h e r e l e a s e o r coda, b l e n d i n g as i t were, w i t h

t h e n e x t speech sound. P o r example,

tukkol [tUk:.ol] > [tUk.'kol] 'break, snap'

labba [lab:.aq] ^ [lab.*baq] 'large basket'

serrek [ser:.ek] *y [ s e r . ' r e k ] 'entrance*

S y l l a b l e - f i n a l c o n t o i d s a r e l o n g when f o l l o w e d by

a g l o t t a l stop, [ q ] , thus:

nalap-it [na.'lap:.qlt] •pliable t

ud-od [qUdi.«qod] 'bargain t

nasanHlt [na.'sam:.qlt] •sweet'

bin-ig ['bin:.qlg] 'purely, e x c l u s i v e l y *

sang-aw [son:.»qaU] 'breath'

bal-et [bal:.'qet] 'between i

agkir-in [qag.klr:.'qin] 'to move s l i g h t l y '

pes-akan [pes:.'qa.kan] 'to soak y a r n o r c l o t h *

V o c o i d s a r e g e n e r a l l y l e n g t h e n e d a t t h e end o f ques-

t i o n s or statements. T h i s phenomenon o f v o c o i d lengthening

i s Induced by t h e s u p r a s e g m e n t a l f e a t u r e o f i n t o n a t i o n .

However, i t c a n be a f u n c t i o n of t h e i n d i v i d u a l speaker's

u n i q u e speech h a b i t s o r i d i o l e c t , and may thus be t a k e n as

an idiophone.
 3."33 J u n c t u r e , P i t c h and Intonation

3.331 Juncture

From a p h o n e t i c p o i n t of v i e w speech i s seldom d i v i d e d

i n t o words. I n o v e r l y c a r e f u l speech, Mapan ka i d i a y . "Go

(you) t h e r e . 1
i s u t t e r e d i n i t s i s o l a t e - w o r d forms, [mcc.'pan

k a q l . ' d y a l j ] ; when s a i d i n a n a t u r a l manner, however, i t i s

r e a l i z e d as [ m a . • p a n k a l ' d y a l ] . The phenomenon of b l e n d i n g ,

due t o a s s i m i l a t i o n [ u k ] and e l i s i o n [ k a q l ] > [ k a l ] . i s

obvious. P h o n e t i c a l l y , t h e r e f o r e , the sounds i n the whole

u t t e r a n c e f o l l o w each o t h e r w i t h o u t i n t e r r u p t i o n ; t h e r e i s

n o t h i n g whatever of an a r t i c u l a t o r y or a c o u s t i c n a t u r e w h i c h

corresponds, p r i n t w l s e , t o the w h i t e space between words.

A g a i n , t h i s demonstrates the concept of speech as a continuum,

and of w r i t i n g as an i n a c c u r a t e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of s p e e c h .

The way i n which s y l l a b l e s blend together i n context-

u a l speech i s here r e f e r r e d t o as .juncture. As a d e m a r c a t i n g

d e v i c e , i n Ilokano t h a t i s , t h i s suprasegmental f e a t u r e i s

observed a t the end of a c e r t a i n span of s y l l a b l e s ; i t s u n i -

f y i n g i n f l u e n c e b e i n g coterminous w i t h i n t o n a t i o n . In fact,

g r a m m a t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a l o n g w i t h p i t c h and i n t o n a t i o n

a r e brought t o b e a r upon j u n c t u r e placement i n I l o k a n o .

The I l o k a n o d i a l e c t i n q u e s t i o n has o n l y two juncture

phones o r j u n c t o n e s : a n o n - t e r m i n a l junctone [J] which i s

a q b r i e f : p&use r o u g h l y e q u i v a l e n t t o t h a t r e p r e s e n t e d by a

comma i n c o n v e n t i o n a l o r t h o g r a p h y ; and a t e r m i n a l junctone

 132.

[||]» w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s a l o n g e r pause marking the end of a

sentence. The d i a l e c t does not have the i n t e r n a l p l u s junc-

tone, [+], c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of E n g l i s h , w h i c h i s perceptible

and d i s t i n c t i v e i n such p a i r s as:

[•nal+trelt] 'nitrate* and ['naltH-relt] 'night rate'

[a+'nelm] 'a name' and [anelm] 'an aim'.

3.332 P i t c h and Intonation

P i t c h , as an a c o u s t i c parameter of speech, has been

d e t e r m i n e d by a c o u s t i c p h o n e t i c s as the number or f r e q u e n c y

of sound waves per second. L o w - p i t c h e d sounds have r e l a t i v e -

l y low f r e q u e n c y , and a perceived r i s e i n p i t c h i s a correlate

of the i n c r e a s e i n the number of sound waves per second.

Some l i n g u i s t s d e s c r i b e p i t c h i n terms of l e v e l s , c a l l e d

p i t c h l e v e l s (PL). These may be i n d i c a t e d by numbers i n b o t h

p h o n e t i c and phonemic t r a n s c r i p t i o n s , thus:

Pitch Level Symbol

Very High 4

High 3

Normal 2

Low 1
Pitch l e v e l k i s characterized by emphatic and emotional

speech. Only the n a t u r a l speech i n I l o k a n o w h i c h makes use of

the p i t c h phones [PL-^ 2 3] w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d i n the present

discussion.

P i t c h v a r i a t i o n s g i v e a s y l l a b l e prominence more e f f e c -
 133

t i v e l y t h a n s t r e s s does. Thus, t h e s y l l a b l e [ p i n ] i n

napintas [na.'pin.tas] "beautiful 1 1

when s a i d on a monotone

even w i t h exaggerated s t r e s s , [ x ' x x ] , i s n o t as prominent

as when t h e s t r e s s i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p i t c h change, e. g.,

1 2 1

[na.'pin.tas].' However, p i t c h prominence a t t h e morpheme

l e v e l may be l o s t i n connected speech w h i l e s t r e s s i s more

s t a b l e and t h e l a t t e r i s always on a s y l l a b l e w i t h a p o t e n -

t i a l change o f p i t c h .

P i t c h v a r i a t i o n s d u r i n g speech - a c o m b i n a t i o n o f

two o r more o f t h e p i t c h phones - c o n s t i t u t e what i s c a l l e d '

a terminal contour or i n t o n a t i o n . I n t o n a t i o n may be i n d i -

c a t e d by t h e symbol [if ] , [ ^ ] , o r [ J ] , depending upon whether

the p i t c h r i s e s , f a l l s o f f , o r remains l e v e l ; and by t h e

circumflex [^] o r [>^] f o r s u b t l e p i t c h changes: r i s i n g - f a l l -

ing or f a l l i n g - r i s i n g .

S i n c e j u n c t u r e t i e s i n v e r y c l o s e l y , and i s c o t e r m i n o u s ,

with intonation, b o t h suprasegmentals s h a r e t h e same symbols,

thus:
Symbol
Juncture «„ „ n „ Intonation
S h o r t pause [ | fj Sustained or l e v e l

'^ ] Falling

Rising
Long pause
1 Ris i n g - f a i l i n g

§ 1 Falling-rising
 134

The same example as t h e one g i v e n e a r l i e r - expanded

o r reduced - may be used t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e combined s u p r a -

45
segmental f e a t u r e s o f j u n c t u r e , p i t c h and i n t o n a t i o n .
2 ]_
(a) Mapan k a i d i a y . [ma. 'pankql ."dyal^] 'Go t h e r e . '

(b) Mapan k a . [ma.'pan.kaq^] 'You go.*

2 ,
(c) Mapan k a . . . [ma.'pan.kaqI] 'You go...'
2 ,
(d) Idiay... [ql.'dyall] 'To...'

(e) Mapan k a i d i a y . . . [ma.'pan.kal.'dyal'j] 'You go t o . . . '

1 3
(f) Idiay? [ql.'dyal^] 'Where?'
2 1 ,
(g) Idiay. [ql.'dyall] 'There.'
2 3 2
(h) Idiay? [ql.'dyal/J] ' ( D i d you say) There?"
2 1 3 *
(i) Mapan k a i d i a y ? r m q . ' p a n . k q l . ' d y a l \ T 1 'You a r e g o i n g t h e r e ?
o r 'You a r e g o i n g where?'

k a d i ^46 _9 -, 3
(j) Mapan k a \ V idiay? [mq.'pan.kq.kq.'dl . q l . ' d y a l ^ P ]
"•ngata
ngatg j »
'Are y o u g o i n g there?«
/ x r 2
3 1
An
(k) Mapan k a i d i a y ? [_ma. ' p a n . k q l . 'dyal /T) 'Are y o u g o i n g t h e r e ?

45
Each p i t c h phone i s t o be r e a d as e x t e n d i n g up t o
the n e x t p i t c h phone, e. g., t h e p i t c h phone [ 2 ] i n example (a)
extends from [mq] t o [ k q l ] ; t h e p i t c h s h i f t s t o [ 1 ] I n [ d y a l ] ,
46
The s t r u c t u r e words k a d i and n g a t a [ n q . ' t a q ] 'perhaps'
s i g n a l a q u e s t i o n ; man ['man], a r e q u e s t .
 135

x r 2 1 ,
(!) Ma pan k a i d i a y , saan k a d i ? [ma.'pan.kal.'dyal|

2 3 - ^7
s a . 'qan.ka. 'diqT] 'You're g o i n g there,, a r e n ' t you?'

(m) Napan k a , saan? [na.'pan.kaq | s a . ' q a n f ]

'You went, d i d n ' t you?'

2 1 , 2 3 .
(n) I d i a y , d i kadi? [ql.'dyal[ dl.ka.'diqT]'There, i s n ' t i t ?

or
2 1 k 2 1 .
(o) Idiay, d l kadi? [ q l . ' d y a l l dl.ka.'diqll'There, isn't i t ?

(p) Mapan k a man i d i a y ? [m .'pan.ka.'man.ql.'dyal^]

a

'Could you p l e a s e go t h e r e ? '

(q) Mapan k a i d i a y eskwela m i , wen.

_2 3 l 3 2 „ 2 3 *
[ma.'pan.kal.'dyal .qes.'kwe.la.'mi J 'wen/y o r ['wen » T ]

•Go t o our s c h o o l , w i l l you?'

(ri); Wen, mapan kami amin; [ 'wen ^ m a . 'pan.ka.ml. 'qa.mlnp

'Yes, w e ' l l a l l go:'

47
Tag q u e s t i o n s i n I l o k a n o d i s r e g a r d agreement i n
p e r s o n , number, gender, and t e n s e . Thus, any o f t h e u t t e r a n c e s
a t t h e l e f t (below) c a n mean any o f those a t t h e r i g h t : :

Saan k a d i ? ^ ("'Is i t (he, she)?

Di kadi? I - J I s n ' t i t ( h e , she)?
Saan? ( 1 A r e ( a r e n ' t ) you ( t h e y , . . . ) ? '
J
\J)o (Did) you ( t h e y , . . . ) ? '

9 ' W i l l (Could) you?'

 136'

(s) n l J u a n , n i R o s a r l o , n i Ramon, k e n s i a k .

1 2 ,1 2 .1 2 . 2 1 ,
[nl.'hwanl n i . r o . 'sar .ryoq | nl.ra.'mon ken.'syakj"]

•John, R o s a r l o , Ramon, and I . '

(t) Maysa, dwa, t a l l o , uppat.

nl 2 i 1 2i 1 2 i 2 1 I
[ m a l . saq J • dwaq j t a l . l o q I qUp.' pat IJ
1 1

'One, two, t h r e e , f o u r . '

The combined suprasegmental f e a t u r e s o f p i t c h , i n t o n -

a t i o n and j u n c t u r e ( P I J ) may be summed up i n t h e f o l l o w i n g

patterns:

Communication P I J Pattern Examples

Situation

Statement o f f a c t C J^]
21
( )
a
(s) (*")
Command C ^]
21
()
a

Request [323^] (p)

Hesitation, uncertainty,

o r i n t e r r u p t e d speech [2 | ] ( c ) (d) (d)

Series
or f (s) ( t )
[2l|l2f]
Yes-No q u e s t i o n s [232Al
or V (h) ( i ) ( j ) (k)
[213^]
Echo q u e s t i o n s [ 3^]
2
(f) (i)
Tag q u e s t i o n s [2l|23^1
or ]} (1) (m) (n) (o) (q)
[2l|32.4]
 Chapter 4

PHONEMIC ANALYSIS

The phonetic analysis in the preceding chapter has

specified the total range of speech sounds or phones -
largely the idiophones of the writer - in the cultivated
Ilokano dialect of Bayombong, Nueva Vlzcaya. A brief
inventory of the phones reveals: 9 vocoids, 19 contoids,
12 vocoid chains, 89 contoid c l u s t e r s 2 strones, 2 junc-
tones, 4 pitch phones or tones, and 5 terminal contours,
not to mention the potential modifications of segments in
context, such, for instance, as those of [ l ] which may be:

labialized [ l ] as in luag
w
[«l wag]
w
»froth'
dentalized [l] as in paltat [ p q l . ' t a t l 'catfish'
palatalized [if] as in liad [ »lfyad] t]_ e a n backward'
velarized [*] as in pllko ['pi*.koq] 'bend'

No attempt has, however, been made to account for

such extralingulstic factors as rate of speaking, physical
and psychological state,' and the l i k e , which may be brought
to bear upon the actual or potential phonetic differences
and variability of the speech sounds. To delve into such
phonetic minutiae would yield data too unwieldy to be treat-
ed by the present attempt at a scientific description of the
sound pattern of Ilokano.
 ^•Q- Rationale for Phonemlzatlon
Most l i n g u i s t s concur i n the "belief that " i t i s

h i g h l y u n l i k e l y t h a t one e v e r makes e x a c t l y t h e same

g r o u p o f s p e e c h movements t w i c e i n a l i f e t i m e , and i f one

48
d o e s , i t i s t o be a t t r i b u t e d t o c h a n c e r a t h e r t h a n t o law."

Moreoverj ;
no phonetic t r a n s c r i p t i o n i s a d e q u a t e enough t o

account f o r a l l the f l u c t u a n t speech sounds i n the reper-

t o i r e o f e v e n one i n d i v i d u a l speaker.

The phonetic a n a l y s i s can answer o n l y the question

o f how s p e e c h sounds a r e r e a l i z e d , but 1

i t does not give

a n a c c o u n t o f w h i c h o r how many o f s u c h s p e e c h s o u n d s are

l i n g u i s t i c a l l y relevant i n communication. This limitation

together w i t h t h e i n f i n i t e v a r i a b i l i t y o f t h e phones i n

a d i a l e c t , o r more s p e c i f i c a l l y , a n idiolect, emphasizes,

t h e r e f o r e , the importance of a study of only the relevant

and constant speech u n i t s . This i s the f u n c t i o n of "Phone-

mlzatlon," which, a c c o r d i n g t o Malmberg, " i m p l i e s the reduc-

t i o n o f a n u n l i m i t e d number o f v a r i a n t s [ t h e p h o n e s ] t o a

l i m i t e d number o f i n v a r i a n t s [ t h e phonemes]...' The smaller

t h e number, t h e s i m p l e r t h e d e s c r i p t i o n , and i t i s undeniable

t h a t i n any science,' 1
a d e s c r i p t i o n w h i c h needs a smaller

amount o f d a t a i s s u p e r i o r t o one which supposes a larger

number, s u p p o s e d t h a t t h e d e s c r i p t i o n i s e q u a l l y exhaust-

ive... A d e s c r i p t i o n which characterizes a linguistic

48
W i l l i a m F r a n c i s Mackey* Language T e a c h i n g A n a l y s i s .
1

London: Longmans, Green & Co. L t d . , 1 9 6 5 1 P« 48.

1
 139

system by means o f 40 phonemes i s c o n s e q u e n t l y , i n p r i n -

49
c i p l e j ' s u p e r i o r t o one w h i c h uses 100 o r 150."
4.2 Determining the Set of Phonemes
I t i s the t a s k o f t h i s s e c t i o n t o answer the follow-
ing questions: (1) what i s l i n g u i s t i c a l l y d i s t i n c t i v e and
r e l e v a n t ; ; and what i s not,' among the speech sounds s e t up
on the b a s i s o f a r t i c u l a t o r y p h o n e t i c s ? and (2) how a r e these
d i s t i n c t i v e and r e l e v a n t u n i t s t o be s p e c i f i e d ?

4.21 The Phoneme Concept

A p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e would be a d e l i n e a t i o n o f what
i s sought f o r - the phoneme.' L i n g u i s t s have d i f f e r e n t
views on what phonemes a r e : some r e g a r d them as p s y c h o l o -
g i c a l u n i t s ; o t h e r s as p h y s i c a l r e a l i t i e s ; w h i l e t o s t i l l
o t h e r s , t h e y a r e b o t h p s y c h o l o g i c a l and p h y s i c a l realities.
The f o l l o w i n g a r e a few o f the d i f f e r e n t concepts o f t h e
phoneme;

"a f a m i l y o f sounds i n a g i v e n language w h i c h

a r e r e l a t e d i n c h a r a c t e r and a r e used i n such a
way t h a t no member ever o c c u r s i n a word i n t h e
same p h o n e t i c c o n t e x t as any o t h e r member." -Jones

49
B e r t i l Malmberg, S t r u c t u r a l L i n g u i s t i c s and
Human Communication.' New Y o r k : Academic P r e s s I n c . ,
1963, PP. 83-84.
50
D a n i e l J o n e s , The H i s t o r y and Meaning o f t h e
Term "Phoneme". London: I n t e r n a t i o n a l P h o n e t i c A s s o -
c i a t i o n , 1957, P. 14.
!
 140

"a f u n c t i o n a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t u n i t i n t h e r i g i d l y
d e f i n e d p a t t e r n o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f sounds p e c u l i a r
t o a language. ... has no s i n g l e n e s s o f r e f e r e n c e . "
-Sapir51

"a minimum u n i t o f d i s t i n c t i v e sound f e a t u r e ...

The phonemes o f a language a r e n o t sounds, b u t
m e r e l y f e a t u r e s o f sounds w h i c h t h e s p e a k e r s have
been t r a i n e d t o produce and r e c o g n i z e i n t h e c u r -
r e n t o f a c t u a l speech s o u n d . " ^ B l o o m f i e l d - ^

"the phonemes o f a language a r e t h e elements w h i c h

s t a n d i n c o n t r a s t w i t h each o t h e r i n t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l
system o f t h e language. ... a phoneme i n a g i v e n
language i s d e f i n e d o n l y i n terms o f i t s d i f f e r e n c e s
from t h e o t h e r phonemes o f t h e same language."
-Hockett53
"a u n i t , a r u b r i c , a bundle o f sound f e a t u r e s , o r a
point of contrast. ... a c o m b i n a t i o n o f f e a t u r e s o f
sound ( e . g., s t o p a r t i c u l a t i o n , b i l a b i a l p o s i t i o n ,
and v o i c i n g i n /b/, o r h i g h and f r o n t tongue p o s i t i o n
and absence o f l i p - r o u n d i n g i n / i / ) w h i c h r e n d e r one
phoneme d i s t i n c t from a n o t h e r , and w h i c h a r e t h e r e f o r e
known as d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s . " -Hall54

" a l l phonemes denote n o t h i n g b u t mere o t h e r n e s s . ...

...'are b u n d l e s o f c o n c u r r e n t f e a t u r e s . " -Jakobson and
Halle55
However v a r i e d t h e views a r e , a t l e a s t t h r e e p i v o t a l

concepts c a n be d e r i v e d from them, i . e., a phoneme i s a

u n i t r e p r e s e n t i n g a c l a s s o f sounds, i t i s c o n t r a s t i v e ,

and i t s o c c u r e n c e must be worked o u t w i t h i n a g i v e n language.

51
W. Freeman T w a d d e l l , "On D e f i n i n g t h e Phoneme,"
i n M a r t i n J o o s , Readings i n L i n g u i s t i c s ; t h e development
o f d e s c r i p t i v e l i n g u i s t i c s i n A m e r i c a s i n c e 1925. Washington:
A m e r i c a n C o u n c i l o f L e a r n e d S o c i e t i e s , 1957» P. 59•
I b i d . ; p. 62.
53
C . F . H o c k e t t , p p . c i t . , p. 26.
54
R o b e r t A. H a l l , J r . , I n t r o d u c t o r y L i n g u i s t i c s . New
York: C h i l t o n Books, 1964, p. 79.
55
Roman Jakobson and M o r r i s H a l l e , Fundamentals
o f Language. The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1956, pp. 5, 11.
 141

4.22 A n a l y t i c Procedure: P i k e ' s Tagmemic Theory

The l i n g u i s t s ' concepts of the phoneme a r e probably

as v a r i e d as t h e i r methods o f i d e n t i f y i n g i t . A compara-

t i v e methodology, t o g e t h e r w i t h the t h e o r y u n d e r l y i n g each

method, belongs t o t h e p r o v i n c e of t h e p h i l 0 s o p h y of l a n g -

uage and t h e r e f o r e need not be attempted here.

The p r e s e n t s t u d y t a k e s a cue from P i k e ' s tagmemic

t h e o r y of d e t e r m i n i n g the n a t u r e of a u n i t o f r e l e v a n t

human b e h a v i o r , such as l i n g u i s t i c behavior.

"Any u n i t of p u r p o s i v e human b e h a v i o r , " P i k e s a y s ,

" i s w e l l - d e f i n e d i f and o n l y i f one d e s c r i b e s i t i n r e f e -

r e n c e t o (a) c o n t r a s t (and r e s u l t i n g identification),

(b) range o f v a r i a t i o n ( w i t h i t s e s s e n t i a l p h y s i c a l mani-

f e s t a t i o n ) , and (c) d i s t r i b u t i o n ( i n c l a s s , i n h i e r a r c h i -
56
c a l sequence, and i n s y s t e m i c m a t r i x . ) "
The t r i m o d a l t h e o r y o f a n a l y s i s g i v e n above may be

stated b r i e f l y , thus:

Contrast

Unit = Variation
57
Distribution.

56
Kenneth L. P i k e , "On S y s t e m s o f G r a m m a t i c a l S t r u c -
t u r e , " i n Horace G. L u n t , (ed..,),., P r o c e e d i n g s o f the N i n t h
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress of L i n g u i s t s , The Hague: Mouton & Co.,
1964, p. 14-5.
57 -
See a l s o , Kenneth L. P i k e , Language i n R e l a t i o n t o
"I
142.

Pike further characterizes the three components

of a n a l y s i s as f o l l o w s :

"Contrast: One does n o t know what an i t e m i s u n t i l

one knows what i t i s n o t . ... Once items a r e thus s e p a r a t e d

o f f from o t h e r s , the c o n t r a s t i v e features i n further envi-

vonments sometimes a l l o w f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f items even

under c o n d i t i o n s where one o f two members o f a contrast

does n o t o c c u r .

V a r i a t i o n : The m a n i f e s t a t i o n - or r e a l i z a t i o n - of

the u n i t could vary s u b s t a n t i a l l y , leading t o e t i c v a r i a n t s ,

or a l l o u n i t s .

Distribution: A well-defined u n i t i s a member o f

a c l a s s of u n i t s appropriate to a particular s l o t i n a
58
construction."

A t t h e phonemic l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s i n t h i s s t u d y , t h e

s p e c i f i c u n i t i s , o f c o u r s e , t h e phoneme. The phonemes o f

the I l o k a n o d i a l e c t under i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d

using the formula:

U = V

a U n i f i e d Theory o f t h e S t r u c t u r e o f Human B e h a v i o r , G l e n -
d a l e , C a l i f . , Summer I n s t i t u t e o f L i n g u i s t i c s , 1954, V o l . I ,
C h a p t e r 3»
58
Op. c i t .
•7
143

where:
U = emic U n i t ( t h e phoneme)
C = Contrast (What the phoneme i s o r , more im-
p o r t a n t , what i t i s n o t i n r e l a t i o n
t o o t h e r phonemes i n the language.)

V = Variation (What a r e i t s v a r i o u s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s

or allophones?)
D = D i s t r i b u t i o n (Where does each a l l o p h o n e actually
or p o t e n t i a l l y occur?)

I t was mentioned elsewhere t h a t t h i s s t u d y employs

t h e taxonomic p r o c e d u r e of segmentation and classification.

I n any c l a s s i f i c a t o r y s c i e n c e , c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s o r items
a r e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t , and o t h e r s a r e subsumed, o r i n some

cases, are eventually disregarded. T h i s i s the p r i n c i p l e of

classification. I n the process of phonemization, the w r i t e r -
c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a v a r i e t y of e t i c u n i t s - assumes a phonemic
59
norm, and r e l e g a t e s the o t h e r u n i t s t o t h e s t a t u s of v a r i a n t s
60
or allophones. Thus, by t h e c r i t e r i o n of p h o n e t i c similarity,
she assumes / i / , /e/, / a / , /o/, and / u / as the phonemic norms
f o r the n i n e e t i c segments, [ i , i ] , [e,©], [ a , ctj» Co], and
[ u , u ] , r e s p e c t i v e l y ; and / h / as t h a t f o r [ h ] and [ n ] . The

59
P o r d e t a i l s about phonemic norm, see P i k e , Bhonemlos.
pp. 62, 88, 244.
60
A l l o p h o n e s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r under V a r i a t i o n
and D i s t r i b u t i o n , S e c t i o n 4.222 of t h i s t h e s i s .
t e n t a t i v e phonemes - I . e., t h e phonemic norms t o g e t h e r w i t h

t h e o t h e r segments and suprasegments - a r e t h e n e s t a b l i s h e d

as emic u n i t s of the I l o k a n o d i a l e c t u s i n g the t r i m o d a l

scheme,

Contrast

Unit = Variation

Distribution

4.'221 CONTRAST

C o n t r a s t , ' as a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t , i n v o l v e s s t a t e m e n t s

about i d e n t l f i c a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s , i . e.y what the emic u n i t I s .

;

e. g., 1 1
/ t / i s a voiceless dental stop." S i n c e s t a t e m e n t s of
61
t h i s t y p e have been p r o v i d e d I n the p h o n e t i c a n a l y s i s , the

phonemic a n a l y s i s i s more concerned about f i n d i n g what the

emic u n i t i s not,- e. g., t h a t /o/ i s not / u / . Thus, emphasis

i s p l a c e d on o p p o s i t i o n s o r c o n t r a s t s w h i c h w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d

on t h e b a s i s of the c o n t r a s t i v e f e a t u r e s o r components - a l s o
62
known as d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s - of each phoneme. In fact,
61
C h a p t e r 3«
62
I t w i l l be n o t e d t h a t the f e a t u r e approach adopted
i n t h i s s t u d y u t i l i z e s a r t i c u l a t o r y f e a t u r e s , and n o t t h o s e
1

i n v o l v i n g a r t i c u l a t o r y - a c o u s t i c c o r r e l a t e s / known as the
J a k o b s o n i a n d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s (Jakobson, F a n t and H a l l e ,
P r e l i m l n a r 1 esy 1965) * To a v o i d confusion,- t h e r e f o r e , the
term components - r a t h e r t h a n d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s - w i l l
h e n c e f o r t h be used.
 145
63
Hockett says:
The s o l e f u n c t i o n o f sound I n language i s t o keep
utterances apart; 1
The p h o n o l o g i c a l system o f a l a n g -
uage i s t h e r e f o r e n o t s o much a " s e t o f sounds" as i t
i s a network o f d i f f e r e n c e s between sounds... t h e
elements o f a p h o n o l o g i c a l system cannot be d e f i n e d
p o s i t i v e l y i n terms o f what they " a r e " , b u t o n l y nega-
t i v e l y i n terms o f what they a r e n o t , what they con-
trast with.
What, f o r i n s t a n c e , makes f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between
1

the f o l l o w i n g utterances?

Umay t a n t o k l t a e n . /qu may t a n t o k i t& q e n /

'We'll come and s e e i t . ' !

Umay danto k l t a e n . /qu may dan t o k i ta" q e n /

' T h e y ' l l come and s e e i t . '

Umay kan t o k l t a e n . ' /qu may k a n t o k i t f i q e n /

• I ' l l come and s e e you.''

Umay s a n t o k l t a e n . ' /qu may s a n t o k l t a q e n /

' H e ' l l come, and t h e n w e ' l l s e e i t . '

The s c h e m a t i c diagram on t h e n e x t page may be a n o v e r -

s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , ' b u t i t s e r v e s t o i l l u s t r a t e p r i n c i p l e s and

procedures,' i . 4
e.y t h a t a t e n t a t i v e phoneme, s a y / t / , derives

i t s f u n c t i o n , ' and hence i t s i d e n t i t y a s a phoneme i n t h e I l o -

kano d i a l e c t , ' from b e i n g i n c o n t r a s t i n one o r more f e a t u r e s

w i t h o t h e r phonemes i n t h e d i a l e c t : e. g.y w i t h / d / i n v o i c -

ing,' w i t h / k / i n p o i n t o f a r t i c u l a t i o n , 3
and w i t h / s / i n b o t h

63
C. F.' H o c k e t t , OJD. c i t . , p. 24.
1
 146

p o i n t and manner o f a r t i c u l a t i o n . ' The f o l l o w i n g c o m p o n e n t i a l

a n a l y s i s shows t h e c o n t r a s t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s :

Phonemes

/t/ /a/ M /a/

Dimensions
of Contrast Components

Voicing breath -vs- voice breath breath

P o i n t of
Art.' dental dental -vs- velar -vs- alveolar

Manner
of A r t . ' StOTD stop stop -vs- fricative
«> * —

Viewed i n t h i s , . l i g h t / a phoneme - such as / t / - i s a

p o i n t 1ft a network o f f u n c t i o n a l c o n t r a s t s i n t h e phonological

system of I l o k a n o / thus:

p t — k

'^s

I n i t s passage from phone t o phoneme t h r o u g h c o n t r a s t , '

each t e n t a t i v e phoneme i s s u b j e c t e d t o a commutation t e s t -

a t e s t w h i c h i n v o l v e s t h e c o n t r a s t i v e s u b s t i t u t i n g o f sounds

i n o r d e r t o i d e n t i f y o r r e i f y them as phonemes/ The d e v i c e s

used f o r s u c h a t e s t i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g :

(1) M i n i m a l p a i r s : A m i n i m a l p a i r i s a s e t o t two

words t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n , a d d i t i o n / o r s u b t r a c t i o n o f one s e g -

ment o f w h i c h makes f o r a d i f f e r e n c e i n meaning/ e. g./ ml

/miq/ 'our' vs mo /moq/ 'your ; 1

 147

(2) Minimal t r i p l e t s (also quadruplet or q u i n t u p l e t ) :

i n v o l v i n g d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h r e e i t e m s , e. g., n i / n i q / 'the

( p r e n o m i n a l ) vs na /naq/ ' h i s , h e r / i t s ' vs no /noq/

1
'if,

p o s s i b l y , vs t h e e x p r e s s i o n ne /neq/ 'here i t i s ; '

(3) Subminimal p a i r s : two items so d i f f e r i n g i n

s i m i l a r ( n o t i d e n t i c a l , as i n t h e case o f m i n i m a l p a i r s ) en-

vironments. F o r example; t h e subminimal p a i r , v i a h e / v y a heq/

'tasavel* vs b l a l a /byiS' l a q / 'a k i n d o f f i s h ' , ' c a n r e i f y / v /

and /b/ as s e p a r a t e phonemes i n t h e I l o k a n o d i a l e c t .

4.2211 Vowels

Another componential a n a l y s i s w i l l r e v e a l that Ilokano

vowel phonemes d i f f e r i n e i t h e r o r b o t h o f t h e dimensions o f

c o n t r a s t : tongue h e i g h t and tongue advancement. Since a l l the

vowels a r e n o r m a l v o w e l s , i t f o l l o w s t h a t l i p p o s i t i o n i s

a u t o m a t i c , n o n - d i s t i n c t i v e i n I l o k a n o , and t h e r e f o r e need n o t

be i n c l u d e d as one o f t h e dimensions o f c o n t r a s t .

Examples:

t a / t a q / 'we' vs t l / t i q / 'the' vs t o / t o q / 'later'

Componential a n a l y s i s :

Phonemes

A/ /a/ /of

Dimensions
of C o n t r a s t Components
—

Tongue h t . close -vs- open -vs- half-open

Tongue adv. front front -vs- back

( L i p pos.) (spread! (neutral] (rounded)

 148

H i s t o r i c a l l y / t h e I l o k a n o vowel system i n v o l v e d

a three-way c o n t r a s t i n tongue height:

Close /!/ /u/

-vs-

Half-open /•/ /a/

-vs-

Open /a/ /a/

and a three-way c o n t r a s t i n tongue advancement:

Front -vs- Central _vs- Back

/I/ - - 79/ - • /u/

/!/ /a/ /u/

hence, t h e vowel p a t t e r n :

A/ /u/

7a/

/a/

I t i s assumed i n t h i s t h e s i s (Sec. 1.6) t h a t a b o r -

rowed sound i s a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o t h e n a t i v e phonemic system

 1:49

when t h e l o a n i s i n common use by n a t i v e speakers o f t h e

language. Thus, w i t h t h e i n f l u x i n t o t h e I l o k a n o l e x i c o n

o f q u i t e a number o f f o r e i g n words - m o s t l y S p a n i s h -

w h i c h a r e c u r r e n t l y used by t h e n a t i v e s p e a k e r s , t h e phon-

enes / e / and / o / have become a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o t h e I l o k a n o

phonemic code.

The l i s t below g i v e s o n l y a l i m i t e d s a m p l i n g o f t h e

v a s t number o f S p a n i s h l o a n s i n t h e I l o k a n o d i a l e c t :

asenso /qa sen s o q / •promotion 1

bolero /bo le' r o q / 'a s h o r t j a c k e t *

dosena /do s e n a q / •dozen'

espeho /qes pe' hoq/ •mirror*

fresko /fres koq/ 'fresh'

Guerrero /ger r e r o q / 'a f a m i l y name'

Jos e'
!
/ho se'q/ •Joseph'

huego /hwe goq/ 'game, gambling*

Isabelo / q i s a be l o q / 'a boy's name'

koreo /ko r e y o q / 'mail, l e t t e r '

Leon / l e yon/ •a boy's name'

melon /me I o n / 'cantaloupe *

Noviembre /no vyem b r e q / 'November'

onse /qSn s e q / 'eleven'
pareho /pa re" hoq/ •the same, s i m i l a r '
relo /re l 5 q / • c l o c k , time p i e c e '

Soledad /so l e dacl./ •a g i r l ' s name'

 15Q

torpe / t o r peq/ 'stupid*

uso /qu s o q / 'usage/ custom'

voses /vo s e s /
1
'voice'

welga /wel gaq/ ' s t r i k e (of workers)'

yerro /yer roq/ 'galvanized i r o n sheet'

I n t e r e s t i n g l y enough, p r o b a b l y f o r s o c i a l and psycho-

l o g i c a l reasons - S p a n i s h b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d as a " p r e s t i g e

language" by many F i l i p i n o s - t h e / e / even g r a d u a l l y r e p l a c e d

t h e n a t i v e t e n s e schwa/ / 9 / / r e l e g a t i n g t h e l a t t e r t o t h e

s t a t u s o f a n allophone*/ a t l e a s t a f r e e v a r i a n t , o f / e / . F o r

example/ many I l o k a n o s g e n e r a l l y pronounce t h e o r t h o g r a p h i c e

as / e / i n s t e a d o f /B/ i n such n a t i v e I l o k a n o words a s :

buteng /bu t e n / < [bU.'tan] 'fear'

emma /qem m&q/ < [q9m.*maq] 'meekness*

k e t t e l e n / k e t t e l e h / c C k a t . t s . ' I a n ] 'to pluck ( f l o w e r s , e t c . ) '

O b v i o u s l y , t h e s u p e r s t r a t u m i n f l u e n c e reshaped the i n -

digenous I l o k a n o vowel p a t t e r n (see page 147) i n t o :

- u

F i g 2 10 I l o k a n o Vowel P a t t e r n
 151

The f o l l o w i n g commutation t e s t s f o r c o n t r a s t s

s e r v e t o i d e n t i f y and r e i f y t h e v o w e l phonemes shown i n

F i g u r e 10:

4/2211 (a) C o n t r a s t s i n a l l dimensions -

Hi M liq/ 'town'

Ell /q£ l i q / •a n i c k n a m e 1

all /qfi l i q / 'stain 1

oil /qo l i q / •vinyl'

ull /qu< l i q / 'ascent'

bilang /bl lan/ 'number'

Belo /be' l o q / 'a boy's nickname'
bala /ba l a q /
!
'bullet'
bo l a /bo l a q / 'ball'
bulo /bu! l o q / 'a v a r i e t y o f bamboo'

dildil /dil dfl/ •lick, lap'

deldel /del d'SV 'smear 1

daldal /daL d a l / 'prattle'

dollar /doi lyar/ 'dollar*

duldol / d u l d'ol/ •insistence'

 152.

4/2211 (b) C o n t r a s t s i n tongue h e i g h t -

A/

/e/

inna / q l n riaq/ 'mothers 1

vs enna /qen naq/ ' s a l t water'

siko / s i koq/ 'elbow' vs seko /se k o q / 'dry'

silo / s i l o q / ' l a s s o ' vs C e l o /se l o q / 'a boy's nickname'

il-11 / q i l q i l / 'whimper' vs e l - e l / q e l q e l / 'groove/ line'

silya / s i l l y a q / ' c h a i r ' vs s e l y o / s e i l y o q / 'stamp, s e a l '

s ims im / s i m s i m / ' t a s t e ' vs s ems em /sem sem/ 'annoyance*

/u/

/o/

k u r a /ku! r a q / ' c l e r g y ' vs Cora /ko r a q / 'a g i r l ' s nickname'

p u l o /pu l o q / ' t e n ' vs p o l o / p o i l o q / 'polo

1
shirt'

puso /pu s o q / ' h e a r t ' vs poso /p6 s o q / ' a r t e s i a n w e l l '

tudo / t u doq/ ' r a i n ' vs todo / t o doq/ ' a l l '
tuyo / t u y o q / ' r i c e b r a n ' vs toyo /t6 yoq/ 'soy sauce'

gumi /gu. m i q / ' c o t t o n b a l l ' vs goma /go maq/ 'rubber'

lumut / l u mut/
1
'moss' vs lomo / l o moq/ 'loin'

l u t o / l u ! t o q / 'cooking' vs l o t e / l o t e q / ' l o t , lant'

u r a y /qu; r a y / ' w a i t ' vs oras /q'S r a s / 'hour, time'

yuvem /yu yem/ ' c l o u d y ' vs yoyo /yo yoq/ 'yoyo (a t o y ) ' .
 15?

/e/

/a/

e l - e l / q e l q e l / 'groove, l i n e ' vs a l - a l / q a l q & l / ' p a n t i n g '

ispel / q i s p e l / ' o b s t r u c t i o n i n t h e t h r o a t ' vs ispal

/qls p£l/ 'defense'

Peggy /pe g i q / *a g i r l ' s name' vs p a g l /pa"< g i q / 'ray f i s h '

pekpek /pek pek/ ' f u l l y s t u f f e d ' vs pakpak /pak pak/ 'a k i n d

of rattle'

sepsep /sep s ep/ 'gnat' vs sapsap /sap s a p / 'a k i n d of f i s h '

!

/o/

/a/

apo /qa poq/ ' l o r d ' vs apa /qa paq/ 'quarrel'

aso /qa s o q / 'dog* vs a s a /qa s a q / 'whet, hone'

asok /qa s o k / 'smoke' vs asak /qa s a k / 'pass t h r o u g h t h i c k e t s '

baro /ba r o q / 'young man' vs b a r a /ba r a q / ' l u n g s '

no /n oq/ ' i f vs na /rfaq/ ' h i s ,

!
her, i t s '

Pio /pyo'q/ ' P i u s ' vs p i a /pyaq/ 'health'

s i k o / s i k o q / 'elbow' vs s l k a / s i k a q / ' d y s e n t e r y '

to / t o q / ' l a t e r ' vs t a / t a q / 'our, we'

oras /qo r a s / 'time,* h o u r ' vs a r a s /qa r a s / 'mouth d i s e a s e

of children'
 154

4/2211 ( c ) C o n t r a s t s i n tongue advancement -

/!/ //
u

adi /qa d i q / ' r e f u s a l / d i s l i k e 1

vs adu /qa duq/ 'many'

H o / q i l o q / ' t o i l e t paper' vs u l o /qu l o q / 'head'

H o g / q i l o g / 'creek' v s u l o g /qu l o g / 'descent*

ima / q i maq/ 'hand* v s uma /qu. maq/ ' i m p a t i e n c e ;

1
surfeit'

l n i t /q'i' n i t / 'sun' v s i n u t / q i n u t / 'a l i t t l e a t a t i m e '

i t a n g / q i t a n / 'a k i n d o f f e r n ' vs utang /qui t a n / 'debt'

p i d i t / p i d i t / ' e a r l o b e ' v s p l d u t / p i d u t / 'a t h i n g p i c k e d up'

s l k a / s i ka'q/ 'you' vs suka / s u k a q / ' v i n e g a r '

t i m i d / t i m i d / ' c h i n ' v s timud / t i mud/ 'heed'

/e/ — /o/

d i e s / d y e s / 'dime' v s D i o s / d y 5 s / 'God'

k o t y e / k o t t y e q / ' c a r ' vs k o t y o / k o t t y o q / ' s l i p p e r shoe*

Hemy / r e m i q / 'a g i r l ' s name' vs Romy / r o m i q / 'a boy's name'

saem / s a qem/ ' i n t e n s e p a i n * vs saom / s a qom/ 'your word'

seda /s'e' d a q / ' s i l k ' v s soda /s o d a q / 'soda*

!

t u l e n g /tu! l e u / 'deaf* vs t u l o n g /tu! lonj?f ' h e l p '

The f r o n t - v e r s u s - b a c k c o n t r a s t does n o t o c c u r a t

t h e l o w e s t l e v e l i n t h e I l o k a n o vowel p a t t e r n .
 155

4 .£212 Consonants

E a r l i e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r , i t was s c h e m a t i c a l l y

shown t h a t jjust l i k e t h e v o w e l s , each I l o k a n o consonant

phoneme i s a bundle o f p h o n o l o g i c a l components o r d i s -

t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s ; t h a t consonants c o n t r a s t w i t h each

o t h e r i n two main d i m e n s i o n s : p o i n t o f a r t i c u l a t i o n and

manner o f a r t i c u l a t i o n ; t h a t v o i c i n g i s a t h i r d dimen-

s i o n o f c o n t r a s t among s t o p s and f r i c a t i v e s ; and t h a t

by a t l e a s t one o f i t s components/ a consonant i s s e t

o f f from e v e r y o t h e r consonant i n t h e system. 1

W i t h a v i e w t o e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e e n t i r e consonant

p a t t e r n o f Ilokano, 1
t h e subsequent d i s c u s s i o n s will

f u r t h e r i d e n t i f y each o f t h e phonemes as a p o i n t o f

r e f e r e n c e i n a n i n t e r l o c k i n g network o f c o n t r a s t s .

One t e c h n i q u e f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e phonemes i s t o

group them i n t o s e r i e s o r bundles i n w h i c h one p h o n o l o -

g i c a l f e a t u r e i s k e p t c o n s t a n t , and others,' v a r i a b l e . A

p a r a l l e l s e r i e s o f o p p o s i t i o n s o r c o n t r a s t s based on t h e

same f e a t u r e i s c a l l e d c o r r e l a t i o n /

4 .£212 (a) V o i c e v e r s u s B r e a t h

I l o k a n o has a c o r r e l a t i o n o f v o i c e between some

s t o p s and f r i c a t i v e s - /p t k f / vs /b d g v / - t h u s :
 156
64
Stop p
Breath
{ Fric

{
Stop b
Voice
Fric v

The f o l l o w i n g m i n i m a l p a i r s w i l l e s t a b l i s h t h e

f u n c t i o n a l contrast or c o r r e l a t i o n of voice:

/p/

/b/

apa /qa paq/ 'wafer' vs aba /qa b a q / 'a k i n d o f d e s i d u o u s p l a n t 1

apay /qa pay/ 'why 1

vs abay /qa bay/ ' b e s i d e '

apog /qa pog/ ' l i m e ' vs abog /q& bog/ ' d r i v e away'

a t a p /qa t a p / 'wedge' vs a t a b /qa t a b / ' f l o o d t i d e '

pagay /pa g a y / ' r i c e p l a n t ' vs bagay /ba g a y / ' f i t t i n g '

pa l a /pa l a q / ' s h o v e l ' vs ha l a /ha" l a q / ' b u l l e t '

p a r a /pa r a q / 'stop* vs b a r a /bk r a q / 'heat'

p a r o t /pa r o t / 'uproot' vs b a r o t /bS r o t / 'wire*

patang /pa t a n / ' c o n v e r s a t i o n ' vs batang /ba t£n/ 'one's t u r n '

payat /pa y a t / ' s t e p ' vs bayat /ba y a t / ' w h i l e '

64
Note t h a t t h e d i m e n s i o n o f c o n t r a s t under c o n s i -
d e r a t i o n I s i n d i c a t e d by means o f heavy l i n e s ; t h e broken
l i n e s m e r e l y show p o s i t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s between phon-
emes i n t h e t o t a l phoneme p a t t e r n t h a t i s t o be e v o l v e d .
 15?

P a t a
y / P t a y / 'death' vs b a t a y /ba t a y / 'step
a
ladder'

P u o t
/ P q'ot/ 'awareness' vs buot /bu q o t / 'mildew'
u

siri£ / s i r i p / 'peek' v s s i r i b / s i r i b / 'wisdom'

t a e
P / t a qep/ ' r i c e c h a f f o r h u l l ' v s t a e b / t a q e V

'contemporary'

A/

/a/

baket /ba k i t / ' o l d woman' vs baked /ba k e d / 'brawn'

batanfi / b a
t a n / 'one's t u r n ' v s badang /ba dan/ ' l a r g e b o l o '
b a v a t /ba y a t / ' d u r a t i o n ' vs bayad / b l y a d / 'payment'

bukot /bu k o t / 'back' vs bukod /bu k o d / 'by o r f o r o n e s e l f

i g a t /qt g a t / ' e e l ' vs i g a d /qi gad/ ' g r a t e r *
i t a / q i t a q / 'now' vs i d a / q i daq/ 'them'

i t l / q i t i q / ' t h e ' vs i d i / q i d£q/ ' b e f o r e '

P i l i t /p£ l i t / ' i n s i s t e n c e ' vs p i l i d /pf l i d / 'wheel'

s i l e t / s i l e t / ' s m a l l i n t e s t i n e s ' vs s i l e d / s i l i d / 'room'

t a / t a q / 'we ( d u a l ) ' v s da /daq/ 'they'

tawa / t a waq/ 'window' vs dawa /da waq/ ' f r u i t of r i c e p l a n t '

t u k o t / t u k o t / 'bottom' vs t u k o d / t u k o d / 'fathom, measure'

te
PP^ : Aep p e l / ' r e s t r a i n t ' v s d e p p e l /dep pSl/ 'thumbmark'
]
 158

A/

/g/

batok /"ba t o k / ' d i v e * vs batog /ba t o g / 'row'

bennek /ben nek/ 'mollusk' vs benneg /ben neg/ ' a i s l e 1

b e t t e k / b e t t e k / 'a bundle o f r i c e ' vs b e t t e g / b e t t e g /

'distinction'

kapas /ka p a s / ' c o t t o n ' vs gapas /ga p a s / ' h a r v e s t '

kawat /ka wat/ 'anchor' vs gawat /ga wat/ 'famine'

k i t a / k J t a q / ' k i n d , c l a s s ' vs g i t a /g£ taq/'venom'

kunnot /kun n o t / 'suck' vs gunnot /gun n o t / ' f i b r o u s t i s s u e 1

k u r a /ku r a q / ' c l e r g y ' vs g u r a /gu raq/'hatred'

k u r i k o r /ku r i k o r / ' e a r p i c k ' vs g u r l g o r /gu r l g o r / ' f e v e r '

n a r u k i t /na r u k£t/ ' c u l t i v a t e d ' vs n a r u g i t / n a r r u g i t / ' d i r t y '

s u k a t / s u k a t / 'measurement' vs sugat /su. g a t / 'wound'

t a k t a k . / t a k t a k / ' d e l a y ' vs tagtag_ / t a g t a g / 'shake'

/f/

/v/

f a l d a / f a " l d a q / ' s k i r t ' vs V a l d a (pas t i l i a s de) / v a l daq/

•tablets f o r sore t h r o a t '

f i n o / f f n o q / ' f i n e ' vs v i n o /v£ noq/ 'wine'

C l e o f e / k l y S f e q / 'a g i r l ' s name' vs H a v e / l y a v e q / 'key'

 159

f a l s o / f a l s o q / ' d e f e c t i v e ' vs v a l s e / v a l s e q / ' w a l t z '

f e c h a / f e t t y a q / 'date* vs v e c h i n / v e t t y i n / 'a brand o f

sodium glutamate'

f e r i a / f e r r y a q / ' f a i r , c a r n i v a l * vs v e r d e / v e r d e q / 'green*

f i e s t a /fyes t a q / ' f e a s t , h o l i d a y * vs VIernes /vySr n e s /

•Friday'

f u e r a /fwe r a q / ' b e s i d e s , e x c e p t ' vs v u e l o /vwe l o q / ' f l i g h t '

i n f i e r n o / q i n f y e r n o q / ' h e l l ' vs Noviembre /no vyem b r e q /

'November'

R u f i n o / r u f i n o q / 'a boy's name' v s Gavlno /ga v i n o q /

•a boy's name'

4.2212 (b) C o n t r a s t s i n P o i n t o f A r t i c u l a t i o n

Along t h i s dimension, I l o k a n o has i n i t s s t o p s

a four-way - a l t h o u g h n o t o v e r - a l l - c o n t r a s t i n v o l v i n g

bilabial-dental-velar-glottal position. The s t o p s and

n a s a l s e x h i b i t a l a b i a l - d e n t a l - v e l a r bundle o f c o r r e l a -

t i o n s , thus:

p ^ t k q
• ' i
i 1
.
' ' t
b d g
• i i
i i i
• i i

m n ' n

I n t h e semiconsonants, t h e r e i s o f course a two-

way c o n t r a s t - b i l a b i a l and a l v e o l a r :
 160

There i s a three-way c o n t r a s t between b r e a t h frica-

t i v e s , i . e., l a b i o d e n t a l - a l v e o l a r - v e l a r . The fricatives

i n t r o d u c e a d i o r a m i c p a t t e r n of c o n t r a s t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s
65.:
o r c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h the s t o p s , thus:

f
t

m n

U n l i k e the v o w e l s , the consonants do not lend

themselves t o f o r m u l a t i o n i n o v e r l y neat symmetrical

pattern. F o r example, t h e l a c k of p a r a l l e l o p p o s i t i o n

between / q / and a f r i c a t i v e o r a v o i c e d c o r r e l a t e l e a v e s

65
The " d i a g o n a l c o r r e l a t i o n s " i n p o i n t of a r t i c u l a -
t i o n between s t o p s and f r i c a t i v e s - /p t k b/ vs / f s h v/ -
a r e a l s o t h e c o r r e l a t e s i n "manner". To a v o i d d u p l i c a t i o n ,
the c o r r e l a t i o n s w i l l be e x e m p l i f i e d under the l a t t e r c a t e -
gory.
 161

a linguistic h o l e o r case v i d e i n the I l o k a n o consonant

system. T h i s phenomenon can be c o n s i d e r e d a linguistic

u n i v e r s a l , f o r , as Edward S a p i r s a i d , no language forms

a w a t e r t i g h t system, and we s h o u l d be s u s p i c i o u s i f ,too

p r e t t y a p i c t u r e r e s u l t s from t h e phonemic a n a l y s i s of

a phonetically assymetrical situation.

A d o p t i n g the term i n s o c i o m e t r i c s , t h e glottal

s t o p , / q / , may be c o n s i d e r e d an " i s o l a t e " i n t h e whole

p a t t e r n , i . e., i t c o n t r a s t s w i t h o n l y one phoneme, /k/.

To f u l l y e s t a b l i s h i t s i d e n t i t y , i t w i l l be c o n t r a s t e d

w i t h a l l t h e o t h e r b r e a t h s t o p s - /p t k/ vs / q / .

The use of m i n i m a l t r i p l e t s , m i n i m a l p a i r s and

subminimal p a i r s w i l l e s t a b l i s h c o r r e l a t i o n s a l o n g t h e

p o i n t - d i m e n s i o n of c o n t r a s t , t h u s :

/p/ / /
t /k/

pay /pay/ ' y e t , s t i l l 1

vs t a y / t a y / 'the; we' vs kay

/ k a y / 'you'

sapsap /sap s a p / *a k i n d o f f i s h ' vs s a t s a t / s a t s a t /

/''rip ( c l o t h e s ) * vs saksak /sak s a k / ' s t a b '

s i p s i p a n / s i p s i pan/ 'to s i p ' vs s l t s l t a n / s i t s i t a n /

'to d r a i n * vs s i k s l k a n / s i k s i k a n / *to remove t h e

s c a l e s of a f i s h *
 162

/b/ /d/ /g/

sabsab / s a b s a b / ' v o r a c i o u s e a t i n g 1
vs sadsad / s a d siad/

'aground' vs sagsag / s a g s a g / 'ruined'

bawbaw /baw baw/ ' t o p l e s s , r o o f l e s s * vs dawdaw /daw daw/

'extended p a r t ' vs gawgaw /gaw gaw/ ' s t a r c h *

/m/ /n/ /y

lmama / q i ma maq/ * t o chew something w i t h b e t e l n u t * vs

l n a n a / q i n a h a q / * r e s t * v s lnganga / q i na n a q /

'to open t h e mouth'

semsem /sem sem/ 'annoyance' v s sensen / s e n s e n / 'compress*

vs sengseng / s e n s e n / ' s t u f f *

/p/ / t /

p e l p e l / p e l p e l / ' s t u f f e d mouth' v s t e l t e l / t e l t i l / 'nape'

pulong /pu I o n / 'assembly' vs t u l o n g Aft I o n / 'help'

purong /pu r 5 n / 'a k i n d o f f i s h ' vs t u r o n g / t u r o n / ' t r e n d '

p u t o t /pu t o t / 'progeny' vs t u t o t / t u t o t / ' r e s i n , sap*

r l k e p / r i k e p / ' s h u t t e r ' vs r i k e t / r i k i t / ' d i f f i c u l t y *

A/ /k/

a r y e t / q a r y e t / ' a s c a r l s ' vs a r y e k / q a r y e k / ' t i c k l e '

t a / t a q / 'we, t h e two o f u s * vs k a / k a q / *you*

tabo /ta boq/ 'dipper* vs kabo /k£ boq/ 'corporal'
t a l i /ta l i q / 'rope' vs k a l i /ka l i q / 'hawk'
tapa /ta paq/ 'dried meat' vs kapa /ka paq/ 'cape'

A/ /q/

amak /qa mak/ 'my father' vs ama /qa maq/ 'father'

baket /ba ket/ 'old woman' vs baet /ba qet/ 'between/
bukot /bit kot/ 'back' vs buot /bu qot/ 'mildew, mold'
k i l o /k£ loq/ 'kilogram' vs l l o / q i loq/ ' t o i l e t paper'
kapa /ka paq/ 'cape' vs apa /qa paq/ 'wafer'
tako /ta koq/ 'dipper' vs tap /ta qoq/ 'person?

/t/ /q/

bato /ba toq/ 'stone' vs bao /ba qoq/ ' r a t '

rangtay /ran tay/ 'bridge' vs rang-ay /ran qay/ 'progress'
sangit /sa a i t / 'cry* vs sangi /sa niq/ 'molars'
tasa /ta saq/ 'cup' vs asa /qa saq/ 'hone, whet'
tayab /ta yab/ ' f l i g h t ' vs ayab /qa yab/ ' c a l l '
tidda / t i d daq/ 'remainder' vs idda /qid daq/ 'bed'
tubo /tu boq/ 'sprout, shoot' vs ubo /qu boq/ 'leak'

/p/. / /
q

paypa^ /pay pay/ 'fan' vs ay-ay /qay qay/ ' p i t y '

sapad /s& pad/ 'bunch of bananas' vs saad /sa qad/ 's tatus'
sapo /sa poq/ 'ointment' vs sao /sa qoq/ 'word'
 164

/t / /s/

f l a n s a / f y a n s a q / ' b a i l ' vs s l a n s l /syan s i q / ' s p a t u l a *

f l n o /ft n o q / , ' f i n e ' vs s i n o / s i n o q / 'who'

f u e r t e /fwer t e q / ' s t r o n g * vs s u e r t e /swer t e q / ' l u c k y '

Hufo / r u f o q / 'a boy's name* vs Ruso / r u s o q / 'Russian'

/s/ /h/

a s l /qa s i q / 'compassion' vs a h i t /q£ h i t / 'shave*

L i s a / i f s a q / 'a g i r l ' s name' vs l i h a /l£ h a q / 'sandpaper'

mason /ma s o n / 'mason' vs mohon /mo hon/ 'landmark'

r a s a / r a s a q / 'race o f man' vs r a h a / r a h a q / ' c h i e f t a i n '

Sues /swes/ 'Suez C a n a l ' v s hues /hwe"s/ 'judge'

/b/ /d/

bagas /ba g5s/ ' r i c e * vs dagas /da g5s/ ' s t o p o v e r '

banag /ba n a g / 'outcome' vs danag /&& n a g / 'worry'

b a r a /ba' r a q / 'heat' vs d a r a /da r a q / ' b l o o d '

!

bua /bwaq/ 'areca n u t ' vs dua /dw5q/ 'two'

k u r a b /ku r a b / 'a b i g b i t e ' vs k u r a d / k f i r a d / 'ringworm*

/d/ — /g/

a d a l /qa d a l / ' l e a r n i n g ' v s a g a l /q£ g a l / ' c o m p l a i n t '

;

a l l n e d n e d /qa l i ned ried/ ' u t t e r d a r k n e s s ' vs a l l n e g n e g

/qa l i neg n e g / 'depths'

 165

bangad /ba nad/ 'stubborn' vs bangag /ba nag/ 'low pitched'

betted /bet ted/ 'cramps' vs betteg /bet teg/ ' d i s t i n c t '
dapo /da pSq/ 'ashes' vs gapo /ga poq/ 'reason* cause'
dita /di tSq/ 'there' vs gita /gi taq/ ' o i l y taste of nuts'
tulad /tu lad/ 'imitate' vs tulag /tu lag/ 'agreement'
turod /tu rod/ ' h i l l ' vs turog /tu rog/ 'sleep'
udaod /qu da qod/ 'bow ( v i o l i n ) ' vs ugaog /qu ga qog/
•weeping'
umadaw /qu m&' daw/ 'to borrow f i r e from a neighbor' vs
umagaw /qu ma gaw/ 'to snatch away'

/m/ / /
n

ammong. /qam mon/ ' p i l e , heap' vs annong /qan nSn/ 'burden'

amag. /qa mag/ 'mold, mildew' vs anag. /q5 nag/ 'implication'
ayam /qa yarn/ 'chicken t i c k ' vs ayan /qa ySn/ 'place'
damag /da mag/ 'news' vs danag /da" nag/ 'worry'
manang /mC nan/ ' s i s t e r ' vs nanang /nS. nan/ 'mother'
matay. /ma tay/ ' w i l l die' vs natay /na tay/ 'died'
mo /mSq/ 'your' vs no /n6q/ 'if»

/n/ /n/

aneo /qa nep/ 'diligence' vs angep /qa nep/ 'fog*

bulan /bu lan/ 'moon' vs bulang /bu lan/ 'cockfighting'
na /naq/ 'his,' her, i t s ' vs nga /naq/ »a ligature'
nepneo /nep nep/ 'rainy days' vs ngepngeo /nep nep/ 'darkness'
tunaw /tfi naw/ 'dissolve' vs tungaw /tfi naw/ ' i t c h bug'
 166

/w/- -/y/

awan /qa wan/ ' n o t h i n g 1

vs ayan /qa y a n / 'where*

nawaya /na wa y a q / 'at l i b e r t y ; s p a c i o u s ' vs nayaya

/na y a y a q / 'dissuaded'

wakawakan /wa k a wa k a n / 'to s p r i n k l e w i t h powder' vs

!

yakayakan /ya k a y a k a n / ' s i e v e *

4;2212 ( c ) C o n t r a s t s i n Manner o f A r t i c u l a t i o n

I l o k a n o has a six-way c o n t r a s t i n t h i s dimension,

thus:

Stops

&

Fricatives

Nasals

Lateral

Flap

Semivowels w
 167

Two a s p e c t s of the p a t t e r n s h o u l d be n o t e d . First,

two p o t e n t i a l d i s t i n c t i o n s i n the v o i c e d f r i c a t i v e series

a r e not u t i l i z e d , s i n c e I l o k a n o l a c k s the d e n t a l and velar

voiced f r i c a t i v e s , / z / and /*jj*/, r e s p e c t i v e l y . Secondly,

t h e r e a r e two s e t s of c o r r e l a t i o n , i . e., the s t o p - f r i c a -

t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n , /p t k b/ vs ff s h v/, and the stop-na-

s a l c o r r e l a t i o n , /b d g/ vs /m n n/.

The f o l l o w i n g l i s t of m i n i m a l p a i r s , m i n i m a l t r i p l e t s , -

and subminimal p a i r s w i l l f u r t h e r e s t a b l i s h the emic status

of the consonants:

/p/

/ff

p i a n o /pya noq/ 'piano' vs f l a n s a / f y a n s a q / 'bail'

p u e r t a /pwer t a q / ' e n t r a n c e ' vs f u e r t e / f w e r t e q / 'strong'

p i k o /pf koq/ ' p i c k ax' vs f i h o / f f hoq/ 'sure, c e r t a i n '

p i l i /pi l i q / 'choice' vs f l l a / f l l a q / ' f i l e , line'

p r i s o / p r f soq/ ' p r i s o n e r ' vs f r l t o / f r f t o q / 'fried'

punto /pun toq/ ' i n t o n a t i o n , twang' vs fundo / f u n doq/ 'fund'

a l a t /qa l a t / ' f i s h b a s k e t ' vs a l a s /qa l a s / 'indecency'

 168

b a t a /ba t a q / 'bathrobe' vs basa /ba s a q / 'read'

k u t i t /ku. t i t / 'rump' vs k u s i t /ku s i t / ' d e c e i t '

t a r a / t a r a q / 'an a r o m a t i c p l a n t ' vs s a r a / s a r a q / 'antler'

tanga / t a naq/ ' s t u p i d ' vs sanga / s a naq/ 'branch'

t a t a / t a t a q / ' u n c l e ' vs t a s a / t a s a q / 'cup'

tawar / t a war/ ' b a r g a i n ' vs sawar / s a war/ 'search'

A/

A/

kaka /ka kaq/ ' e l d e r s i b l i n g ' vs kaha /ka haq/ 'box, case'

Kiko / k i koq/ 'a boy's name' vs i h o / q i hoq/ 'son'

k o l a /ko l a q / 'paste' vs h o i en /h'6 l e n / 'marbles

!
(toy)'

k u e t e s /kwe!
t e s / ' f i r e w o r k s ' vs hueteng /hwe ten/ 'raffle'

piko /pf koq/ ' p i c k a x ' vs f i h o / f a ' hoq/ 'certain, sure'

pikon /pf kon/ ' f o l d ' vs b i h o n /bf hon/ 'rice sticks'

/V

A/

b a r a /ba r a q / 'heat' vs v a r a /va r a q / 'a v a r i a b l e u n i t o f

l e n g t h , about 2.8 feet'

b i e n e s /bye n e s / ' r e a l e s t a t e p r o p e r t y * vs V i e r n e s

/vyer nes/ 'Friday*

b i s i l /bf s i l / * g r a v e l * vs v i s t a / v i s t a q / 'view'
 169

/V

/m/

agob /qa gob/ ' s m e l l o f o l d r i c e ' vs agora /qa gom/ 'covet'

ayab /qa y a b / ' c a l l ' vs ayam /qa yam/ ' c h i c k e n t i c k '

b a l o / b 5 l o q / 'widow(er)' vs malo /m§, l o q / 'wooden c l u b 1

b a t a y /ba t a y / ' s u p p o r t ' vs matay /ma t a y / ' t o d i e '

bayo /bH y o q / 'pounding' vs Mayo /ma y o q / 'May'

buyot /bu y o t / ' t r o o p s ' vs muyot /mu y o t / ' c r a z e '

b e r b e r / b e r b e r / ' d r a f t ' vs mermer /mer mer/ 'dust shower'

l a b e s / l a b e s / 'beyond' vs lames / l a mes/ ' f i s h '

/d/

/n/

a g a d i /qa ga d i q / 'two c o n s e c u t i v e s i b l i n g s ' vs a g a n i

/qa ga n i q / ' h a r v e s t e r '

da / d a q / 'they, t h e i r ' vs na /riaq/ ' h i s , h e r , i t s '

i n d a y o n / q i n da y o n / 'swing' vs innayon / q i n na y o n /
/'added t o '

/g/

agot /qa g o t / 'ointment' vs angot /qa n o t / ' s m e l l '

;

Pia-g /hyag/ ' l i f e ' vs b i a n g /byan/ 'care, concern'

 170

b u l o g /bu I 6 g / ' u n c a s t r a t e d male a n i m a l 1

vs bulong

/bu log./ ' l e a f 1

g e r g e r / g e r g e r / 'grooved l i n e ' vs n g e r n g e r / n e r n e r /

'snarl'

k u l u g e n / k u l u g e n / 'to shake' vs k u l u n g e n / k u l u n e n /

'to fence i n '

/m/

/w/

ama /qa maq/ 'my f a t h e r ' vs awa /qa waq/ 'a l a r g e m i l k

:
fish'

ameng /qa men/ 'miser' vs aweng /qa wen/ 'resonance*

ima /qf maq/ 'hand' vs i w a / q l waq/ ' s l i c e '

1

kammet /kam met/ 'a h a n d f u l ' vs kawwet /kaw w e t / 'cockspur*

/n/

A/

a g n i s n i s /qag n i s nl's/ ' t o wipe w i t h a r a g ' vs a g l i s l i s

/qag l i s l i s / 'to t u c k up one's s l e e v e s o r s k i r t '

agnutnot /qag n u t n o t / ' t o thumbsuck' vs a g l u t l o t

/qag l u t l o t / ' t o become muddy'

nana /na n a q / 'pus' v s l a n a / l a ' n a q / ' o i l *

nawnawen /naw n& wen/ ' t o d i s s o l v e ' vs lawlawen

/law l a wen/ ' t o s u r r o u n d '

 171

nlwniw /nlw n l w / ' v e r t i g o ' vs l f w l l w / l i w l a w / ' f i s h i n g r o d '

nungnungan /nun nu n a n / ' t o f a v o r ' vs l u n g l u n g a n

/lug. l u nan/ 'kitchen u t e n s i l s '

/!/

/r/

labong / l a hog./ ' l o o s e ' vs rabong / r a bon7 'bamboo s h o o t '

l a em / l a qem/ 'house p r o p e r ' vs raem / r a qem/ 'respect'

la
m e s / l a me's/ ' f i s h ' vs rames / r a mes/ 'disrespect'

J-asl / l a s l q / ' d a n d r u f f vs r a s l / r a s l q / ' q u a l i t y o f

being f r a g i l e '

l i a l i / l i y a l i q / 'sway' vs r i a r i / r i ya r i q / 'male c i c a d a '

;

n a l a y l a y /na l a y l a y / ' w i l t e d ' vs n a r a y r a y /na r a y r a y /

'burning/ s p a r k l i n g '

s a l a /sa l a q / 'dance' vs s a r a /sac r a q / 'horns'

!

/r/

/y/

r a g r a g / r a g r a g / ' r u i n ' vs yagyag /yag y a g / ' i n s u l t '

r e p r e p / r e p r e p / 'crowd' vs yepyep /yep yep/ ' q u i e t '
r u k u r o k / r u ku r o k / ' e r o s i o n ' vs yukuyok /yu k u yok/
1

'sieve'

wara /wa r a q / ' l i t t e r ' vs waya /wa y a q / 'spare t i m e '

 172

P i g , 11. I l o k a n o Consonant P a t t e r n

(A Summary)

y
 173

4.2213 Suprasegmental Prosodemes

The p o s s i b i l i t i e s of o v e r l a p p i n g o r i n t e r l o c k i n g

of s u p r a s e g m e n t a l f e a t u r e s a r e u n l i m i t e d . However, j u s t

as i n the case of t h e e t i c a n a l y s i s (Sec. 3*3)» the

f e a t u r e s a r e here t r e a t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y i n o r d e r t o estab-

l i s h - o r n o t e s t a b l i s h - t h e i r i d e n t i t y as prosodemes.

From the w e l t e r of e t i c d a t a , the w r i t e r assumes

t h e f o l l o w i n g f e a t u r e s as emic norms t o be e s t a b l i s h e d as

separate prosodemes t h r o u g h c o n t r a s t :

Dimensions o f C o n t r a s t Features

A. S t r e s s (x = s y l l a b l e ) / x ' x / vs /'xx/

Length: Vowel /V/ vs /V:/

Consonant /c/ vs /cc/

Pitch, Intonation

and J u n c t u r e (PIJ) / l / vs /3/

/2/ vs /3/

/3/ vs / V

/2/ vs / l /

4/ vs

r/\/
/I/ vs
 174

4/2213 (a) Stress

On pages 127 and 128 o f t h i s t h e s i s i s a summary o f

the e t i c s t r e s s p a t t e r n s of Ilokano.* The present a n a l y s i s

i s concerned n o t about s u c h p a t t e r n s per s e , but whether

o r n o t s t r e s s i s a n emic u n i t a t a l l i n the l a n g u a g e . Once

the emic s t r e s s o r stroneme i s e s t a b l i s h e d , the stroneme

patterns can l i k e w i s e be e s t a b l i s h e d - t h i s i s the domain

of Sec. :
4.222, V a r i a t i o n !and D i s t r i b u t i o n . Thus, o n l y the

two-way c o n t r a s t of s t r e s s - i . e.', weak (unmarked) v e r s u s

strong (') - w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d h e r e .

That I l o k a n o has a weak-strong c o n t r a s t i n stress

i s e v i d e n c e d by the f o l l o w i n g m i n i m a l p a i r s :

agraman /qag ra! man/ ' i n c l u d i n g ' v s /qag r a man/ 'to t a s t e *

anayen /qa na yen/ *to be consumed by t e r m i t e s ' v s

/qa na.-yen/ 'to make complete o r r s u f f i c i e n t '

ayam /q& yam/ ' p l a y , game' v s /qa yam/ 'chicken t i c k *

bawang /ba; wan/ ' g a r l i c * v s /ba wlln/ 'ravine'

d a t a /da 1
t a q / 'supine p o s i t i o n ' v s /da t a q / 'the two of us'

daya /da yaq/ ' e a s t ' vs /da yaq/ 'gathering'

i t a y a / q i t a yaq/ *to r e c e i v e * v s / q i t a yaq/ *to bet'

k a l i /ka 1
liq/ ' d i t c h ' v s /ka l i q / 'hawk'

kayo /ka yoq/ !

' t r e e * v s /ka yoq/ 'you (plural)'

p i l a w /p£ law/ ' b l e m i s h ' v s / p i iaw/ 'pool of s t a g n a n t w a t e r '

sanga /s& naq/ ' l a r v a of c l o t h e s moth* vs / s a naq/ 'branch*

 175

suso / s u s o q / ' b r e a s t ' vs / s u s'S'q/ a k i n d o f s n a i l '

f

t a y a b / t 5 ' y a b / 'earthen p o t ' vs / t a yfib/ 'flight'

4.2213 (b) Length

(1) Vowel L e n g t h

In Ilokano, v o c a l i c length i s phonetic and a u t o m a t i c ,

i. e.-,' i t c o - o c c u r s w i t h s t r e s s a t l e a s t i n an open s y l l a b l e .

The contrast i n the f o l l o w i n g minimal p a i r s i s a f u n c t i o n of

t h e s t r e s s w i t h w h i c h t h e vowel l e n g t h i s c o - o c c u r r e n t :

badang ['ba': .dog] /b& d a n / ' h e l p ' vs

[ba.'dan] /ba d a n / ' l a r g e b o l o '

bara ['ba:.raq] /ba r a q / 'heat' vs

[ b a . ' r a q ] /ba r a q / 'lungs*

gita L S i * • t a q ] / g i t a q / 'venom' vs
1

[ g l . ' t a q ] / g i t a q / ' o i l y taste of nuts'

sika [ ' s i : . k a q ] / s i k a q / ' d y s e n t e r y ' vs

[sl.'kaq] / s i k a q / 'you'

tudo ['tu:.doq] / t u d o q / ' r a i n ' vs

[tU.'doq] / t u doq/ 'point'

tugot ['tu:.got] / t u got/ ' b r i n g * vs

[tU.'got] / t u g5t/ ' f o o t p r i n t '

The f o l l o w i n g examples i n w h i c h t h e vowel i n b o t h

the w e a k l y - and t h e s t r o n g l y - s t r e s s e d c l o s e d s y l l a b l e s i s

l e n g t h e n e d , w i l l f u r t h e r prove t h a t vowel l e n g t h i s m e r e l y

a phonetic - even i d i o s y n c r a t i c - r e a l i z a t i o n :
 176

«V: V:
['ba:.dan] o r [»ba:.da:n] /ba dan/ 'help'

['gi:.taq] or ['gi:.ta:q] /gi" t a q / 'venom

['tu:.doq] o r ['tu:.do:q] / t u doq/ 'rain'

V V 'V:

[ba.'dan] or [ba.'da:n] /ba dan/ 'large bolo'

[gl.'taq] or [ g l . ' t a : q ] / g i t a q / ' o i l y t a s t e of nuts'

[tU. doq]
if
or [tU.«do:q] / t u doq/ 'point'

Therefore,' vowel l e n g t h , whether o r n o t i t c o - o c c u r s

w i t h s t r e s s , ' i s not phonemic i n I l o k a n o , s i n c e i t does not

c o n s t i t u t e a meaningful or f u n c t i o n a l c o n t r a s t . T h i s gene-

r a l i z a t i o n can be s t a t e d ' i n the rule:

(2) C ons onant L e n g t h

:

I l o k a n o consonants have a two-way c o n t r a s t i n l e n g t h .

A p h o n e t i c a l l y l o n g consonant, [ C : ] , becomes o r i s i n t e r -

p r e t e d p h o n e m i c a l l y as geminate - i . ' e., a sequence of two

phonemes, the consonant f o l l o w e d by i t s e l f , /CC/ - since I t

c o n t r a s t s w i t h a s i n g l e consonant, /G/.' Briefly stated:

[C:] > /CC/ vs /C/

 177

The f o l l o w i n g l i s t of m i n i m a l p a i r s w i l l justify

the phonemic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f l o n g consonants as geminates

in Ilokano:
/C/ v s /GC/

amo /qa moq/ 'boss' vs ammo /qam m'oq/ 'knowledge'

b a l a /ba- l a q / ' b u l l e t ' v s b a l l a / b a l l a q / ' l u n a t i c '

Ida / q l daq/ 'them' vs i d d a / q i d daq/ 'bed'

i k a n / q i kan/ ' f i s h ' vs ikkan / q i k kah/ 'give*

i t a / q i t a q / *now' v s i t t a / q i t t a q / 'unhusked k e r n e l o f

r i c e mixed w i t h husked r i c e *

l a b a / l a baq/ ' l a u n d r y ' v s l a b b a / l a b baq/ 'large basket'

m l k i /ml k i q / 'noodles' v s m l k k i /mik

1
k i q / 'fastidiousness'

naganak /na g a nak/ 'gave b i r t h ' v s nagannak /na gan nak/

'parents•

4.&213 (c) P i t c h ? I n t o n a t i o n and J u n c t u r e ( P U )

The c o n t r a s t i n P I J i s a c o n t r a s t o f combinations

o r bundles o f t h e i r f e a t u r e s , s i n c e t h e s e a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s

or co-occurrent. L i n g u i s t s c a l l s u c h c o m b i n a t i o n s o r bun-

dles 'contour p a t t e r n s . ' However, t h e c o n t r a s t s intended

h e r e a r e v e e r e d not t o the p a t t e r n s per s e but t o the indi-

v i d u a l t e n t a t i v e prosodemes t h a t compose them.

Thus,' w h i l e i t i s true,' and r e l e v a n t , t h a t /21^/ v s

(see (1) below) a r e c o n t r a s t i v e p a t t e r n p a i r s / i t i s

 1?8

more r e l e v a n t a t t h i s s t a g e o f e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e prosodemes,

t o c o n s i d e r t h e o p p o s i t i o n i n terms o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l com-

ponent f e a t u r e s - / l / vs /3/ and / ] , / vs / [ / - a l t h o u g h n o t

disregarding the g e s t a l t . The p i t c h l e v e l , A A i s i n this

case h e l d constant,- and c a n i n t u r n be e s t a b l i s h e d as an

emic p i t c h o r toneme u s i n g t h e m i n i m a l p a i r , / 2 l V vs /31\l/,

(see (2) b e l o w ) . Such an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s h o u l d a p p l y t o t h e

o t h e r p a t t e r n s as w e l l . I t i s another i n s i g h t i n t o the

v i a b l e p r i n c i p l e t h a t an emic u n i t , be i t a segmental phoneme

o r a s u p r a s e g m e n t a l prosoderne, i s a p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e i n an

i n t e r l o c k i n g network o f c o n t r a s t s . Thus,

i n the opposition: the i n d i v i d u a l features

contrasted are:

(1) A4/ v s /23T/ A / vs /3/

4/ vs 4/
(2) A l J , / vs /3l|/ A / vs /3/

(3) A3f/ vs /2>/t /3/ v s A /

(4) /22|/ vs /2li/ A / vs A /

/| / vs /J,/
(5) /22|/ vs A3t/ /I / vs
A/
/ 2 / vs / 3 /
 179

The f o l l o w i n g c o n t r a s t i v e u t t e r a n c e p a i r s s e r v e

t o r e i f y t h e emic s t a t u s o f t h e t e n t a t i v e s u p r a s e g m e n t a l
...66
prosodernes enumerated above:

(1) /2lj/ vs /23f/

2 1 2 3^ .
Adda. /qad d a q ^ / 'There i s . ' vs Adda? /qad d a q j /

'Is t h e r e ? ' o r 'Did you s a y ( e c h o ) , 'There i s ? '

Awan.
/•qa wan^/ ' N o t h i n g . ' vs Awan? /qa wan^/

'(echo) N o t h i n g ? '
Ditoy, 2 1-. 2
3, A
/di toyl/ 'Here.' vs Ditoy? /di toyj/
'(echo) H e r e ? '
Juan. /nwanj/ 'John ( i s my name).' o r 'John (you a r e
called).' vs Juan? /nwan^/ '(echo) J o h n ? 1
or
'John ( y o u a r e c a l l e d ) . '
/2 1> 2 3# A
Saan. / s a qan^/ 'No.*' vs Saan? / s a q a n j / '(echo) No? 1

or '(tag question) I s n ' t i t ? '

2,1 i 2 3A #
Wen. / w e n l / 'Yes.' vs Wen? /wenj/ '(echo) Y e s ? ' o r

' ( t a g q u e s t i o n ) Y e s , you a g r e e , don't you?' o r

'Yes, w i l l you?'

(2) /2l|/ vs /3l|/

Awan. 2 wan^/
/qa 1 ' N o t h i n g . ' vs
3
Awan? /qa wianj^/ 'Nothing?'
1.

66
S h o r t u t t e r a n c e s which a r e p o t e n t i a l sentences
have been a r b i t r a r i l y chosen because t h e y demonstrate
f u n c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s more c l e a r l y and e a s i l y t h a n do
l o n g ones.
 180

2 1 I 3 1
Ditpjr. / d i toyj,/ 'Here.' vs Ditoy? / d i t o y j / 'Here?'

Wen. /wen|/ •Yes.' vs Wen? /w'enj/ 'Yes, w i l l you?'

(3) /23|/ vs /2^/

Ditoy? / ^ i "toyf/ '(echo) H e r e ? ' vs Ditoy? / d i toyf/

•(Where, oh, where) H e r e ? '

(4) /22 J/ vs / 2 l J /

2 2, j 2 1
A d d a
«•» /qad d a q | / 'There i s a ...» vs Adda, /qad d a q j /
'There i s . '
2 JI I
Juan ... /hwan / 'John ... (your surname, p l e a s e ) ' vs
2 ,1,
J u a n , /hwanl/ 'John.'

^ e n
'ilt- /wen|/ 'Yes (but)' vs Wen. /wenj,/ 'Yes.'

(5) /22J/ vs /23f/

2
Adda ... /qad d a q j / 'There i s a ...' vs Adda? /qad daqj/
'Is t h e r e ? '
2 2> i 2 3,
Awan ... /qa wan [/ 'There i s no ...' vs Awan? /qa waVrf/

'Nothing?' o r ' I s n ' t t h e r e a n y ? '

2 2; 2 3
D i t o y ... / d i t o y ) / 'At t h i s ...» vs D i t o y ? / d i toyf/
•Here?'
 181

4.222 VARIATION and DISTRIBUTION : P h o n o t a c t l c s and

Morphophonemics
Each o f the I l o k a n o phonemes and prosodemes e s t a b -
l i s h e d through c o n t r a s t i s f u r t h e r s p e c i f i e d by d e s c r i b i n g
^•ts v a r i a t i o n s , i y e.y i t s v a r i e d m a n i f e s t a t i o n s c a l l e d
a l l o p h o n e s o r "allodemes",' as w e l l as i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
w h i c h means the c o n d i t i o n s under w h i c h the a l i o s o c c u r o r
the p o s i t i o n i n w h i c h they a r e found w i t h r e s p e c t t o each
o t h e r and t o o t h e r elements i n the stream o f speech. A
s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r such d e s c r i p t i o n s would be an enumeration
o f the phonemes and prosodemes a l r e a d y i d e n t i f i e d , f o r de-
t a i l s of w h i c h r e f e r e n c e i s made t o Sec. 4.221. ;
The emic
u n i t s e s t a b l i s h e d through c o n t r a s t a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g :

5 vowels: / i , e, a, o, u/
18 consonants: /p, t , k, q, b, d,- g, m, n, n,'

f , s, h, v, 1, r , w,' y/
4 tonemes: / l , 2,' 3,- 4/
2 junctonernes: /|, J| ( s y m b o l i z e d as ^ or ^ )/
2 stronemes: /', (unmarked)/

3 i n t o n a t i o n contours: /|»^ »f /

I n Sec. 4.2212 (b) a r e i l l u s t r a t i v e examples show-

ing c o n t r a s t between /p,' t , k/ vs / q / , t h e r e b y establish-

ing them as s e p a r a t e phonemes o f the I l o k a n o d i a l e c t . An

a n a l y s i s o f t h e v a r i a t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s e phon-

emes, however, r e v e a l s t h a t t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s
 182

i n w h i c h t h e emic c o n t r a s t i s suspended - i . e., t h e phon-

eme / q / i s a t t h e same t i m e an a l l o p h o n e o f t h e phonemes

/p, t,- k/. T h i s s u s p e n s i o n o f emic o p p o s i t i o n i s o f t e n

c a l l e d n e u t r a l i z a t i o n / b u t a more a p t term f o r such l i n g -

u i s t i c phenomenon i s T r u b e t z k o y ' s "Aufhebung".* I t will

be n o t e d t h a t t h e Aufhebung p r i n c i p l e a p p l i e s t o c e r t a i n

phonemes as w e l l as prosodemes.

C l o s e l y t i e d i n w i t h t h e concepts o f v a r i a t i o n and

d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e those of phonotactlcs and morphophonemics.

P h o n o t a o t i c s has been d e f i n e d as t h a t a r e a o f emic d e s c r i p -

t i o n which provides general statements about permitted

sequences o r d i s t r i b u t i o n o f phonemes and prosodemes i n

short utterances/ The d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s be-

tween t h e emic shapes r e p r e s e n t i n g morphemes i s t h e t a s k o f

morphophonemics. A r a t i o n a l e f o r i n c l u d i n g such d e s c r i p -

t i o n i s t h e f a c t t h a t i n a c t u a l speech I l o k a n o morphemes

change shape due t o s e v e r a l c o m p l i c a t i n g factors, linguistic

o r otherwise.' Phonotactic and morphophonemic d e s c r i p t i o n s

of t h e s t r u c t u r e o f I l o k a n o a r e s t a t e d i n t h e form o f r e -

write rules/

4.2221 Phonotactlcs

4/2221 (a) Diphthongs

The s t r u c t u r e o f an I l o k a n o s y l l a b l e containing a

**From aufheben, a German word, meaning 'to suspend.'

 183

d i p h t h o n g i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e r u l e :

Since Ilokano has o n l y f i v e vowel phonemes, /i» e»

a, o, u / e s t a b l i s h e d t h r o u g h c o n t r a s t , o n l y t h e s e vowels
J

can be e m i c a l l y c o n s i d e r e d as d i p h t h o n g onglides.'

On t h e b a s i s o f t h e s y l l a b l e s t r u c t u r e p a t t e r n s o f

Ilokano - described i n Sec. 2,3 - t h e s t a t u s , f u n c t i o n , and

!

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f /w/ and / y / may be d e f i n e d as f o l l o w s :

(1) /w/ and /y/ a r e semivowels (v) when t h e y

f u n c t i o n as d i p h t h o n g o f f g l i d e s ;

(2) /w/ and / y / a r e semiconsonants ( c ) i n

prevocalic or prediphthongal p o s i t i o n ,

and when t h e y p a r t i c i p a t e as t h e l a s t

member o f a consonant c l u s t e r .

The f i r s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f /w/ and / y / i s some-

what a r b i t r a r y , y e t a n o t - q u i t e - e x a c t d e f i n i t i o n which

i s w o r k a b l e enough i s b e t t e r t h a n none.' A t any r a t e , t h e

a m b i v a l e n t s t a t u s o f t h e s e phonemes - i . e., t h e y s t r u c -

t u r e w i t h b o t h consonants and vowels - can be R e s o l v e d only

f o r and w i t h i n a g i v e n language. L e t t h i s be f o r I l o k a n o .
 184

Two s e t s o f o r d e r e d r e w r i t e r u l e s convey t h e i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n s more c l e a r l y , namelyJ

(1) /w/ o r / y / i s a semivowel (v) i f i t f u n c t i o n s

as an o f f g l i d e o f a d i p h t h o n g (Vv) -

Sd . > CVv (i)

• i f
fJ
/ / p , t , k, \
(ii)
1 D, . . . / J

(iii)

v ~~>|
?/w/ / /
CI- (iv)

a
Vy/ / A
o

vu

a
Examples:

-> /w/ / / /

tillw / t iliw/ 'catch'

baw-lnfi /baw q i n / 'swerve*

 185

a
v -— > /y/ / A J
o
kU

reyna /rey naq/ 'queen 1

daytoy /day toy/ * this 1

kasuy /ka suy/ 'cashew 1

(2) /w/ or /y/ i s a semiconsonant (c) i n prevocalic

or predlphthongal position:

(d)
fir *
((C)
/(C)(C)cv[
(v) l
J/ (i)

i?J ^
|/p, t , k, 1
(ii)
° " *l b, ... /1

v —->J
(/l,
I o, u/
e, a,-]
I
J
(ill)

'/w/ / /
(IV i
(iv)

vy/ / /_-

•A/ / /

(v)
Vy/ / /
 186

Examples:
o > /w/ / /_

CCcVC isibroan / q i s i b brwah/'to inaugurate something f o r '

CvVv ruay /rway/ 'abundance*

cVC awlt /qa wit/ 'load 1

cV walo /wa l'Sq/ • e i g h t 1

CcV(C) ilualoan / q i lwa lwan/ 'top

sueldo /swel doq/ Salary 1

c -> /y/ / /.

CCcVC empleok /qem plyok/ »my employment 1

CcW diay /dyay/ 'that'

c V C
layus / l a yus/ 'flood'

cV yelo /ye l o q / ' i c e '

CcV(C) agsyudsyudut /qag syud syu dut/ / i s being peeved*

4 ; 2 2 2 1 (b) Consonant Clusters

The rules underlying the s t r u c t u r a l patterns of con-

t o i d clusters have been set up i n Sec. 3.24, s p e c i f i c a l l y

pages 108 through 121. The same rules apply to the conso-

nant clusters.' Without recapitulating the detailed e t i c

descriptions, the rules are here re-stated emically, thusj

 187

I n i t i a l Clusters (IK)/ Prgvocalic

/ P . - *A
r/P, k,
> 1" b f g, • + C 2 /!/

• /p, t, k,'! 1

IK 2 > b,- d/ g,

r A H cs
IK 3 > ezcept v+ C 2 /w/

n - y/.
f

IK^ > + C 2 /y/

Medial Clusters

MK-L >
> IK-L except C-L / f / , but including C-jVt.d/,
MK 2 >

MK 3 >

>

MKc > C1 + C /r/+ C /y/

1
2 3

b, d/J

-> C 1 /p/ + C 2 /l/ + C 3 /y/

MK, -> C
1 /p/ + C 2 /r/ + C 3 /w/'
 188

Ci 1
Pinal Clusters (PK)y Postvocalic

FK, > CT 1 r+ c
? /s/
1 1
\ n / r / ) 2

^2 —> i i ,r
c
c
2 / k /

PK^ > C 1 /r/ + C

a
FK^ > C X /s/ + C 2 ft/

4/2221 (c) Vowels

Of the nine Ilokano vocoids charted from the cor-

pus of phonetic data, (Fig. 7), only five proved to be
phonemes of the dialect, (Pig. 10). The four others,
[ l t 3 » cu o], are subsumed as positional variants or a l l o -
phones, since they are in non-contrastive distribution -
i. e., either in complementary distribution or in free
variation - with their respective phonemic norms. Details
of such distributional relationships have been presented
in the etic descriptions on pages 46 through 68 of this
thesis. In the present emic description, however, they
w i l l be considered briefly, giving a few illustrative
examples of each.
 189

Variation: Distribution:

Phoneme Allophone C o n d i t i o n s o f Occurrence Example

/!/ [i] Stressed s y l l a b l e , /si l i q / ['si:.liq]

all positions. 'pepper'

[i] Unstressed s y l l a b l e , /si lid/ [si.'lid]

all positions.

/e/ [e] Everywhere - i . e., /hi f e q / ['he:.feq]

s t r e s s e d and u n s t r e s s - 'chief

ed s y l l a b l e s - a l l po-

sitions .

[9] I n free v a r i a t i o n with /bek ke l e n /

[e], except i n l o a n [bek.ke.'len]

words. [bak.ke. 'lan]

'to strangle'

/a/ [a] Stressed s y l l a b l e , /nan na n i q /

all positions. [nan.'na:.niq]

'almost'

[a] Unstressed s y l l a b l e , /na g a n / ['na:.gan]

all positions, •name'

/o/ [o] Everywhere, a l l /ma bo l o q /

positions. [ma.'bo:.loq]

'a k i n d o f f r u i t '

/ko l o r / [ko.'lor]

'color'

/so l o q / [ ' s o : . l o q ]

'alone'
 190

Variation: Distribution:

Phoneme Allophone C o n d i t i o n s o f Occurrence Example

[u]« In free v a r i a t i o n with Co],

except i n l o a n words. (See

Morphophonemics, Sec. 42222

(c) ( 3 ) , G r a d a t i o n , R u l e s

1 and 2.)
r i
/u/ LUJ Stressed syllable, /su k a t / ['su:.kat]

a l l positions. •measurement 1

/qa s u k a r /

[qa.'su: .kar] 'sugar 1

/qa duq/ [qa . 'duq]

•many*

Unstressed s y l l a b l e , / s u mti sup/

a l l positions. [sU.'mu:.sUp]

'to p u f f a t a c i g a r '

4.2221 (d) Consonants

There a r e 18 consonant phonemes out of the 19 c o n t o i d s .

/P/ [P] Everywhere, i. e., /pa pen/ ['pa:.pen]

p r e - and p o s t - v o c a l i c , 'young c o c o n u t '

a l l positions. /qa t e p / [ q a . ' t e p ]

'roof

*A case of Aufhebung. See a l s o t h e e t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s

i n S e c t i o n 3.211.
 191

Variation* Distribution:

Phoneme Allophone Conditions of Occurrence Example

[q]* In free v a r i a t i o n with /sip n£t/

[p] as s y l l a b l e coda i n [sip.'net]

medial position before [slq.'net]

the s y l l a b l e onsets, 'darkness'

[s. g].
A/ [t] Everywhere, / t u t o t / [*tu:.tot]

all positions. 'resin'

[q> In free v a r i a t i o n with /qa gat qa gas/

[ t ] as s y l l a b l e coda i n [qa.gat.»qa:.gas]

medial position before [qa.gaq. 'qa: .gas]

the s y l l a b l e onsets, ' I t smells l i k e

[q» b, d, g,' 1, r ] . medicine.'

A/ Everywhere, Ai 11 k i I f k /

a l l positions.' [kl.ll.kl.'lik]

'my armpit 1

[q> In free v a r i a t i o n with /sak moi/

[ k ] as s y l l a b l e coda i n [sak.'moi]

medial position before [saq.'moi]

the s y l l a b l e onsets,' 'mouthful'

[b, d, m, n, 1/ r ] .
J

A/ [q] Everywhere, /qal q o q / [qal.'qoq]

all positions. •pestle'

*Aufhebung
 192

Variation! Distribution*

Phoneme Allophone Conditions of Occurrence Example

/b/ Everywhere, /ba bSq/ [ba.*baq]

a l l positions, •down*
/si r i b / C ' s i : . r i b ]
•wisdom*
/d/ Cd] Everywhere/ /dfi don/ C 'du: .don]
a l l positions. •grasshopper*
/tu r i d / CtU.*red]
•courage*
/g/ Everywhere/ /gu g6t/ CgU^'got] 'gums*
all positions. /b£ leg/ C'bi:.leg]
* power *
/m/ Cm] Everywhere, /mu ma lSm/ [mU.ma.'lem]
all positions. •late afternoon*
/n/ Cm> Before bilabial /pen pen/ Cpem.*pen]

stops/ [p, b ] . •stacks*

Before velar * earthquake *

stops, [ k / g ] . / g i n g i n€d/ C g l n . g l . ' n e d ]

Cn] Elsewhere, /na ga nan/ C^a.'ga:.nan]

all positions. •to name*

Everywhere, /na naq/ Cncu'naq]

a l l positions. 1
•open mouthed*

/nway C 'nwan]

•water b u f f a l o *

»Aufhebung/
 193

Variation* Distribution*
Phoneme Allophone Conditions of Occurrence Example

/f/ Cf] Prevocalic only, / f f noq/ [ * f i : . n o q ]

a l l positions. •fine 1

Pre-semiconsonantal, /qlf fwe r a q /

medial only, as the Cqlf.*fwe:.raq]

f i r s t C of a c l u s t e r . *to cast aside*

/•/ Cv] Prevocalic only, /nwl vaq/ / v i s ka yaq/

a l l positions. C *nwe:.vaq]CvIs.'ka:.yaq]

•name of a province*

/s/ Cs] Everywhere /su s i k / C'su:.slk]

a l l positions. •altercation*

/*da:.kes/ [*da:.kes]

•bad*

/h/ Ch] Prevocalic only, /hus tbq/ [hUs.'toq]

i n i t i a l position. •right; enough*

Cn] Pre-semiconsonantal /re 11 hyon/

and i n t e r v o c a l i c only;! [re.ll.*hyon]

I n i t i a l and medial *religion*

positions. 1
/ha l o ha l o q /

Cha.lo.»ha:.loq]

'assorted sherbet*

A/ Everywhere, / l a q l loq/ Cla.'qi:.loq]

a l l positions. *cajole*

/ q i la" q i l / [ q l . »la: . q l l ]

•wobble *
 194

Variation: Distribution:

Phoneme Allophone Conditions of Occurrence Example

/r/ [r] Everywhere, / r i roq/ [»ri:.roq]

all positions. 'confusion'

/qu per/ C'qu:.per]

•soak 1

/w/ [w] Prevocalic, a l l posi- / w a w e k / C tx» ' w e k ]

w

tions; last member o f 'stab deep*

a consonant cluster. /lwag/ Qlwag]'froth'

Diphthong offglide / t i l i w / [tl.'liu]

after stressed Ci]« 'catch'

Cu] Diphthong offglide /t& l a w / ['ta:.laU]

after [ i ] , [a], or [a]. 'departure'

/y/ Cy] Prevocalic, a l l posi- / y u yem/ ['yu:.yem]

tions; last member o f 'cloudy'

a consonant cluster. /nyog/ ['nyog]

'coconut'

ci>
Diphthong offglide /ka suy/

after stressed [u]. [ka.'sui]

•cashew'

Ci] Diphthong offglide /suy soy/

after [ u ] , [a], or [o]. [sUI.'sol]

'fray, ravel'

^Aufhebung
 195

4.2221 (e) Tonemes

variation: Distribution:

Toneme Allotone C o n d i t i o n s o f Occurrence Example

/2/ [2] I n i t i a l p i t c h l e v e l of

most u t t e r a n c e s . Maysa, d u a , ...

_2 1 2 1_
Before or a f t e r [ l ] , i n [ m a l . ' s a q 'dwaqj

utterance p r e - f i n a l , or
rl 2 1 2_
signals a series. |_mal. 'saq 'dwaqj

'One, two, ...'

[l] A f t e r [2], i n utterance

f i n a l , signals a state- Adda, [qad.'daq]

ment . 'There i s . '

A f t e r [3], i n utterance

f i n a l , s i g n a l s a ques- [qad.'daq]

tion. •Is t h e r e ? '

/3/ [3] A f t e r [2], utterance

terminal, signals a [qad.«5aq]

question. •Is there?»

/4/ [4] B e f o r e [2], near u t t e r -

4 2
ance f i n a l , s i g n a l s a [qad.'daq]

statement w i t h emphasis •There i s . ' (Look!) «

o r s t r o n g emotion.
2 4
A f t e r [2], o r sometimes [qad.'daq]

[3]/ signals a question. 'Is t h e r e ? '

 196

Variation: Distribution:

Toneme Allotone C o n d i t i o n s of Occurrence Example

4/ C|] A f t e r [2l], s i g n a l s a [ q a d . 'daq^]

statement. 'There i s . '

A, A f t e r [23] o r [ 2 4 ] , [qad.'laqf]
signals a question. 'Is there?'
2 3 1
ft] A f t e r [231], s i g n a l s [ q a d . 'daq^]

a question. •Is there?'

2 13A
C\tl A f t e r [213], s i g n a l s [qad.'daq^p
a question. 'Is there?'

A f t e r [31], s i g n a l s [ q a d . 'daqj,]

a question. 'Is there?'

4.2221 ( f ) Junctonemes

Junctoneme Allojjunctone

/)/ [|] A f t e r two i d e n t i c a l pitch

l e v e l s , e. g., [22], s i g -

nals a r e l a t i v e l y short

pause, l e v e l t o n e , and i n - [ q a d . 'daq |]

complete s t a t e m e n t . 'There i s a ...'

^Aufhebung x /\/ v s /\/\ \_\f\ i n the c o n t e x t [31>^]

i s equivalent to [T].
 197

Variation: Distribution:

Junctoneme Aliojunctone C o n d i t i o n s o f Occurrence Example

/||/ [|] A f t e r [21], signals a

complete s t a t e m e n t and [q.ad. daq^]

T

a l o n g t e r m i n a l pause. 'There i s . '

[f] A f t e r [23] or [13], sig-

n a l s a complete s e n t e n c e [qad.'ciaq^]
and a l o n g t e r m i n a l pause. 'Is t h e r e ? *

4.2221 (g) Stronemes

Stroneme Aliostrone

/*/ [*] An I l o k a n o has a t

/ / (unmarked) l e a s t one s t r o n g s t r e s s ,

[ ] a t most two, i n t h e f o l l o w -
67
ing d i s t r i b u t i o n patterns:

One S t r o n g S t r e s s , [ ' ] :

(x)(x)(x)'x [ba.tl.kU.'len] 'giblet'

(x)(x)(x)'xx [na.ka.pUd.'pu:.dot]

'It's very hot.'

(x) ( x ) x ' x x x [na.ka.pUd.-'pu: .do.ten]

' I t ' s v e r y hot now.'

67
The symbol x = s y l l a b l e ; t h e p a r e n t h e s i s i n d i c a t e s
o p t i o n a l o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e s y l l a b l e . I n t h e s p e c i f i c examples
g i v e n h e r e , however, x i s o b l i g a t o r y .
 198

Variation: Distribution:

Stroneme A l i o s t r o n e C o n d i t i o n s of Occurrence Example

Two S t r o n g S t r e s s e s , [* ' ] :

xx'xx'x [na.ka.'al.qa.'yat] 'lovely'

(x)x'xxx'x [ma.kl.'qin.na.yan.qa.'yat]

'to be i n l o v e w i t h someone'

(x)x'xx'xx [ma.kl.'bin.nl.'la:.nan]

•to j o i n i n the m u t u a l c o u n t i n g '

(x)(x)x'xxx'xx

[ma.kl.pag.'pin.pin.na.'lis.qiu] 'uncalled

f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n observing'

xx'xxxx'xx

[ma.kl.'lin.lln.nem.me.'na:.nen]

'He's p l a y i n g hide-and-seek now.'

(x)x'xx'xxx

[ma.kl.'bin.bln.nl.'la:.na.nen] 'He

has j o i n e d i n the mutual c o u n t i n g . '

There a r e two i m p o r t a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s about the

d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e s s i n I l o k a n o . F i r s t , t h e r e has t o be

a t l e a s t one o b l i g a t o r y s y l l a b l e b e f o r e the s t r e s s e d a n t e -

p e n u l t i m a t e s y l l a b l e , e. g., [ x A x x x ] . I l o k a n o does n o t

superpose s t r e s s a t the b e g i n n i n g of a t h r e e - s y l l a b l e word,

i n the way t h a t E n g l i s h does, e. g., p o s s i b l e [ p a : . s l . b l ]

f

['xxx]. S e c o n d l y , I n the p a t t e r n s w i t h two s t r e s s e s , t h e r e

 199

has t o he a n o b l i g a t o r y s y l l a b l e b e f o r e t h e f i r s t strong

s tress

Of t h e s u p r a s e g m e n t a l s , s t r e s s i s t h e p r i m a r y f e a t -

u r e i n a c h i e v i n g a p a t t e r n o f prominence i n t h e word, t h e

other features t y i n g i n very c l o s e l y . Thus, f o r I l o k a n o :

+ /'Length }
S y l l a b l e Prominence > + [str] J V
I P I J J
For example:

Stress: [ x 'x x ] [na.'pu.dotQ 'It's hot.'

plus Length: [ x 'x: x ] [na. pu:.dot]

f
' I t i s hot.'
1 2 1

plus P I J : [ x 'x: .x^] [na.'pu: . d o t ^ ] ' I t i s hot.'

4.2222 Morphophonemics

A l i n k o r t r a n s d u c e r between t h e s y n t a c t i c and t h e

p h o n o l o g i c a l components o f a grammar i s morphophonemics -

r o u g h l y e q u i v a l e n t t o s y s t e m a t i c phonemics i n Chomsky's
68
g e n e r a t i v e - t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l grammar. To t h e t r a n s f o r m a -

t i o n a l i s t s , s y s t e m a t i c phonemics i s second t o t h e l a s t

s t a g e i n t h e grammar o f a language - t h e l a s t b e i n g s y s t e -

m a t i c p h o n e t i c s w h i c h d e s c r i b e s how s e n t e n c e s a r e a c t u a l l y

produced and p h o n e t i c a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d by t h e n a t i v e s p e a k e r .
68
See Noam Chomsky, A s p e c t s o f t h e Theory o f S y n t a x ,
pp. 15-18; " C u r r e n t I S S U E S i n L i n g u i s t i c Theory," I n
K a t z and F o d o r , op_. c i t . , pp. 85-90.
 200

In t h i s phonological grammar o f I l o k a n o , morpho-

phonemics d e a l s w i t h t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e phonemic s t r u c -

t u r e o f morphemes. I t also describes how t h e phonemic

representation o f each morpheme i s p h o n e t i c a l l y r e a l i z e d .

The morphophonemic changes i n I l o k a n o may t a k e t h e

form o f one, o r a c o m b i n a t i o n o f any, o f t h e f o l l o w i n g

processes:

(a) Phoneme a d d i t i o n

(b) Phoneme d e l e t i o n

(c) Phoneme s u b s t i t u t i o n as a r e s u l t o f :

(1) assimilation

(2) dissimilation

(3) gradation

(4) reduplication

4.2222 (a) Phoneme A d d i t i o n

The phenomenon o f phoneme a d d i t i o n i n I l o k a n o may

be e x p l a i n e d u s i n g t h e examples below. 1) I n the f i r s t

example, /sum b r e k / , t h e i n t r u s i v e /b/, b e i n g a b i l a b i a l

s t o p , i s a l i a i s o n between t h e b i l a b i a l n a s a l , /m/, t o the

a l v e o l a r f l a p , / r / . The f a c t t h a t /b/ i s n o n - n a s a l l i k e

/ r / f a c i l i t a t e s t h e t r a n s i t i o n from /m/ t o / r / . 2) The

same may be s a i d f o r t h e a l v e o l a r / n / l i n k i n g t h e o r a l , / a / ,

t o t h e d e n t a l , / d / . A c t u a l l y t h e p r o c e s s i n v o l v e d has a

semblance o f r e g r e s s i v e a s s i m i l a t i o n . The i n t r u s i v e / n /

can l i k e w i s e be i n t e r p r e t e d as a phenomenon o f phoneme

 201

s u b s t i t u t i o n ( s e e d i s c u s s i o n about d i s s i m i l a t i o n ) . 3) The

a d d i t i o n o f consonants by g e m i n a t i o n i s induced by t h e s h i f t

o f s t r e s s t o t h e s y l l a b l e i n which t h e second member o f t h e

geminate o c c u r s . T h i s has r e f e r e n c e t o g r a d a t i o n as ex-

p l a i n e d i n S e c . 4.2222 ( c ) .

Hypothetical Phonemic Phonetic

Morpheme Form £*) Representation Realization

(1) I n t r u s i v e /b/:

#s errek# e n t r a n c e
1 1

+ #-um-# >^/sumerrek/ > /sum r e k /

/sum b r e k / — > [sUm.'brek]

'to e n t e r '

(2) I n t r u s i v e /n/:

#madi# 'won't'

+ #-ak# ' I ' >Vmadiak/ ^ /man d y f i k / — > [man.'dyak]

'I won't.'

(3) Other i n t r u s i v e consonants:

/p/ #tupi# 'hem'

+ #-am# 'you' — — >

*/tupiam/ > / t u p pyam/ — ^ [tUp.'pyam]

'Xou hem i t . '

/ t / #luto# 'cook'

+ #-ek# ' I ' >*/lutoek/ — — > / l u t twSk/ > [lUt.'twek]

'I cook i t . '

 202

Hypothetical Phonemic Phonetic

Morphemes Form (*) Representation Realization

A/ #lako# ' s a l e * 'to s e l l to»

+ #-an# ' t o ' — > * / l a k o a n / — > / l a k kwan/ — > [lak.'kwan]

/b/ #ab£# ' i n s u l t ' 'to i n s u l t '

+ #-en# ' t o ' — > #/abien/ — > /qab byen/ — > [qexb. 'byen]

/ d / #adu# 'abundant' 'well o f f

+ #-an# ' o f — > #/aduan/ — > /qad dwSn/ — > [qad.'dwan]

/ g / #rugl# ' s t a r t ' 'You s t a r t i t . '

+ #-am# 'you' —y * / r u g i a m / — > / r u g gyam/ — > [rUg.'gyam]

/m/ #sim8# 'knot' 'to knot'

+ #-en# ' t o ' — > * / s i m o e n / — > / s i m mwen/ — > [slm.'mwen]

/ n / #ani# ' h a r v e s t ' 'to h a r v e s t '

+ #-en# ' t o ' — > * / a n i e n / — > /qan n y e n / — > [qctn. 'nyen]

/ n / #sahgo# ' f r o n t ' 'where t o f a c e '

+ #-an# ' a t * — > */sangoan/ — > / s a n awan/—> [san.'nwan]

/ l / #gulo# ' c o n f u s i o n ' 'to c o n f u s e '

+ #-en# ' t o ' — > * / g u l o e n / — > / g u l lweh/ — > [gUl.'lwen]

/ r / #buro# ' p r e s e r v e ' 'You p r e s e r v e i t . '

+ #teem# *you' — > */buroem/ —>- / b u r rwem/—> [bUr.'rwem]

ft/ #kafe# ' c o f f e e ' 'to d r i n k as c o f f e e '

+ #-en# ' t o ' — > * / k a f e e n / — > / k a f f y i n / — > [ k a f . ' f y e n ]

/ s / #kaasi# ' p i t y '
+ #-an# ' t o ' — £ *Aaasian/ — ^ /ka qas s y a n / — ^

[ka.qas.'syan] 'to p i t y '

 203

4/2222 (b) Phoneme D e l e t i o n

I n I l o k a n o , morphophonemic change i s a l s o r e f l e c t e d

i n t h e l o s s o f phonemes - vowels as w e l l as c o n s o n a n t s .

The l o s s o f m e d i a l vowels i s c a l l e d syncope. I t w i l l he

n o t e d t h a t t h e vowel t h a t i s u s u a l l y syncopated i s / e / ,

p o s s i b l y due t o t h e f a c t t h a t i t tends t o become weakened

and reduced t o the s t a t u s o f schwa, /d/, and f i n a l l y lost.

I n some word forms, t h e consonants a d j a c e n t t o / e / a r e a l s o

lost.

Hypothetical Phonemic Phonetic

Morphemes Form (*) Representation Realization

(1) Loss o f / e / i

#arem# #/aremen/ — > / q a r men/ --^ [qar.'men]

•courtship* •to c o u r t '

#kapet# */kapeten/—> /kap t e n / [keep.'ten]

+ #-en# -->
•hold' I 'to h o l d '
#pateg# | * / p a t e g e n / ~ > / p a t gen/ [pat.'gen]

'endearment''' 'to endear*

#rikep# + #-an# — > * / r i k e p a n / ~ > / r i k pan/ — > [rlk.'pan]
'shutter' 'to shut (do.©r) t o '

(2) Loss o f / e l / , /en/, / r e / , /er/, /ed/, and /ep/:

# k e l l e b # 'cover' 'to seek c o v e r '

+ #-um-# ' t o ' --> ^ / k u m e l l e b / — > /kum l e b / --> [kUm.'leb]

#pennSk# ' s a t i s f a c t i o n ' 'to be s a t i s f i e d '

+ #ma-# 'to be' — > ^/mapennek/—^ /map neW — > [map.'nek]

 204

Hypothetical Phonemic Phonetic

II Morphemes Form (*) Representation Realization

#serrek# ' e n t r a n c e ' 'xfhere t o e n t e r '

+ #an# ' a t ' — > # / s e r r e k a n / — > / s e r k a n / — » [ s e r . ' k a n ]

#serrek# ' e n t r a n c e ' 'to e n t e r 1

+ #-um-# ' t o ' — > */sumerrek/ — > -/sum r e k / — > [sUm. ' r e k ]

#tedda# ' l e f t - o v e r * 'to be l e f t - o v e r '

+ #ma-# ' t o be' — ^ */matedda/ — > /mat d a q / — > [mat.'daq]

#lepp5s# ' f i n i s h ' 'to be f i n i s h e d '

+ #ma-# ' t o be' — > */maleppas/ — > /mal p a s / — > [ m a l . ' p a s ]

4iII22 ( o ) Phoneme Substitution

(1) A s s i m i l a t i o n : Two d i f f e r e n t a d j a c e n t phonemes

become more l i k e each o t h e r . When t h e f i r s t phoneme i n t h e

s e r i e s changes t o become s i m i l a r t o t h e one t h a t f o l l o w s i t ,

i. e., phoneme A a s s i m i l a t e s t o phoneme B, t h e p r o c e s s i s

d e s c r i b e d as r e g r e s s i v e a s s i m i l a t i o n ; the reverse process

i s c a l l e d progressive a s s i m i l a t i o n . A l l phenomena o f a s s i -

m i l a t i o n i n Ilokano a r e of the regressive type.

(la) Alveolar /n/> b i l a b i a l /m/, a s s i m i l a t e s t o b i l a b i a l s /p,b/:

#banban# — > /banban/ > /bam ban/ > [bam.'ban] ' t h i n

bamboo s t r i p s used f o r t y i n g '

#penpen# — y /penpen/ ^ /pem pen/ > [pem.'pen] ' s t a c k '

 205

(lb) A l v e o l a r /n/> v e l a r /n/, a s s i m i l a t e s t o v e l a r s / k , g/:

#gunguna# — > /gunguna/ — £ /gun g u n a q / — » [gUn.gU.'naq]

'gain'

#kenka# — > /kenka/ — > /ken k a q / — > [ k e n . ' k a q ] 'to y o u '

(lc) B i l a b i a l /p/> a l v e o l a r / r / , a s s i m i l a t e s t o a l v e o l a r /n/:

#ma-# + #pennek# > /mapennek/ >

By d e l e t i o n : /map nek/ — [ m a p . ' n e k ]

By a s s i m i l a t i o n : /mar nek/ — > [mar.'nek]

(2) Dissimilation: Two i d e n t i c a l a d j a c e n t phonemes

become d i s s i m i l a r . T h i s i s t h e r e v e r s e process o f a s s i m i l a -

tion.

(2a) D i s s i m i l a t i o n as t o v o i c i n g : /d/> / t / b e f o r e / g / :

#asideg# 'near' + #-an# ' t o ' — > / a s i d e g a n / —>

By syncope: / q a u s i d gan/ — > [qa.sld.'gan]

By d i s s i m i l a t i o n : /qa s i t gan/ — > [ q a . s l t . ' g a n ]

'to go near t o *

(2b) D i s s i m i l a t i o n as t o point-manner o f a r t i c u l a t i o n : -

d e n t a l - s t o p + d e n t a l s s f c o p /dd/> a l v e o l a r - n a s a l + d e n t a l - s t o p /nd/:

#madl# 'won't' + #-ak# ' I ' — > /madiak/ — >

By phoneme a d d i t i o n : /mad dy5k/ — >

[mad.'dyak]

By d i s s i m i l a t i o n : /man dyfik/ — >

[man.'dyak]

'I won't.'
 206

(3) Gradation: The s u b s t i t u t i o n o f phonemes - i . e.,

vowel change - due t o s h i f t o f s t r e s s i s a p r o c e s s c a l l e d

gradation. I n I l o k a n o , the vowels t h a t g e n e r a l l y undergo

s u c h change a r e : /o/ w h i c h becomes / u / o r a semiconsonant /w/;

and, / i / o r / e / w h i c h becomes a semiconsonant / y / . This type

o f morphophonemic change and t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t i n f l u e n c e i t

can be e x p l i c i t l y d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g f o u r r u l e s :

G r a d a t i o n R u l e 1:

/-ak\

-am

-em

Examples:

#al£mon# + #-ek# — > /alimonek/ >

'swallow' ' I ' /qa l i mu nek/ ^ [qa.H.'mu: .nek]
'I swallow i t . '
#pftor# + #-am# — > /puoram/

'fire' 'you /pu qu ram/ > [ p U . 'qu: .ram]

'You burn i t . '

#baot# + #-en# — > /baoten/ --—y
'lash' 'to' /ba qu t e n / > [ b a . ' q u : . t e n ] 'to l a s h '
 207

G r a d a t i o n Rule 2:
A-alA

-am
/i^
-fin
/o/ / /C a
r-CF - > / u / / /C, a •C

k.u
C +,
-Ik

-em

k-enj
Examples:
#apoy# + #een# — > /apoyen/ — ^

'fire' 'to' /qa pu y e n / — > [qcupU. 'yen] 'to cook (rice)'

#bungon# + #-en# — > /bungonen/ —>

'wrapper' 'to* /bu n u n i n / > [bU.nU.'nen] 'to wrap up'

#liko'd# #-an# — > / l i k o d a n / — >

'back' 'to' / l i k u d a n / — > [ l l . k U . ' d a n ] 'to t u r n one's
back t o *

G r a d a t i o n Rule 3$

r-ak%
> /y/ / /cvc c +
l/e/J l/GVG^^/J 1 1
-fim

-an
G r a d a t i o n Rule 4: 4-Ik 69

f/o/") f/CVC, C /-) ?

-em
J f/ J I 2
> /w/ / /CV^C,
1 /u/J l/CVC! •» C / J 2
1
*v-*W

69
CTC-, Consonant g e m i n a t e s . P o r examples
= illustrat-
i n g R u l e s 3 and 4, s e e S e c . 4.2222 ( a ) ( 3 ) .
 208

(4) Reduplication: A m o r p h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s where-

by t h e r e i s a r e p e t i t i o n o f a r a d i c a l element i s r e f e r r e d

t o as r e d u p l i c a t i o n . I n Ilokano, the r e d u p l i c a t i o n i s

e i t h e r p a r t i a l , i . e., o n l y t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e o f t h e

r a d i c a l element i s r e p e a t e d , o r f u l l , i n w h i c h t h e e n t i r e

r a d i c a l element i s r e d u p l i c a t e d . No phoneme s u b s t i t u t i o n

r e s u l t s from a p a r t i a l r e d u p l i c a t i o n i n t h e language. The

I l o k a n o vowel / o / becomes / u / i n t h e f i r s t r a d i c a l element

of a f u l l r e d u p l i c a t i o n . The f o l l o w i n g r u l e describes

such morphophonemic change:

/of / /CVC ^j/ > / u / / /CVC ,_, .Q/ /CVC o

Examples:

#ag# + # l u t o # — > / a g l u t o l u t o / — > /qag l u t u lu. t o q /

2
—>

•to* 'cook* [ q a g . l U . t U . l u : . t o q ] 'to p l a y c o o k i n g '

f

#baboy# —y /baboybaboy/ — > /ba buy ba boy/ — >

[ b a . b U I . ' b a : . b o l ] ' p i l l bug'

#kulog# 2
~ > /kulogkulog/ — > /ku lug k u l o g / —>

[ k U . l U g . k U . ' l o g ] 'a game o f d i c e '

* 2
#surot# — > /surotsurot/ — > /su r u t s u s o t / —>
[sU.rUt.'su:.rot] 'trailer'
 209

4/3 The Stream of Speech

70
4.31 Corpus

'Second year my now here Vancouver, isn't i t ?

Malkadua nga tawen k o n d i t o y V a n c o u v e r , saan k a d i ?

[ m a l k a d ' d w a : n a t a wenkondl * t o l v a n 'ku: v e r | s a q a n k a

1 1 1
diq^

Thank you f o r generous a i d your to the Philippines. 1

Dios t i agngina i t i nahushusto n g a badang yo i t i Filipinas.

'dyostlqog'niJnaqltlnahUs'hustonabadan'yo:| qltlflll'pi:nasQ

4.32 Concepts

The a n a l y s i s of the stream of speech i n the next five

pages aims t o i l l u s t r a t e g r a p h i c a l l y the g e n e r a l concepts i n

linguistics enumerated below. The information derived from

such graphic a r t i c u l a t o r y a n a l y s i s i s i n a way roughly simi-

lar t o t h a t w h i c h a s p e c t r o g r a m , sonagram, kymogram, o r

71

oscillogram i n instrumental phonetics would yield about

the corpus of u t t e r a n c e s above.

70
The c o r p u s i n c l u d e s a l l t h e 34 emic u n i t s e s t a b l i s h e d
in this chapter.
A l l o w f o r a m a r g i n o f e r r o r s i n c e one c a n n o t t r a n s c r i b e
f a i t h f u l l y a l l the p h o n e t i c events of a c t u a l speech.
71
F o r an adequate and d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f i n s t r u m e n t s
 210

The graphic analysis shows that:

a. The ongoing stream of a meaningful utterance i s

a complex, ever-changing continuum of d i f f e r e n t sound f e a t -

ures ;

b. Each utterance can be uniquely, although inade-

quately, represented as a f i n i t e set of discrete emic ele-

ments occurring i n succession or simultaneously;

c. A segmental phoneme represents one or more phon-

e t i c features;

d. A suprasegmental prosodeme extends over a series

of segmental groupings;

e. Sounds i n context are modified i n various ways

because of t h e i r influence on one another, e. g«, [ n ] > [ n ]

before [ k ] ;

f. Borrowed sounds tend to be altered to conform

to the native phonetic habits, and to the native phonemic

code, e, g.V [vgei^kuwvr] > [vctn'ku: .ver];

g. Phonetics i s closely related, i s a prerequisite,

to phonemics. One cannot be dogmatic about the phonemes

of a language or d i a l e c t unless one i s conversant with i t s

phonetic structure and arrangement.

used i n acoustic phonetics, see C. Gunnar M. Fant, "Modern

Instruments and Methods f o r Acoustic Studies of Speech,"
Proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Linguists,
Oslo: Oslo University Press, 1958, pp. 282-3o"2.
 211

4.3 Analysis
T a b l e 2„ The Stream o f Speech A n a l y z e d

EMIC Sup Seg J. 2

"UNITS S e g t a l : m
8

|w .
ETIC FEATURES*
Close
Half-close
Half-open
Open
Stop
Bilabial
Dental +v +v +b
Velar +b +b
Glottal

Fricative
Labio-Dental
Dental
Glottal

Nasal
Bilabial
Alveolar
Velar

Lateral
Alveolar

Flap
Alveolar

Poll

\ tpal
Semi^f
lof 11

v
pal
Labialized
Dentalized
Palatalized
Velarized
".' Lengthened

* E v e r y symbol a t t h e p o i n t o f i n t e r s e c t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h e
presence of an e t i c f e a t u r e . S p e c i f i c a l l y , f o r vowels: h = f r o n t ,
+ ss c e n t r a l / -j = back; f o r consonants: v = v o i c e , b = b r e a t h .
 212

EMIC Sup: * 1 2 * 1 1
UNITS Seg: n d i t o y v a n k .u v e r s a ^|^ a
• n

ETIC FEAT.

Close
Half-close
Half-open
Open

Stop
Bilabial
Dental •fv +b
Velar +b
Glottal

Fric
Lab-Dent +v +v
Dental
. Glottal
Nasal
Bilabial
Alveolar
Velar

Lateral
Alveolar

Flap
Alveolar

bil
rt.
pal
Semi
bil

pal

Lab»lized
Dentailzed
Pal»lized
Velar!zed
Lengthened
 213

EMIC SupJ. 2 2 1 2 -
UNITS Seg.:, k a d i q d y o s t 1 q . a g n 1 n a q

ETIC FEAT.
Close
Half-close
Half-open
Open
Stop
. Bilabial
Dental +v +v +b
Velar +b +v
Glottal

Frlc
Lab-Dent
Dental
Glottal

Nasal
Bilabial
Alveolar
Velar

Lateral
Alveolar

Flap
Alveolar

•bil

pal
Semi
•bil

^pal-

Lab»lized
Dentailzed
Pal'llzed
Velarized
Lengthened
 214

EMIC Sup:. | 2 1 2
UNITS ,Seg:, q i t 1. n u h u s .t

ETIC FEAT. 1

Close
Half-close
Half-open
Open

Stop
3ilabial +v
Dental +b +b
Velar
Glottal

Fric
Lab-Dent
Dental
Glottal +v +b

Nasal
Bilabial
Alveolar
Velar

Lateral
Alveolar

Flap
Alveolar

Semi

pal

Lab"lized
Dentalized
Pal lized
1

Velarized
Lengthened
 t

215

EMIC Sups. 1 2 * 1
UNITS Segs. a a y o q q i t i f i .1 i p i n a s

ETIC FEAT.

Close
Half-close
Half-open + .4
Open
Stop
Bilabial +b
Dental
Velar
Glottal

Pric
Lab-Dent +b
Dental
Glottal

Nasal
Bilabial
Alveolar
Velar

Lateral
Alveolar

Flap
Alveolar
/bil

( % a l
Semij
(bil

^pal-
L a b ' l i zed
Dentalized
Pal lized
8

Velarized
Lengthened
 Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

5.1 Summary

The l i n g u i s t i c data described and c l a s s i f i e d at the

taxonomic l e v e l of this research - i . e. t the e t i c and emic

analyses i n the preceding chapters - w i l l now, by way of

summary, be considered at a higher l e v e l of abstraction: the

explanatory level. The l a t t e r characterizes the r e l a t i o n -

ships or patterns of combinability of the emic units by means

of a system of rewrite r u l e s . The output of each l e v e l of

description may be schematically shown i n the order of t h e i r

degree of abstraction, thus:

Taxonomic l e v e l : Explanatory level:

describes and c l a s s i f i e s reveals the underlying

e t i c units emic units patterns of relationships

Phonological
Phones Phonemes
Rules

The rationale f o r the f i n a l scheme of description

derives from the r e a l i z a t i o n that a t o t a l i t y does not con-

s i s t of things but of relationships, and, that language -

which i s a t o t a l i t y or g e s t a l t - i s essentially a rules-based

activity. This ties i n with the modern concept of a grammar,

namely, that i t .Is a theory of a language - a system of rules

which e x p l i c i t l y characterizes a native speaker-hearer's com-

petence and performance i n his language.

 217

Returning now to the two problems previously stated

which t h i s study purports to seek answers f o r , namely:

Problem 1: What are the emic units of the cultivated Ilokano

d i a l e c t as spoken i n Bayombong, Nueva Vlzcaya?

The d i a l e c t distinguishes a t o t a l number of t h i r t y -

four emic units, summarized as follows:

Segmental Phonemes - /

Five (5) Vowels: / i u

Eighteen (18) Consonants:

/p 1

m n

w- y/
 218

Suprasegmental Prosodernes

Pour (4) P i t c h Levels or Tonemes

/4/ Extra High

/3/ High
/2/ Normal

/!/ Low

Three (3) Intonation Contours

/|/ Level Intonation

4/ F a l l i n g intonation

/^/ Rising intonation

Two (2) Junctonemes

/ / Pre-terminal short pause

Two (2) Stronemes

/V Strong stress

/ / (Unmarked) Weak stress

Problem 2: What phonological patterns of occurrence r e l a t i o n s

between the emic units does the d i a l e c t permit?

The phonological grammar i s the answer. The underlying

patterns of r e l a t i v e occurrence of t h e l l i n g u i s t i c units are

stated i n the form of e x p l i c i t rewrite r u l e s . The grammar i s

a f i n i t e set of - 1. e.y only 42 - unordered rules that gene-

rate an i n f i n i t e number of combinable phonological elements i n

the Ilokano d i a l e c t . Such rules are grouped into two catego-

r i e s , namely;
 219

Group A , Phonetic R u l e s , s t a t e s the phonetic consti-

tution o f phonemes with respect to stated contexts; and

Group B , Morphophonemic R u l e s , s t a t e s the phonemic

constitution o f morphemes with respect to stated contexts.

The f o l l o w i n g is a f i n i t e set of symbols which partly

constitutes the metalanguage of the p h o n o l o g i c a l grammar:

^ "is represented by" or

"is rewritten as"

/ " i n the context (environment)"

[ ] etic unit or units

/ / emic u n i t or units

£ ^ a set: "choose one a n d only one on a given

application of the rule"

( ) "optional - include the item or items

where applicable"

[...[} "the rest of the items belonging i n the

syllable"

C C o n t o i d (or Consonant)

V Vocoid (or Vowel)

c Semicontold (or Semiconsonant)

v Semivocoid (or Semivowel)

Af Affix: -ak. -am, -an, -ek, -em. -en

The p h o n o l o g i c a l grammar o f the dialect of Ilokano

under s t u d y has been constructed with these as given: the

finite number o f phonemic d a t a , plus the f i n i t e set of

 220

symbols,* plus a working knowledge of the basic character-

i s t i c s of a good grammar, namely: (a) Descriptive adequacy -

1

a grammar i s d e s c r i p t i v e l y adequate to the extent that i t s

s t r u c t u r a l descriptions correspond to the i n t r i n s i c compe-

tence and l i n g u i s t i c i n t u i t i o n of the native speaker; and;

(b) S i m p l i c i t y , economy and generality - i d e n t i f i e d with

fewer symbol tokens used i n each descriptive statement or

r u l e to generate an i n f i n i t e number of l i n g u i s t i c forms.

A l l the statements about the structure of r e l a t i v e

occurrence, i . e., of d i s t r i b u t i o n , apply within the domain

of the s y l l a b l e . Thus, the elements enclosed i n square

brackets, [ ], or slashes, / /$ In the case of morphophonemic

r u l e s , represent the structure of a single s y l l a b l e . The

rules underlying the s y l l a b l e structures (SS) of Ilokano

have been stated as follows:

,[(C)C(c)V]
SS Rule 1: S„
{ml ^ CC(c)V(C)]

•[(C)C(c)VC]
SS Rule 2: S, > -l
[C(c)VC(C)]

SS Rule 3: Sd -> [| jw]

if J
 221

Every rule is of the form

X > Y.
For example:

f['c (v)]

C»c (c)]
A/ —-> [i] A
[»Cc (C)]

To o b v i a t e the l i m i t l e s s p r o l i f e r a t i o n of symbols

and statements, the writer imposes a restriction on the

number e m p l o y e d b y w o r k i n g t o w a r d a maximum generality.

Thus, for A/t the four specific rules or statements, called

schema i n modern l i n g u i s t i c t e r m i n o l o g y , are coalesced into

a single general rule or statement correspondingly called

72
-schemata:

/-•C(c)7 r v,

n, --> [i] / [{ , J_ <{}>] o c

Almost a l l of the rewrite rules w h i c h make u p the

phonological grammar of the Ilokano dialect are constructed

in the general form of schemata, and are therefore to be

similarly Interpreted.
V• 72
F o r the o p e r a t i o n a l c o n c e p t s , schema and schemata,
c r e d i t I s d u e t o P r o f e s s o r Noam C h o m s k y ! R e c a l l e d f r o m t h e
l e c t u r e - d i s c u s s i o n s In h i s class i n Advanced Phonology at the
I966 S u m m e r L i n g u i s t i c I n s t i t u t e o f t h e L i n g u i s t i c S o c i e t y /
of America, U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a at Los Angeles (UCLA).
 222

I t w i l l be noted that even at this abstract explan-

C
atory l e v e l of description, the trimodal scheme, U = V,
D
i s s t i l l operative.

CONTRAST VARIATION DISTRIBUTION

The erne has the a l i o i n the context

A. Phonetic Rules (PR)t

[i] / C « c ( o ) _ ( { } ) ] %
v
(i)

PR 1: / i / >

[I] / [C(o)_({ })]V

(ii)

[e] / [(')C(c). (i)

®
PR 2: /e/ >

[a] / [ O C l c ) , (ii)

[a] / [(«)(C)C(c) ({ })]^j

V
<U

PR 3: / a / ->

[a] / [C(c) ([*})] (ii)

 223

PR. *H / o / > [ o ] / C(«)(C)C(c) (| })] (i)

r [ u ] / C«(C)C(o) ({ })] (i)

PR 5: /u/ ->

W [c(c)_<{ * }] C 3
(ii)

[cv_] (1)

*cpy<c_v({>] > (ii)

PB 6s /p/ - —

[
i*y [ c v _ i { J \ ( o ]
s
» (iv)
 224

(1)

[t]A_yr})] ( (ii).

k. ._]C_(f J){ }(c)]J

i
3 V
(iii)

[o-tb,^

1*1/ [cv 3C< disi (iv);

 225

PR 9t /q/ > [q]/

[_<}>]

/ [cv ]

PR 10: /b/ > [b]/J [ V({ })] V

/[cv ]

PR 11: /a/ > [d]A [_v(Q)]

_][_({ r 1)( }(C)]
[ r ] ' lev.

/[cv ]

FR 12: /g/ > [g]/J[_V({ })] V

Ml
k..._][_({ [ r ] })(c)V({ })] c
 226

(i)

PR 13: /m/ > [a]// [ V( (ii)

(iii)

/[CV_([s])] (i)

M/{[_v(0)] (n)

(iii)

PR 14: / n / ><

[[*]/ c c v _ i { ^ } . . . ] (iv)

J
>]/ Ccv_X^}...] (v)
 227

,[cv_({ })>]
PO-

PR i5» / y — > [»]/<[ v({ }>]

v

([1]

1
.[ ( )V(C)]

PR 16: /f/ > [f]/

.[... ][ cv(c)] J

PR 17: /s/ -> [ s ] / J [ V({ ])]

V

MI... i (°>v-(Q)r

M / L_v({ }>] v

PR 18: /h/ ->

[ cV(C)]
[...¥][ V(C)]
 228

PR 191 M > [v]/ [ (c)V(C)] (i)

(i)

PR 20: / ! / > [1]/J[ V({ })]

V
(ii)

1 p
T3 TJ_ _Yrc v
p c
V ' (cV>
icv
t t
k k"
b b"
d d"

f[t,k,-v
(i)

PR 21: / r / > [r]/J[ V({ })]V

(li)

(iii)

t t
k k"
b b"
d d~
 229

r W / [. ..c][(cU({ })]<
f v
(i)

PR 2 2 : /w/ — - > ^[u]/ C'C[i]_] (ii)

W cQ{j> if—] (iii)

(i)

[[i]/ [»C[u]_] (ii)

PR 2 3 : / y / ->

Ci]/ [cl [ a ] (iii)

Co]
£u]
 230

The schemata

/ [ov ],

and

/ [..._i_{X))] c

may be further coalesced Into more involved schemata i n order

to account f o r the observed r e g u l a r i t i e s i n many of the rules,

thereby achieving greater generality. Thus;

/ A l l C»s >[p,t,k, \

except y \ t>,d,g, / [cv_]

f , v, h/ ]

/ A l l C«s/

... ]

/ A l l C«s [Ptt.k, ^

except y 4 b.d.g, • / [... ][_( Icfb]

lev' C
l J

q,v,h/
,... y
 231

rC Xf \] \

d[_] (ID
73 (4)
PR 24s /2/ - •-> C 2 ] ^
3
PR 25: /3/ -> [ 3 ]
2
PR 26: .-> [i]J
1

] (ill)

c _] (iv)

1 , (i)

c (II)

(4)

PR 27: /4/ > [>]/ < 3

2
[_ ] (Iii)

^ r —3 ' (iv)

73
A n e x c e p t i o n t o PR 24 t h r o u g h 32.: U n l i k e i n t h e c a s e
of the segmentals - where the items enclosed i n square brackets
r e p r e s e n t a s i n g l e s y l l a b l e - the suprasegmental symbols between
t h e b r a c k e t s a r e t h o s e s u p e r p o s e d on one o r more s y l l a b l e s .
 232

PR 28 s 4/ > [|] / [21 ] (i)

(i)

[4] / [231_] (il)

PR 29: A/ >
Ctl / C 2 1 3 _ ] (iii)

/ C31_] J (iv)

33
PR 30s /I/ - — > [|] / D
22
(i)

11

1|] / C 2 1 _ ] v (1)

PR 31: /||/ >•

[f] / (ii)
(2)31 J
 233

.[(x)(x)(x) x(x)(x)] (i)

,/V » [•]/
.[(x)(x)x (x)(x)xx x(x)(x)] J
(ii)

PR 32:2

v / _„_> [ y [ Unmarked i n the

context above.
] (iii)

B. Morphophonemic R u l e s (MR):

MR 1 - Phoneme Addition by Gemination:

,/<$/ / VCA

/C / / ,
2
• y /C C /
2 2 J'/CJ7 2 / / 2 c+Af/ (1).

/cv/ / VC/ J

MR 2 - Phoneme Deletion, /e(C)/:

MR 2 a : i/ /= V —-> 2

Deleted / C / /C +Af/ (i)

/ l l'
C V c 3
 234

MR 2b: / e C / ^ / / C u / /mJL/
2 1 /C^C/ «

Deleted / /c vc/
2

MR 2 c : / e C //
2
/ma-/ / C ^ ./ /c 2 vc/ -

Deleted ^ /ma-C]/ /CgVC/

MR 3 - Phoneme S u b s t i t u t i o n

MR 3a - Assimilations

/m/ /CV.

/n/ >

/CV
 235

MR 3b - Gradation*

MR 3^(1): /o/
/c_Q/ -
/u/ / /C a / /C ' / /CAf/

MR 3*>(2) : /o/ / /CJ

/ / c -0 7
i^

/u/ / / c | «a / / c / /dBf /

Vcf/ c 2 A
MR 3b(3)« /

/.cv/ /c_l.c/i 1 2
/y/ / Awe-,/ /Cj^JlAf/
 236

/*/cv/ /c 1 cA2

MB 3b(4): /
0'/
/cv/ /c^Cg/J

/w/ / /cvc^ A x Aif/ (iv)

MH 3c - R e d u p l i c a t i o n :

/o/ / /CV/ A ["j/ >

/u/ / /cv/ /c Q/ /cv/ AoQ/ (i)

 237

5.2 Conclusions

Within the l i m i t s of the organized data and facts

arrived a t ? at the taxonomic and explanatory levels of this

research/ i t i s possible, by way of conclusion;' to make the

following assertions:

l. 1
That, the phonetic or phonemic data and facts

are l i n g u i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t and important only to the

extent that generalizations about t h e i r r e l a t i o n a l occurren-

ces i n the d i a l e c t are e x p l i c i t l y stated;

2. That, the phonological grammar constructed f o r

the cultivated Ilokano d i a l e c t as spoken i n Bayombong/ Nueva

Vizcaya i s generative/ i / e// predictive i n that i t projects

an i n f i n i t e number of potential combinations of the 3 4 emic

u n i t s / beyond those a c t u a l l y represented i n the corpus;

3/ That/ concomitant with the i n f l u x of loans which

i s evident i n the every day speech of the Ilokanos represent-

ed i n this study/ borrowed sounds/ such as /e, o 9 f / v, h//

have become assimilated into the native phonemic system;

4,' That/ syntactic and morphological structures are

inevitably involved i n phonology - there Is no s t r i c t sepa-

r a t i o n of l e v e l s / The dynamics of stress i n the d i a l e c t

r e s u l t i n g from morphological expansion using a f f i x e s i s one

concrete instance of the i n t e r r e l a t i o n of phonology and

morphology. A l l the suprasegmental prosodemes f o r that matter

 238

depended on higher l e v e l grammatical considerations f o r t h e i r

interpretation*

5. ' That;/ every utterance i n the d i a l e c t can be

uniquely represented as a sequence of phones - segments or

suprasegments - which are i n turn represented by a sequence

of phonemes each of which can be regarded as a token or

abbreviation f o r a set of phonetic features, ;

The features

are d i s t i n c t i v e or contrastive i n the d i a l e c t , setting

utterances apart, thereby making communication possible.

1

An analysis of the stream of speech bears t h i s out even

more s u c c i n c t l y ;

6. That, a d i a l e c t has a phonemic system that i s

1

unique and adequate i n i t s e l f and f o r i t s users. Thus, the

Ilokano d i a l e c t i n t h i s study has i t s own phonemic code,

s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t from any of those of the d i a l e c t s studied

by Sibayan/ Constantino, and McKaughan and Porster.

There Is no essential difference, however, i n the

s y l l a b l e structure of the Ilokano d i a l e c t s / On this point

the w r i t e r begs to d i f f e r with Drs." Sibayan and Constantino

i n that they established V as a s y l l a b l e type i n Ilokano.

This view seems to be orthography-based or printbound. For

example/ what they l i s t and transcribe as /a ma/ 'father / 1

and /a/ 'a l i g a t u r e * , are l i n g u i s t i c a l l y CV(C)/ /qa maq/

and /qaq// respectively, since the g l o t t a l stop i s a phoneme;

The writer begs also to disagree with Dr. Constantino

who says that i n Ilokano/ s y l l a b l e boundary, which he symbo-

 239

l i z e d as /-/, i s phonemic since i t i s unpredictable - i . e.,

either before or a f t e r C i n the -VCV- sequence type - and

that i t has the allophones of a g l o t t a l stop, [ ? ] , before a

vowel, and a prolongation, indicated by [.], of the f i n a l

consonant before a consonant. He indicates the s y l l a b l e

boundary i n the t r a n s c r i p t i o n when i t occurs a f t e r the con-

sonant i n -VCV- sequences. 1

For example:

blr-1 /blr-iy [birti] •crack 1

maysa /maysa/ [may.sa] •one*

sabung /sabung/ [sabunB 'flower 1

sab-ung /sab-un/ [sabtun] 'laps'

Considering the s t r u c t u r a l patterns of the Ilokano

s y l l a b l e (Sec. 2 . 3 3 of this t h e s i s ) , the g l o t t a l stop, /q/,

i s a phoneme by the principles of i d e n t i t y of function -

i. e., /q/ i d e n t i f i e s with ft/ or /b/ - and by the p r i n c i p l e

of pattern congruity - i . e., i n the CVC CVC sequence. For

example:

rangtay /ran tay/ 'bridge' vs rang-ay /ran qay/ 'progress*

uttot /qut t o t / *break wind' vs ut-ot /qut qot/ •pain*

sabong /s£ bon/ •flower,* vs sab-ong /sab qo"n/ *dowry*

!

This view, of course, disregards the Aufhebung p r i n c i p l e

1

whereby /q/ may become a free variant of /p,t,k/ (Sec. 4.222).*

One might say;- f o r the sake of a r g u m e n t t h a t s y l l a b l e

boundary i s phonemic since i t patterns and functions l i k e

the consonant /b/ i n /s& hon/ vs /sab qon/i The decision

 240

i n favor of such argument i s untenable because s y l l a b l e

boundary i s suprasegmental, i . e., i t can be i d e n t i f i e d only

i n terms of several segmental unitsy while /b/ i s segmental. 1

Methodologically speaking," segments cannot be subsumed with

suprasegmentslin one and the same phoneme.-

F i n a l l y , that this research study has aimed at

1

comprehensiveness of coverage and depth of a n a l y s i s . The

w r i t e r / however, i s prepared to accept the p o s s i b i l i t y that

i n both content and methodology the study may well have

f a i l e d to get at some c r u c i a l d e t a i l s . Gaps are i n e v i t a b l e .

Perhaps the day w i l l come when the type of metalanguage

that has been employed i n this grammar w i l l be i n s u f f i c i e n t

to resolve deeper questions concerning the phonological

structure of the Ilokano d i a l e c t . This can be expected

considering the present trend i n the i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y

approach to the study of language, whereby new phenomena

are revealed and better concepts and methodologies developed.

The statements above r e f l e c t the attitude that at any

time the writer must be prepared to modify her theory -

i . ' eiV the grammar - and evolve a more viable one which

gives a precise s t r u c t u r a l delineation of a l l phonological

phenomena i n the d i a l e c t . As Robins has said;' " l i n g u i s t i c s

as a branch of scholarship cannot afford to remain unaltered

f o r any length of time." Language i s dynamic and the think-

ing of students of language must be equally dynamic.

* * *
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
 242

A. BOOKS

Bach, Emmon, 1964. An Introduction to Transformational

Grammars. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Bloomfield, Leonard, 1933. Language. New York: Henry Holt

and Company.'
C a r r e l l , James, and William„R. T i f f a n y , I960,. Phonetics:
Theory and Application to Speech Improvement. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Chomsky, Noam, 1957. Syntactic Structures. The Hague:
Mouton and Co/
.• 1965. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax/ Cambridge,
Mass.: The MIT Press.

Fodor, J.: A., and J . J . Katz (eds.), 1964. The. Structure

of Language: Readings i n the Philosophy of Language.
Englewood C l i f f s , N. J . : P r e n t i c e - H a l l .

Gimson,' A. D., 1962. An Introduction to the Pronunciation

of E n g l i s h . London: Edward Arnold Pub. L t d .

Gregg, Robert J/y I 9 6 0 . A Students Manual of French

1

Pronunciation. Toronto: The Macmillan Company of Canada,

Limited.
Cohen, A., 1952/ The Phonemes of E n g l i s h . The Hague: Mar-
tinus Nyhoff.

Gleason, H. A./ J r . , I96I. An Introduction to Descriptive

!

L i n g u i s t i c s . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

H a l l i Robert A/, J r . , 1964. Introductory L i n g u i s t i c s .

New York: Chilton Books.

H a l l e / Morris, 1959. The Sound Pattern of Russian. The Hague:

Mouton and Co.
H i l l , Archibald A.y 1958. Introduction to L i n g u i s t i c Struc-
tures : From Sound to Sentence i n EngTTsh. New York:
Harcourt, Brace and Co. 5

Hjemslev/ L o i s , 1953. Prolegomena to a Theory of Language,

( t r / F.' J / W h i t f i e l d ) . Baltimore T l J A L Memoir No. 7 ) .
 243

Hockett;• Charles F.y 1958. A Course i n Modem L i n g u i s t i c s .

New York: The Macmillan Co.

Jakobson, Roman, and Morris Halle, 1956. Fundamentals of

Language. The Hague: Mouton and Co.

m _ mmmmm ^ ,' C. Gunnar M. Fant, and Morris Halle, 1965.

i
1
Preli-
minaries to Speech Analysis: The D i s t i n c t i v e Features
and Their Correlates. Cambridge,' Mass.; The MIT Press.

Jones, Daniel,' 1950.' The Phoneme: Its Nature and Use.

Cambridge: W. Heffner & Sons, Ltd.
.1 I957.' The History and Meaning of the Term "Phoneme."
L"ondon: International Phonetic Association.
i960. An Outline of English Phonetics. Cambridge:
W. Heffner & Sons,- Ltd.
Katz, Jerold J.y and Paul M. Postal, .1964. An Integrated
Theory of L i n g u i s t i c Descriptions. Cambridge: The MIT
Press.

Mackey, William Francis, 1965. Language Teaching Analysis.

London: Longmans, Green & Co.', Ltd.
McKaughan, Howard,' and Forster, Jannette, 1953. Ilooano:
1

An Intensive Course. Grand Forks, N. D.: Summer I n s t i -

tute of L i n g u i s t i c s .
Malmberg, B e r t i l , 1963. Structural L i n g u i s t i c s and Human
Communication. New York: Academic Press, Inc.

Martinet, Andre/ 1949. Phonology as Functional Phonetics.

London: Oxford University Press.'

,' i960. Elements of General L i n g u i s t i c s . London:

Faber and Faber, Ltd.
Nadel, F.' S., 1951. The Foundations of S o c i a l Anthropology.
London: Cohen and West,' Ltd.-
Pel,- Mario, 1966J Glossary of L i n g u i s t i c Terminology.
New York: Doubleday and Co.

Pike, Kenneth Lee, 1943. Phonetics: a c r i t i c a l analysis of

1

phonetic theory and a technic f o r the p r a c t i c a l descrip-

t i o n of sounds. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
(University of Michigan Publications i n Language and
Literature, V o l . 21.)
 244

194?.' Phonemlcs; a technique for reducing languages

to writing. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
(University of Michigan Publications i n Linguistics, V o l . 3.)
1954. . Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the
Structure of Human Behavior. Vol.' l 7 Glendale, California:
Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Robins,. R. H., 1964. General Linguistics: An Introductory
Survey. London: Longmans, Green and Co., Ltd.
Sapir, Edward, 1921. Language: An Introduction to the Study
of Speech.' New York: Harcourt , Brace, and World,' Inc.
r

Saussure, Ferdinand de, 1959. Course in General Linguistics.

New York: Philosophical Library.

B. PUBLICATIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT

AND LEARNED SOCIETIES

Bureau of the Census and Statistics, 1962. Philippine National

Census of I960. Manila: BCS.
International Phonetic Association, I965. The Principles of
the International Phonetic Association. London: Univer-
sity College.
Joos, Martin (ed.), 1957.'' Readings i n Linguistics. Washington,
D. C : American Council of Learned Societies.
Lunt, Horace G. (ed.),' 1964. Proceedings of the Ninth Inter-
national Congress of Linguists. The Hague: Mouton & Co.
Panganiban, Jose V i l l a / 1957. "The Family of Philippine Lang-
uages," Bureau of Public Schools Bulletin No. 37, s.1957.
Manila: Bureau of Public Schools.

C. PERIODICALS

Bloch, Bernard. "A Set of Postulates for Phonemic Analysis,"

Language 24, pp. 3-46.
Bloomfield, L . "A Set of Postulates for the Science of Language,"
Language 2, pp. 153-164. (Reprinted i n Joos, 1957).
 245

Chomsky; N. "Some Methodological Remarks on Generative

Grammar," Word 17, pp. 219-239.
, and Morris Halle. "Some Controversial Questions in
Phonological Theory." Journal of Linguistics, 1, pp. 97-
214.
Pries, Charles C.y and Kenneth L . Pike, "Co-existent Phonemic
Systems, " Language 25, pp. 29-50.
5

Halle, Morris. "The Strategy of Phonemics," Word 10,

pp. 197-209.
1

, "Phonology in Generative Grammar," Word 18, pp. 54-

72". (Reprinted i n Fodor and Katz (1964), pp/ 334-352.
1

Harris/ Zellig S. "Distributional Structure," Word 10,

pp. 46-62. (Reprinted in Fodor and Katz (1964-)/ pp.' 33-49.
Haugen, Einar. "The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing,"
Language 26/ pp/ 210-231.'
"The Phoneme in Bilingual Description," Language
Learning 7/ PP. 17-23.
Hockett., C.z F . "Linguistic Elements and Their Relations,"
Language 37* PP. 29-53.
/
"A System of Descriptive Phonology," Language 18,
pp. 3-21/
Pike, Kenneth L . "Grammatical Prerequisites to Phonemic
Analysis," Language 3/ PP- 155-172.'
Sapir, Edward. "Sound Patterns in Language," Language 1,
pp/37-51. (Reprinted in Selected Writings of Edward
Sapir; ed/ D. G. Mandelbaum/ California, 195971
Stockwell, R. P. "The Place of Intonation in a Generative
Grammar of English," Language 36, pp. 360-367.
Twaddell, W. F . "On Defining the Phoneme," Language/
1

Monograph No. 16/ 1935. (Reprinted i n Joos (ed.J, 1957.

D. ESSAYS AND ARTICLES IN COLLECTIONS

Chomsky, Noam. "Current Issues in Linguistic Theory,"

In Fodor and Katz (1964), pp. 50-118.
 246

Chomsky, N., M. Halle, and F. Lukoff,. "On Accent and Juncture

i n English," i n For Roman Jakobson: Essays, eds. M. Halle,
H. Lunt, H. McLean. The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1956, pp. 65-
80. 1

Fant, C. Gunnar M.y "Modern Instruments and Methods f o r

;

Acoustic Studies of Speech," i n Proceedings of the Eighth

International Congress of Linguists, ed. Eva Sivertsen.
Oslo: Oslo University Press, 1958, pp. 282-362.
Halle, Morris, "On the Bases of Phonology," i n The Structure
of Language, eds. J . A. Fodor and XJ. Katz, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964, pp. 324-333.
Haugen, Einar:,,, "The S y l l a b l e i n L i n g u i s t i c Description,"
i n For Roman Jakobson, eds. M. Halle and others, 1956,
pp.~ZT3-22l.
Hanssen, H. Spang, "Mathematical L i n g u i s t i c s - A Trend i n
Name or i n Fact?" i n Proceedings. ed. H. G. Lunt, 1965,
pp. 61-71.
J^rgensen, E l i Fischer, "The Commutation Test and Its
Application to Phonemic Analyses," i n For Roman Jakobson.
eds. M. Halle and others, 1956, pp. l 4 0 ^ 1 3 l .
Pike, Kenneth L., "On Systems of Grammatical Structure,"
Proceedings, ed. H. G. Lunt,-* 1964, pp. 145-154.
i n

P i l c h , Herbert, "Phonetics, Phonemics, and Metaphonemics;"

1

i n
Proceedings. ed. H. G. Lunt, 1965, pp. 900-904.
Rischel, Jjrfrgen, "Stress, Juncture and S y l l a b i f i c a t i o n i n
Phonemic Description," i n Proceedings, ed. H. G. Lunt,
1964, pp. 85-93.
Saumjan, S. K., "Concerning the Logical Basis of L i n g u i s t i c
Theory," i n Proceedings, ed. H. G. Lunt, 1964, pp. 155-
160.

Discussion i n session, "Mathematical L i n g u i s t i c s -

A Trend i n Name or i n Fact?" i n Proceedings. ed. H. G.
Lunt, 1964, p. 70/

Thompson, Laurence C.y "Pattern Fringe and the Evaluation

of Phonological Analyses," i n Proceedings. ed. H. G. Lunt,
1964, pp. 94-100.

Truby, H. M., "Pleniphonetic Transcription i n Phonetic

Analysis," i n Proceedings, ed. H. G. Lunt, 1964, pp. 101-107.
 247

E. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS

Beyer, H. Otley. "List of Philippine Languages and Dialects,"

Mimeographed, 1942.
Constantino, Ernesto Andres, A Generative Grammar of a
Dialect of Ilocano. Unpublished Ph. D. d i s s e r t a T i o n ,
Indiana University, 1959. Microfilmed.
1

Slbayan,' Bonifacio Padilla, English and Iloco Segmental

Phonemes. Unpublished Ph.* D. dissertation, University
of Michigan, 1961. Microfilmed.

* Vt *