ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Chapter 4 – Integumentary System o Hair Papilla

●Integumentary System (covering) - skin and its ●Nails - protective covering
various structures 3 Parts of Nail:
●Skin Cells - help produce Vitamin D needed for o Nail plate
normal bone and tooth development o Nail bed
●Keratinocytes - produce substance that stimulate o Lunula
development of some white blood cells ●Sweat Glands(sudoriferous glands) - originate in
●Layers of Skin: deeper in dermis or hypodermis;
●Epidermis - keratinized; ;lacks blood vessels; rests ●Sebaceous Glands - holocrene glands; secrete
on basement membrane; stratified squamous sebum(oil); associated with hair follicles
epithelia ●Hypoxemia - blood inadequate
o Thinnest on palm (0.5 mm) ●Hypoxia - tissue inadequate
o Thickest on sole (4mm) Regulation of Body Temperature
5 Layers of Epidermis - vitally important because even slight shifts can
o Stratum corneum disrupt metabolic reactions.
o Stratum lucidum ●Heat - a product of cellular metabolism;
o Stratum granulosum Active body cells and heat producers:
o Stratum spinosum o Skeletal Muscle
o Stratum basale o Cardiac Muscle
●Heredity and environment determine skin color o Cells of certain glands like liver
●Genetic Factors - varying amounts and size of ●Radiation - primary means of heat loss
melanin; albinos lack melanin ●Hypothermia - abnormally low body temp.
●Environment Factors - sunlight, x-rays, UV light from ●Hyperthermia - abnormally high body temp.
sunlamps; darkens melanin ●Inflammation - normal response to injury or stress
●Physiological Factors - dilation and constriction of Inflamed skin may be:
dermal blood vessels; accumulation of carotene; o Reddened, Swollen, Warm, Painful
jaundice ●Types of Burns
●Dermis(1.0-2.0 mm) - binds epidermis to underlying o First Degree - superficial; partial thickness
tissue; nerve cell process; specialized sensory o Second Degree - deep; partial-thickness
receptors; blood vessels, muscle cells, glands, hair o Third Degree - full-thickness
follicles Rules of Nine for Adults (÷ 2 for infants)
2 Layers of Dermis Perineum - 1%
o Papillary Layer - thin, superficial; dermal Posterior Anterior
papillae Head 41 2 % 41 2 %
o Reticular Layer - 80% of dermis; cleavage,
tension of Langer’s lines located Trunk 18% 18%
●Hypodermis or Subcutanous Layer (superficial Upper 41 2 % 41 2 %
fascia) - Major blood vessels present; adipose tissue extremities
present Lower 41 2 % 41 2 %
Accessory Structures of the Skin extremities
-originate from the epidermis Chapter 5 – Skeletal System
●Hair Follicles - epidermis to dermis; tube-like •Skeletal System – internal framework of the body;
depression; arrector pili muscle system of protection and support composed primarily
●Necrotic - death of cells or tissue of bones and cartilages.
3 Parts of Hair Follicles: •Skeleton – Greek word “dried up body”
o Hair Root •Bones – warehouse for calcium, iron and energy.
o Hair Shaft
•206 bones – total number of adult’s bones (20% of o Facial Bones
body mass; kg × 0.20) ‧ Vomer bone
Functions of the Bones ‧ Mandible
•Support – bones form the body’s internal framework ‧ 2 Maxilla bones
which supports and protects organs. ‧ 2 Zygomatic bones
•Protection – bones protect soft body organs. ‧ 2 Nasal bones
•Allow movement – tendons attached to bones help ‧ 2 Palatine bones
make movement. ‧ 2 Inferior Nasal Conchae
•Storage - stores fat in marrow; serves as store ‧ 2 Lacrimal bones
house for minerals (calcium & phosphorus) •Hyoid bone – horseshoe-shaped, with body and
•Blood Cell Formation – “hematopoiesis” – occurs horns and about 2 cm
within certain marrow cavities of bones. • Auditory Ossicles – smallest bones
Classification of Bones o Stapes
•Compact bone – dense, looks smooth o Incus
•Spongy or Cancellous bone – spiky, open o Malleus
appearance like a sponge •Vertebral Column(Spine) – 26 vertebrae; extends
Types of Bones from skull to pelvis
•Long bone – support body’s weight; mostly compact o Cervical (Neck) – 7 vertebrae; C1 – C7
bone (femur, humerus, metacarpals) ‧ Atlas – C1, has no body
•Flat bone – thin, flattened, usually curved (skull, ribs, ‧ Axis – C2, pivot for rotation
sternum) o Thoracic(Chest) – 12 vertebrae; T1 - T12
•Short bone – cubed or round; mostly spongy bone
o Lumbar (lower back) – 5 vertebrae; L1 – L5
(tarsal, carpal)
o Sacral – 1 vertebrae
o Sesamoid bone – form within tendons
‧ Ala – articulate with hip bone
(patella)
•Irregular bone – doesn’t fit the preceding categories ‧ Median Sacral crest – midline
(vertebrae) surface
Layers of the Bone ‧ Sacral Canal – vertebral canal
•Periosteum – covers the diaphysis; thin, dense, continuation
contain nerve and blood vessels ‧ Sacral hiatus – large inferior
•Compact bone – smooth, very hard opening
•Spongy bone – looks like sponge o Coccyx (tailbone) – 1 vertebrae
•Bone marrow – like a thick jelly •Intervertebral discs – flexible fibrocartilage between
o Yellow bone marrow – stores fat or adipose vertebrae
tissue •Scoliosis – lateral direction
o Red bone marrow – produce blood cells •Kyphosis – posterior position (bako)
•Lordosis – anterior direction (like preggy)
Two parts of the Skeletal System
•Thoracic Cage – sternum and ribs
•Axial Skeleton – 80 bones; skull, vertebral column,
•Features of the vertebrae:
thoracic cage
o Body or Centrum – disclike; facing anterior
•Appendicular Skeleton – 126 bones; limbs, pectoral,
pelvic girdle o Vertebral arch – arch connects the laminae
Axial Skeleton and pedicles
•Skull – 22 bones (8 cranium, 14 facial bones) o Vertebral foramen – canal where spinal cord
o Cranium passes
‧ Occipital bone o Transverse processes – two “horns” from
‧ Frontal bone vertebral arch
‧ Ethmoid bone o Spinous process – single “horn” in the
‧ Sphenoid bone middle
‧ 2 Temporal bones o Superior and Inferior articular process
‧ 2 Parietal bones •Sternum (breastbone) – flat bone attached to
first 7 ribs
 o Manubrium ‧ Pisiform
o Body o Metacarpals – palm; 5 bones
o Xiphoid process o Phalanges – fingers; 14 phalanges each
o Jugular notch hand (proximal, middle, distal)
o Sternal angle •Pelvic Girdle – formed by 2 coxal or hip bones
o Xiphisternal joint o Ilium – superior bone of pelvis
•Ribs – 12 pairs o Ischium – “sit bone” inferior bone of hip
o True Ribs – first 7 pairs attached to sternum o Pubis – most anterior bone of the hip
o False Ribs – next 3 pairs not attached to •Thigh – Femur; parts of the Femur:
sternum o Greater and Lesser trochanter
o Floating Ribs – last 2 pairs o Intertrochanteric line
o Intercostal Spaces – spaces between the o Gluteal tuberosity
ribs o Medial and Lateral Condyle
Appendicular Skeleton o Intercondylar fossa
•Shoulder Girdle – also called pectoral girdle o Patellar surface
o Clavicle – collarbone •Leg – Tibia and Fibula
o Scapula – “wings” or shoulder blades o Tibia – medial; shinbone
•Arm – Humerus; parts of the humerus: ‧ Interosseous membrane – connects
o Anatomical neck the tibia and fibula
o Intertubercular sulcus ‧ Medial and Lateral Condyle
‧ Greater tubercle ‧ Patella – kneecap
‧ Lesser tubercle ‧ Tibial tuberosity
o Surgical Neck ‧ Medial malleolus
o Deltoid Tuberosity o Fibula – lateral
o Radial Groove ‧ Lateral malleolus
o Trochlea •Foot – Tarsals, Metatarsals and Phalanges
o Capitulum o Tarsals
o Coronoid and Olecranon fossa ‧ Calcaneus
o Medial and Lateral epicondyle ‧ Talus
‧ Cuboid
•Forearm – Radius and Ulna
‧ Navicular
o Radius – lateral bone; thumb side
‧ Medial cuneiform
‧ Interosseous membrane – connects ‧ Intermediate cuneiform
the radius and ulna
‧ Lateral cuneiform
‧ Styloid process – distal end of
o Metatarsals – sole; 5 bones
radius and ulna
o Phalanges – toes; 14 phalanges (proximal,
‧ Radial Tuberosity -
o Ulna – medial bone; pinky finger middle, distal)
Joints
‧ Coronoid process
• Joints or Articulations – where two or more bones
‧ Olecranon
meet
‧ Trochlear Notch
Functionally:
•Hand – Carpals, Metacarpals and Phalanges
o Synarthroses – immovable joints
o Carpal – 8 bones
o Amphiarthroses – slightly movable joints
‧ Trapezium
‧ Trapezoid o Diarthroses – freely movable joints
‧ Capitate Structurally:
‧ Hamate o Fibrous joints – united by fibrous tissue
‧ Scaphoid o Cartilaginous Joints – united by cartilage
‧ Lunate ‧ Synchondroses – immovable
‧ Triquetrum ‧ Symphyses – slightly movable
 o Synovial Joints – contains synovial fluid
‧ Articular Cartilage – covers the end
of bones forming joints
‧ Articular Capsule – a layer of
fibrous tissue in line with synovial
membrane
‧ Joint Cavity – contains the synovial
fluid
‧ Reinforcing ligaments – reinforces
the fibrous layers of the capsule
•Bursae – flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial
membrane containing a thin film of synovial fluid.
•Tendon Sheath – an elongated bursa that wraps
completely around a tendon.
•Dislocation – when a bone is forced out of its normal
position
•Reduction – process of returning the bone to its
proper position
•Types of Synovial Joints on Shape
o Plane joint – Intercarpal and Intertarsal joints
o Hinge joint – Elbow and Interphalangeal
joints
o Pivot joint – between the radius and ulna
o Condylar joint - knuckles
o Saddle joint – carpometacarpal of the thumb
o Ball-and-socket joint – shoulder and hip joint
•Bursitis – “water on knee”
•Sprain – torn away from the bone or excessive
stretching of ligaments or tendons
•Arthritis – (arth = joint; itis = inflammation)
inflammation of the joints
•Osteoarthritis – chronic degenerative that affects the
aged.
•Rheumatoid Arthritis – chronic inflammatory disorder
•Gouty Arthritis – uric acid accumulates in the blood
and may be deposited as needle-shaped crystals in
soft tissues of the joints.
Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton
•Fontanels – fibrous membranes connecting the
cranial bones
•Osteoporosis – bone-thinning disease
•Deficiency of Vitamin A – retard bone development
• Deficiency of Vitamin C – results in fragile bones
• Deficiency of Vitamin D – rickets; osteomalacia
•Insufficient Growth Hormone - dwarfism
•Excessive Growth Hormone – gigantism; acromegaly
•Insufficient Thyroid Hormone – delays bone growth
•Sex Hormones – promote bone formation; stimulate
bone ossification of epiphyseal plates
•Physical Stress – stimulates bone growth
Chapter 6 – Muscular System
•Muscular System – organ system consisting of
skeletal muscles and their connective tissue
attachments.
•muscle – Latin word mus – “little mouse”; to contract
or shorten; responsible for all body movements;
“machines” of the body.
Muscle Types
•Skeletal Muscle – muscle composed of cylindrical
multinucleate cells with obvious striations; the
muscles attached to the body’s skeleton; skeletal,
striated, voluntary
•Skeletal muscle fibers – packed into organs called
skeletal muscles; large cigar-shaped multinucleate
cells; largest muscle fibers
 Also known striated muscle – obvious stripes
 Also known as voluntary muscle – only
muscle type subject to conscious control
•Endomysium – thin connective tissue surrounding
each muscle
•Perimysium – connective tissue enveloping bundles
of muscle fibers called fascicle
•Epimysium – sheath of fibrous connective tissue
surrounding a muscle
•Tendon – cord of dense fibrous tissue attaching a
muscle to a bone.
•Aponeurosis – fibrous or membranous sheet
connecting a muscle and the part it moves.
•Smooth Muscle – muscle consisting of spindle-
shaped, unstripped muscle cells; involuntary muscle;
visceral, nonstriated, involuntary
•Cardiac Muscle – specialized muscle of the heart
with striations and intercalated disc; involuntary
muscle; cardiac, striated, involuntary
Muscle Functions
•Produce Movement – responsible for our body’s
mobility including all locomotion and manipulating
things with your upper limbs; enable us to respond
quickly to changes in our environment.
•Maintain Posture and Body Position – Maintain an
erect or seated posture, even when we slouch,
despite the never-ending pull of gravity.
•Stabilize Joints – Muscles and tendons are extremely
important for reinforcing and stabilizing joints that
have poorly articulating surfaces.
•Generate Heat – muscle activities generates body
heat as a by-product. Skeletal muscles accounts for
at least 40% of body mass.
•Additional Functions:
o Dilate and constrict eyes’ pupils
 o Make up the arrector pili for “goosebumps”
o Enclose and protect fragile internal organs
Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles
•Sarcolemma – cell membrane of a striated muscle
fiber cells.
•Myofibrils – contractile organelles found in the
cytoplasm of muscle cells
•Sarcomeres – smallest contractile unit of muscle;
extends from one Z-disc to the next
•Myofilaments – filaments composing of myofibrils
o Actin – thin filaments;
o Myosin – thick filaments; split ATP to release
the energy used for muscle contraction
•Sarcoplasmic Reticulum(SR) – very important
muscle fiber organelle; specialized smooth
endoplasmic reticulum found in muscle cells that
stores and releases calcium during muscle
contraction
Skeletal Muscle Activity
•Muscle fibers’ several function properties:
o Irritability/Responsiveness – ability to receive
and respond to a stimulus
o Contractility – ability to forcibly shorten when
adequately stimulated
o Extensibility – ability of muscle fibers to
stretch
o Elasticity – ability to recoil and resume their
resting length after being stretched
•Motor unit – one neuron and all the skeletal muscle
fibers it stimulates
•Axon – neuron process that carries impulses away
from the nerve cell body; efferent process
•Axon Terminal – one of the multiple ends of axon
that brand from the motor neuron axon; interacts with
the sarcolemma of different muscle cells to form
neuromuscular junctions
•Neuromuscular junctions – the region where motor
neuron comes into close contact with a skeletal
muscle
•Neurotransmitter – chemicals released by neurons
that may, upon binding to receptors of neurons or
effector cells, stimulate or inhibit them.
•Acetylcholine or ACh – chemical transmitter
substance released by a certain nerve endings
•Synaptic cleft – the fluid-filled space at synapse
between neurons.
•Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis(ALS) - motor neurons
degenerate over time, resulting in paralysis that
gradually worsens.
Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole
•Graded Responses – a response varies directly with
the strength of the stimulus
o Changing the frequency of muscle
stimulation
o Changing the number of muscle fibers
stimulated one at a time
•Muscle twitch – single, brief, jerky contractions
•Unfused or Incomplete Tetanus – a muscle
contraction in which the muscle doesn’t completely
relax between stimulation; causes an increase in
force because individual twitches are added together.
•Fused or Complete Tetanus – a completely smooth,
sustained muscle contraction resulting from rapid
stimulation with no time for relaxation between
stimulation events.
Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction
o As a muscle contracts, the bonds of ATP
molecules are hydrolyzed to release the
needed energy.
Working muscles use 3 pathways to regenerate ATP:
•Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate
– creatine phosphate is found in muscle fibers which
interacts with ADP when ATP is depleted.
•Aerobic Pathway – Aerobic respiration in which
oxygen is consumed and glucose is broken down
entirely; water, carbon dioxide, and large amounts of
ATP are final products. Slow and requires continuous
delivery of oxygen and nutrients.
•Anaerobic glycolysis – a process in which glucose is
broken down in the absence of oxygen, resulting in
formation of 2 ATP molecules and lactic acid.
Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Deficit
•Muscle fatigue – inability of muscle to contract even
while being stimulated;
•Oxygen Deficit – the volume of oxygen required after
exercise to oxidize the lactic acid formed during
exercise. Occurs during prolonged muscle activity.
Type of Muscle Contractions
•Isotonic – “same tone”; muscle shortens as it
contracts and movement occurs.
•Isometric – “same length”; muscle generates tension
but doesn’t shorten, no movement occurs.
•Muscle Tone – sustained partial contraction of a
muscle in response to stretch receptor inputs; keeps
muscle healthy and ready to react.
•Flaccid Paralysis – decrease muscle tone
o Flaccid – soft, flabby
o Atrophy – waste away
•Spastic Paralysis – increase muscle tone until the
muscle is no longer controllable.
Effect of Exercise on muscle
•Aerobic exercise or Endurance exercise – flexible
muscles with greater resistance to fatigue; help reach
a steady rate of ATP
•Resistance exercise or Isometric exercise – pit
muscles against an immovable object
Muscle Movements, Roles and Names
Types of Body Movements
o Origin – attached to immovable or less
movable bone
o Insertion – attached to movable bone
• Flexion – decrease the angle of joint or bring two
bones closer together
•Extension – increase the angle
o Hyperextension – greater than 180 °
•Rotation – around longitudinal axis
•Abduction – moving a limb away medial
•Adduction – moving a limb toward medial
•Circumduction – combination of flexion, extension,
abduction and adduction
•Dorsiflexion – upward movement of foot
•Plantar flexion – downward movement of foot
•Inversion – sideward movement of foot
•Eversion – opposite of inversion
•Supination – turning backward of hand
•Pronation – turning forward of hand
•Opposition – tips of thumb and other fingers touch
together
Interaction of Skeletal Muscles
•Prime movers – muscles that has major responsibility
for causing particular movement
•Antagonist – muscles that oppose or reverse a
movement
•Synergists – help prime movers by producing the
same movement or by reducing undesirable
movements (syn = together; erg = work)
•Fixators – specialized synergist; holds bone still or
stabilize the origin of a prime mover to move the
insertion bone
Naming Skeletal Muscles
•Direction of the Muscle fibers – named in reference
to an imaginary line
o Rectus – straight
o Oblique – at a slant
•Relative size of the muscle
o Maximus – largest
o Minimus – smallest
o Longus - long
•Location of the muscle – named for the bone with
which they are associated
•Number of origins
o Biceps - two
o Triceps - three
o Quadriceps - four
•Location of the muscle’s origin and insertion – named
for their attachment sites
•Shape of the muscle – have a distinctive shape
o Deltoid - triangular
•Action of the muscle – named for their actions
o Flexor - flex
o Extensor - extend
o Adductor - adduct
Arrangement of Fascicles
•Circular – fascicles are arranged in concentric rings
•Convergent – fascicles converge toward a single
insertion tendon; triangular or fan-shaped
•Parallel – length of fascicles run parallel to the long
axis of muscle; straplike
o Fusiform – spindle-shaped with expanded
belly
•Pennate – “feather”; short fascicle attach obliquely to
a central tendon
o Unipennate – fascicle insert only into one
side of the tendon
o Bipennate – fascicle insert to opposite side
of tendon
o Multipennate – fascicle insert from several
different sides
Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles
Head and Neck Muscles Anterior
•Frontalis – frontal bone; from cranial aponeurosis to
eyebrows where it inserts
•Temporalis – fan-shaped muscle on temporal bone;
inserts into mandible
•Zygomaticus – from corner of mouth to cheekbone;
“smiling” muscle
•Buccinator – horizontal across cheek and inserts into
orbicularis oris
•Orbicularis Oris – circular muscle of lips; “kissing”
muscle
•Orbicularis Oculi – circular around the eyes
•Masseter – from zygomatic process to mandible
•Platysma – covers the neck; from chest and inserts
to the area around the mouth
•Sternocleidomastiod – 2-headed muscle; one found
on each of the neck, one from sternum, one from
clavcle
Anterior Trunk Muscles
•Pectoralis Major – covers the pectorals or chest
•Intercostal Muscles – deep muscles between the ribs
•Serratus Anterior Head and neck Muscle Posterior
•Rectus Abdominis – “abs”; from pubis to ribs •Occipitalis -
•External Oblique – paired superficial muscles that •Trapezius – superficial muscle of posterior neck
make up the lateral walls of abdomen Posterior Trunk Muscles
•Internal oblique – paired muscles deep to the •Latissimus dorsi – two large, flat muscles that cover
external oblique the lower back
•Transversus Abdominis – deepest muscle of the •Erector Spinae – deep paired muscles of the back
abdominal wall o Longissimus
Muscles of the Anterior Upper Limbs o Iliocostalis
•Deltoid – fleshy, triangular that form the rounded o Spinalis
shape of shoulder •Quadratus Lumborum – fleshy muscles form the
•Biceps brachii – bulges when elbow is flexed; two posterior lumbar
heads from shoulder girdle; lifts radius Muscles of the Posterior Upper Limbs
•Triceps brachii – three head from shoulder girdle and •Triceps brachii
proximal humerus •Brachialis
•Brachialis – deep to biceps brachii; lifts ulna •Brachioradialis
•Brachioradialis – fairly weak muscle from humerus to •Extensor carpi radialis longus
distal forearm •Flexor carpi ulnaris
•Flexor carpi radialis •Extensor carpi ulnaris
Muscles of the Anterior Lower Limbs •Extensor digitorum
•Iliopsoas – from iliac bone to pelvis, 2 fused muscles: Muscles of the Posterior Lower Trunk
o Iliacus - •Gluteus Maximus – superficial muscle of the hip
o Psoas Major •Iliotibial Tract
•Adductor Muscle – medial side of each thigh •Gluteus Medius – from ilium to femur
•Sartorius – thin, straplike; superficial muscle of thigh •Hamstring Group
•Quadricep group o Biceps Femoris
o Rectus Femoris o Semitendinosus
o Vastus Lateralis o Semimembranosus
o Vastus Medialis •Adductor Muscle
o Vastus Intermedius •Gastrocnemius
•Extensor digitorum Longus – lateral to tibialis anterior •Soleus
•Tibialis Anterior – superficial muscle of leg; from tibia •Fibularis Longus
to tarsal •Calcaneal (Achilles) Tendon
•Fibularis muscle – lateral part of leg Developmental Aspects of the Muscular System
o Longus •Muscular Dystrophy - A group of inherited muscle-
o Brevis destroying disease that affect specific muscle group
o tertius o Duchenne’s Muscular Dystrophy – most
•Gastrocnemius – 2-bellied muscle that forms the calf common and serious form, almost exclusive
•Soleus – deep to the gastrocnemius for boys.