PHARMACOGNOSY

DEFINITION ➢ Evaluates the macroscopic appearance of drugs

2. Microscopic
- biological , biochemical & economic features of 3. Pharmacologic Evaluation
biological origin & constituents ➢ Bioassay
- Medicinal products in crude/unprepared form 4. Chemical evaluation
*focus on local sources ➢ Assay of active constituents using chemicals
➢ e.g. Titration
HISTORY ➢ Best method of determining official potency
A. Babylonians 5. Physical evaluation
● Clay human models ➢ Determination of various physical
B. Ayurveda characteristics/parameters with the use of
● India physico- chemical techniques
● Traditional medicine
● “the science of life” CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS
● Mother of all healing arts 1. Morphology
● 2 texts: ➢ Forms and plant part used
○ Charaka 2. Taxonomic
○ Sushruta ➢ Phylogeny
C. Egyptians ○ Natural relationship that occurs among plants
● George Ebers - Papyrus Ebers and animals
● embalming 3. Pharmacologic
D. Greeks ➢ Based on therapeutic effect on the body
1. Dioscorides 4. Chemical
○ De Materia Medica ➢ Based on active constituents
■ “The Medicinal Material” ➢ Preferred method of classification - more specific
2. Claudius Galen than pharmacological
○ Galenicals ● Active constituents
○ Father of Pharmaceutical Compounding ○ Considered as secondary metabolites
E. German ○ Drug biosynthesis or biogenesis - process
1. CA Seydler (1815) of producing secondary metabolites
 Coined pharmacognosy from “pharmakon” &
“gnosis” BIOGENESIS
2. JA Schmidt (1811) 3 Factors:
 First to use the word pharmacognosy A. Ontogeny or Stage of Development
3. Fluckiger B. Heredity
 Simultaneous application of scientific disciplines C. Environment
with the object of acquiring drugs from every point
of view CARBOHYDRATES
TERMS ● Polyhydric aldehyde or ketone alcohols that contain
C,H,O [C∙H2O]n
1. Crude drugs ● First products of photosynthesis
➢ vegetable/animal drugs of natural substances A. Sugars
that underwent only collection & drying 1. Monosaccharide
2. Natural substances ● Simplest carbohydrate units
➢ Whole plants & their parts; animals & excised organs ● Cannot be hydrolyzed to simpler sugars
3. Derivatives or Extractives
➢ Chief principles/constituents
➢ Solvent - liquid-liquid mixture - used to extract active
➢ Marc - undissolved portion a. Pentose
4. Indigenous plants - grow in their native countries 1. Xylose
5. Naturalized plants - grow in foreign land other than ● “Wood sugar”
their native homes ● Diagnostic aid in intestinal malabsorption
● Aldehyde
PREPARATION OF CRUDE DRUGS b. Hexose - most important monosaccharides
1. Collection 1. Glucose
➢ Collecting data/information ● Aldehyde in C1
➢ Ensuring the natural source of the drug ● Determined by Benedict’s test
2. Harvesting ● 𝛽-D-Glucose - most abundant and important
➢ Manual labor vs. mechanical devices ● Energy storage, structure of plants
3. Drying ● Dextrose/D-glucose/Blood sugar / grape sugar
➢ Remove moisture to prevent bacterial & fungal / physiologic sugar
growth & enzymatic degradation ● Uses:
➢ Convert plants to more convenient form 1. Parenteral
4. Curing 2. Pharmaceutic necessity
➢ Special drying process: enhances properties of plant’s ○ Less vigorous purification
active ingredients ○ Liquid glucose - syrup
5. Garbling ○ Dextrose excipient - glucose powder
➢ Final step in the preparation of crude drugs 2. Fructose
➢ Removal of extraneous matter ● Ketone in C2
6. Packaging, Storage & Preservation ● Reducing sugar: Seliwanoff’s test
➢ Protection and marketability ● Fruit sugar, honey
● Aka Levulose
EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS ● Uses:
1. Organoleptic Evaluation 1. For diabetic
➢ Uses the organs of senses 2. Ingredient in infant feeding
3. Galactose
3. Fructose injection - less frequently used ● C4 epimer of glucose
than glucose
PHARMACY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW | By: Louie Fernand D. Legaspi, RPh
 ●
PHARMACOGNOSY
Gaucher’s disease - cannot process galactose
● milk : lactose :: neuronal fibers : galactosides ● Lactic acid - acidulant in infant feeding
formula, feminine wash
 Disaccharides - 2 monosaccharides formed via ● (dicarboxylic acid)* - by-product
dehydration synthesis; glycosidic bonds of wine industry
1. Sucrose ● Ferrous fumarate - hematinic
● + fructose 𝛼-1,2 bond ● *Differentiation test: Denige’s test
● Table sugar 3. Alcohol of Ethanol
● Sources ● 95% ethanol by volume @ 15.56℃
 Sugar cane - Saccharum officinarum ● Product of fermentation
 Sugar beet - Beta vulgaris ● Undergo the process of distillation to concentrate
○ Cossettes - limp slivers the alcohol content to 40-55%
 Sugar maple - Acer saccharum  - wine
● Non-reducing  Whiskey - Malted grain
● Uses  Rum -
 Demulcent ● Concentrations:
 Sweetening agent; masks taste  70% - disinfectant
 Coating agent  50% - dilute alcohol
 Preservative ● Uses:
 Production of syrups  In low concentration - CNS Stimulant
 Retards oxidation  In high concentration - CNS depressant
● Molasses ● Diluted alcohol
 residual dark colored syrup after  48.4 - 49.5% ethanol @ 15.56℃
complete crystallization of sucrose
 Products of Reductive Metabolism
 Food and ethanol industry
1. Mannitol
2. Maltose
● From manna, Fraxinus orus
● Glucose + glucose, 𝛼-1, 4 bond
● Osmotic diuretic and laxative
● Major degradation product of starch
2. Sorbitol
● Reducing sugar
● From berries of mountain ash, Sorbus aucuparia
● Malt sugar
● a.k.a. D-glucitol
3. Lactose
● Taste as sweet as sucrose
● Glucose + galactose, 𝛽-1,4
● Manufacture of toothpastes and chewing gums
● Milk sugar - from cow’s milk
 Polysaccharides
● Reducing sugar
● Milk products
A. Homoglycans: yield one type of monosaccharide
unit upon hydrolysis
B.
1. Starch
 Temporary storage form of photosynthetic products
 Sources:
○ Corn - Zea mays
○ Wheat - Triticum aestivum
○ Potato - Solanum tuberosum
○ Rice - Oryza sativa
● Others: ○ - Maranta arundinacea
 Condensed milk- partial evaporation in vacuum
and sterilization in hermetic container  Starch constituents
 Malted Milk- evaporated with malt extract
 Kumyss- fermented milk Bases of Amylose Amylopectin
 Note: rancid smell of butter is due to Difference
Butyric acid if left at room temperature
Structure Linear Branched
≥1000
250-300 D-glucose glucose units
4. Lactulose units linked by 𝛼-1, 4
● From alkaline rearrangement of lactose glycosidic bonds
● Cathartic & laxative linked by 𝛼-1, 4 and 𝛼-1, 6
● Converted to lactic & acetic acid → irritation → glycosidic bonds glucosidic bonds at
cathartic every 25 glucose
units
● Initially used for MI patients
Solubility in
 Products of Oxidative Metabolism water
1. Cherry juice
● Ripe fruit of Prunus cerasus (Rosaceae) Iodine test
● Contains pectin & malic acid
● Use: cherry syrup Ratio 25% 75%
2. Plant Acids
● Uses:
 Enzymes that break down starches:
 Acidulant - effervescent
𝛼-amylase
○
 Buffer
𝛽-amylase
○
● Citric acid (TCA)* - isolated by from lemon
 Uses of starch
juice in 1784
○ Tablet filler, binder and disintegrant
○ Antidote for iodine poisoning
 Starch preparations
○ Pre-gelatinized starch

PHARMACY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW | By: Louie Fernand D. Legaspi, RPh

 ■
Starch that is chemically or mechanically
processed to rupture all or part of the Acacia Gum arabic Acacia Constituent:
granules; tablet binder senegal
○ Sodium starch glycollate Suspending agent
(33-35%)
■ Disintegrating agent Stable at 60%
○ Hetastarch w/ alcohol
■ Plasma expander
■ Used when blood volume is down Tragacanth Gum Astrolagus Constituent:
■ Hydroxyethyl starch (Voluven®) tragacanth gummifer (⅓,
■ 99% amylopectin dissolves) &
o Glutens (⅔, swells)
○ Tacky proteins that impede flow of starch Suspending agent
(5-6%)
○ Meat substitute
3 grades:
2. Glycogen 1. Vermiform
o Stored in liver and skeletal muscles 2. Sorts
o More branched than starch (every 10) 3. Flakes
o with iodine
Karaya Sterculia Sterculia
o Found in skeletal muscles & liver
gum urens
o Can provide hrs of energy
Indian Indian gum Anogeissus Substitute for acacia
3. Inulin Ghatti gum latifolia
o Polyfructan of fructofuranose
o Chicory root - Chicorum intybus (Asteraceae)
2. Marine gums
o Improves digestion
o Uses:
 Ingedient in culture media Gum Source Constituents
 Evaluation of renal function
4. Dextran Agar or Japanese Algae: Agarose - high SO4
o Glucosan Isinglas Gelidium Agaropectin - higher
o Leuconostoc mesenteroides cartilagineum SO4
o Plasma expander Gracilaria
confervoides
5. Cellulose
Algin Brown seaweeds Mannuronic acid
o Most abundant organic matter Macrocystis
o Structural polysaccharide in plants pyrifera
○ purified/absorbent cotton
■ From the hair of the seeds of Carageenan or Irish Red algae - Kappa & Iota -
Gossypium hirsutum moss Chondrus crispus - gelling component;
○ Soluble guncotton/pyroxylin Carageenan stable helix &
Gigartina mamillosa straight chain
■ Formed by the action of nitric and sulfuric acid
- Irish moss Lambda - non-
on cotton gelling component (
■ Other ingredients: no stable chain &
a. Castor oil - helix), dissolves
b. Camphor -
■ Use: topical protectant Danish agar Furcellaria fastigiata Kappa
○ Other cellulose derivatives
■ Cellulose acetate phthalate <CAP> -
3. Seed gums
coating agent
■ Methyl cellulose and ethyl cellulose -
artificial tears Gum Source Notes

6. Chitin Psyllium Seed coat of

o Structural polysaccharide in animals Plantago psyllium -
o Exoskeleton: mollusks and arthropods Spanish
Plantago ovata -
o Homoglycan of N-acetylglucosamine Blonde
o Mushrooms, arthropods, crustaceans
Cydonium/Quince Ripe seed of Thixotropic agent
B. Heteroglycans seed Cydonia vulgaris
● Polysaccharides that yield >1 type of monosaccharide
unit upon hydrolysis Guar gum or Endosperm of
guaran Cyamopsis
tetragonolobus
GUMS AND MUCILAGES
● Natural plant hydrocolloids that may be classified as Locust bean Endosperm of the
anionic or nonionic polysaccharides gum/Carob pulp/St. seed of
● Produced by plants as a protective after injury John’s Bread Ceratonia
● Lead acetate and alcohol - solubilizers siliqua
● Gum + water → dissolves
● Mucilage + water → sticky/paste 4. Microbial gum
● Pectin + water → gel Gum Source Notes

Xanthan Action of Xanthomonas Has activity

1. Plant Exudates gum campestris on Enables toothpastes and
carbohydrates ointments to spread
readily
Plant Other Name Botanical Notes
Exudates Source
 5. Plant Extractives
○ Pectin
■ Intercellular cementing material
■ -
reason for swelling
■ Extract of the inner portion of the rind of citrus fruits
and apple pomace
■ Antidiarrheal agent
■ Kaopectate (Polymagma®)= kaolin + pectin
■ Protopectin - from unripe fruit
■ Pectin - just ripe
■ Pectinic acid - overripe
GLYCOSIDES
● plant constituent that produces sugar upon hydrolysis
● Heteroglycans
● “Sugar ethers”
● Beta forms occur in plants
● N-, S-, C-, O, alpha or beta
● Regulatory, protective and sanitary compounds
● Sugar portion - glycone - vehicle/base
● Non sugar - genin/aglycone
A. Cardiac glycosides
● Unsaturated steroidal aglycone
● Tests:
1. Liebermann-Burchard (blue green
2. Salkowski (red)
● 2-deoxy sugar glycone test
○ Keller-Kiliani test
Examples of Cardiac glycosides
1. Digitalis
● Digoxin - water soluble
● Digitoxin - lipophilipic
● Desllanatoside - used if digitalization (rapid
digitalis loading) is required
2. Convallaria
● Lilly of the valley
● Convallatoxin
3. Apocynum
● Dogbane
● Cymarine
4. Adonis
● Pheasant’s eye
● Adonitoxin
5. Black
Hellebore
● Christmas rose
● Hellebrin
6. Strophanthus
● K Strophantin
● G Strophantin
7. (Oubain) Squill
● White - good
● Red - bad
● Scillarenin (Bufa)
B. Anthraquinone Glycosides
 Aglycone: Anthracene
 Use:
 Derivatives are orange in color
 Test for aglycones:
 Examples:
1. Cascara sagrada (Sacred bark)
● Rhamnus purshianus
● Cascarosides A and B - optical isomers of
barbaloin
● Cascarosides C and D - optical
isomers of chrysaloin
2. Frangula or Buckthorn bark
● Rhamnus frangula
● Present in
- cathartic laxative
3. Aloe vera aka Sabila
● Dried latex or juice
● Aloe barbadensis
● Aloe vera <Curacao aloe> - commercial source
● Hybrid of Aloe ferox with Aloe african & Aloe spicata
<Cape aloe>
● Constituents: and
● Uses:
○ burn treatments (2% ointment)
○ Compound benzoin tincture
4. Rhubarb
● Rheum or Chinese rhubarb (official
medicinal rhubarb)
● Indian rhubarb or Himalayan (ornamental rhubarb)
5. Senna
● Dried leaflet
● Cassia acutifolia ( ) - dried
broken leaflet
● Cassia angustifolia ( )- whole leaflets
● Constituents:
○ Sennosides A, B, C, D
6. Chrysarobin
● From Goa powder - Andira araroba
● Only anthraquinone that is NOT used as a
cathartic because it is very irritating
● Used as
● Hot benzene is used to extract this substance
C. Saponin Glycosides
● : Official ID Test
○ Foam upon shaking
● Bitter, acrid taste
● - irritates mucous membrane →
makes you sneeze
● Destroy RBC’s of cold blooded animals → fish poisons
● Aglycone: sapogenin
● Toxic aglycone: Sapotoxin
● Steroidal
● E.g. Diosgenin
● Examples:
1. Glycerrhiza/Licorice
● Dried roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra
● Increase foaminess of bear
● Constituents:
○ Glycirrhizin
○ Glycirrhizic acid
● Mask taste
● Steroidal:
○ Used for treatment of Addison’s disease
○ CI in px with - bec.
Inc. Na & water retention
2. Discorea
● D. spiculiflora - diosgenin - anti-inflammatory
● D. floribunda - best source of steroids
3. Ginseng
● Panax ginseng - Asian
● Panax quinquefolius - American
● Aphrodisiac & adaptogen
● Constituents:
○ Panaxosides
○ Ginsenosides
○ Chikusetsusaponins
D. Cyanophoric or cyanogenic glycosides - cyanide giving
1. Amygdalin (water and amygdalase) →
mandelonitrile glucose (water + prunase) →
- official ID test mandelonitrile + glucose
→ benzaldehyde + HCN
 Cyanogenic: produce CN upon hydrolysis
 Family
 USP ID Test: Test
 Amygdalase + Prunase → Emulsin
 Substance with Amygdalin
o Bitter almond - Prunus amygdalus
o Wild cherry - Prunus serotina
o Apricots - Prunus armeniaca
- karaya + frangula o Laetrile is
E. Isothiocyanate Glycoside
1. Sinigrin
 black mustard (Brassica nigra, Sinapis nigra)
 isothiocyanate
 PHARMACOGNOSY
 More volatile oils ● Complex substances or polypeptides that are difficult
2. Sinalbin to separate because they do not crystallize
 white mustard (Brassica alba, Sinapis alba) ● Characteristics of tannins
 isothiocyanate ○ Acidic
*enzyme for both: Myrosinase ○ Sharp puckering taste
F. Flavonol Glycosides ○ Causes precipitation of alkaloids
 Flavonids of Bioflavonoids from Citrus fruits and Soya ○ Can precipitate proteins; used in the tanning industry
1. Rutin and Hesperidin ○ Astringent - GI or skin
o Vitamin P or permeability factors ○ Treatment of burns
o uses: treatment of capillary bleeding secondary ● Official sources of tannins in the Philippines
to capillary fragibility ○ Found in bark & roots
2. Hesperitin, Diosmin, and Naringen/Echinacea  Chemical Classes
o Prophylaxis of common colds
3. Rutin and Quercetin Hydrolyzable tannins Nonhydrolyzable tannins
 Yellow pigment
4. Milk thistle Pyrogallotannins Phlobatannins/
o Silybum marianum Condensed tannins
o Silibinin, Silymarin
Hydrolysis: Polymerize:
o Hepatoprotective
● Phenolic acids ● Phlobaphenes
5. Gingko ● Sugars (red
o Gingkolides ● Pyrogallol polymers,
o Bilobalides insoluble)
o Memory enhancement
FeCl3: Blue-black FeCl3: Green-black
G. Alcohol Glycosides
1. Salicin Br2 test: negative Br2 test: positive
 Salix and Populus sp. - Willow bark
 Salix purpurea Leather: Bloom Leather: Tanner’s red
 Salix fragilis
 Aglycone: Saligenin
True tannins Pseudo tannins
o Antirheumatic
o Anti-inflammatory Can convert to leather Can’t convert to leather
H. Aldehyde Glycosides
1. Vanilla - cured fruit of Vanilla planifolia (mexican, Gold beater’s skin test (+)
Vera Cruz, bourbon)
 Constituent: 1. Hammamelis leaf
 Use: Flavoring agent ○ Witch Hazel leaf
I. Phenol Glycoside ○ Dried leaf of Hammamelis virginiana
1. Uva-ursi ○ Constituent:
 Dried leaf of Arctostaphylos uva ursi ○ Anti , for insect bites
 “Bear berry” 2. Nutgall
 Constituent: ○ Best source of tannic acid in the market
 Use: Astringent and diuretic, whitening agent ○ Excresence obtained from the young twigs of
2. Poison Ivy (Rhus radicans) and Poison Oak Quercus infectoria (Fagaceae)
(Rhus toxicondendron) ○ When a hymenopterous insect, Cynips tinctoria bores
 - delayed contact dermatitis a hole to deposit its ova
J. Lactone Glycoside ○ Constituents: -
1. Coumarin
Chinese/Japanese Gall
 From tonka beans (Dipteryx odorata)
○ (plant) Rhus chinensis
 Constituent: Dicoumarol (first oral anticoagulant),
○ (insect) Aphis sp. → Gallic acid
bishydroxycoumarin
 Anticoagulant
 Burning aromatic taste LIPIDS
 Racumin
2. Cantharides Fixed Oils Fats Waxes
 From the dried insect (Cantharis vesicatoria)
- blistering fly (Spanish/Russian) Long chain fatty Long chain fatty Long chain fatty
o Mature acids + glycerol acids + glycerol acids + high MW
alcohol
o Metallic
o Shiny From From animals From animals &
o Green luster plants
 Constituent: Cantharidin
o Irritant Liquid at room Solid at room
o Vesicant temp temp at room temp
o Rubefacient
 Causes priapism - prolonged & painful erection
o 6-24 hrs  Uses of Lipids
o Because of metabolite: NO ● Emollients
3. Psoralens ● Vehicles for IM injection - corn, cottonseed,
 Ammi majus - Bishop’s flower peanut, sesame)
● Cathartic - castor oil
 Photosensitizing furocoumarins
● Soap production
o Methoxsalen - Repigmentation in vitiligo
● Increase caloric value - TPN
o Trioxsalen
 CI: Sunlight
 USP tests
TANNINS to neutralize FA in 1g
● Non-crystallizable polyphenols ● Acid value or acid sample
number - mg KOH ● Saponification

PHARMACY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW | By: Louie Fernand D. Legaspi, RPh

 value/Kottsd
PHARMACOGNOSY 2. Lanolin
Drying >120
orfer - mg of ● Purified fat-like
KOH needed substance
to neutralize Ethiodized oil Poppy + iodine from the wool
FA’s in 1g; A. Fixed Oils - mostly of sheep, Ovis
concentrated in
saponify 2. Pericarp oils aries
seeds
esters un 1g (Bovidae)
1. Seed Oils
● Iodine ● Contains 25% water
value - g Fixed oils Botanical source ● Anhydrou
Fixed of iodine Constituents/
oils Botanical Test s lanolin:
absorbed Notes Source Olive oil Olea europea Wool fat -
under contains
Cottonseed oil Gossypol Gossypium Halphen- ID test: Millon’s
prescribe only
- 0.6% hirsutum Bevan
d - Male 0.25%
condition sterility water -
s of 100g best
Sesame seed
iodine Sesamol - Sesamum Baudouin water
oil/Teel/Benne
● *Ester valuepreserving
- oil indicum absorbab
saponify esters le
Coconut
onlyOil Lauric, myristic, Cocos Serger’s -
TGC nucifera hydrogenated ointment
*Not official base
volatile oil
● S = E+A ● Uses:
Castor oil/ Ricin, ricinoleic Ricinus ○ water absorbable
Extraction
 Tangan tangan acid communis ointment base:
● Expression emollient
Peanut
○ oilCold-pressed Arachis
oil hypogaea 3. Cod liver oil
■ At room ● From Gadus morrhua
Soybean oil temperatur
Lecithin Glycine soja
● Sclerosing agent to
e obliterate varicose veins
■ ● Best source of vitamins
○ Hot-pressed <Scott’s emulsions>
Corn oil oil Zea mays
■ Any type 4. Undecylenic acid
Safflower oil of heat
Increase HDL Catharmus
tinctoria ● Pyrolysis of ricinoleic
applied
acid from castor oil
■ Majority of B. Fats and Related
Sunflower oiloils inIncrease HDL Helianthus ● Has
Compounds
property
market 1. Theobroma Oil
● Rendering ● Theobroma cacao
5. Azelaic acid
○ For ● Food for the Gods
● Ozonolysis of Castor oil
○ Sample fat ● uses:
then subject ●
○ Cocoa syrup -
to high ○ Cocoa
pressure
butter
■ Fatty layer C. WAXES
-
→ ozone 1. Spermaceti
→ suppo
 head of
rendered sitory
spermwhale,
fat base
Physeter
● Solvent extraction becau
macrocephal
- fats se it
us = first
○ Best solvent: melts
candles
at oC
 Synthetic spermaceti -
● Nibs - broken cacao
Cetyl ester wax
 Types of oils kernels (nips &
M&M’s) 2. Jojoba oil
● Ability to absorb
● Prepared  Seeds of Simmondsia
oxygen
cacao/breakfast chinensis (Buxaceae)
● Oxygen
cacao = powdered  Hydrogenated form
saturate
cocoa resembles spermaceti
s double
 Eicosanoic acids:
bonds eicosanol and docosenol
forming D. VOLATILE OILS
oxides 3. Beeswax or Yellow ● Ethereal oils
that wax ● Essential oils
polymeri  Honeycomb of ● Essences
ze to bees, Apis ● Odorous principles in
form mellifera various plants
films  Stiffening agent in ● Colorless and
● Paint industry plasters and photosensitive
cerates
● Undergoes 1. auto-
 White wax - oxidation and 2.
bleached yellow resinification
Iodine value wax ● Light resistant tight
range  Myricyl palmitate containers in a cool and
4. Carnauba wax dry place
Non drying <100
 Leaves of
Copernicia ➢ Plant families
Semi-drying 100-120 punifera ● Glandular hair or
 Myricyl cerotate trichomes - Lamiaceae
 Substitute for (Labiatae)
beeswax: ● Modified parenchymal

PHARMACY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW | By: Louie Fernand D. Legaspi, RPh

 cells -
PHARMACOGNOSY fresh hologic
Piperaceae ○ Steam Sources: produc
● Oil tubes or distillation 1. Musk t
vittae - ■ Peppermi ■ Dr formed
Apiaceae nt & ie in the
(Umbelliferae) spearmint d stoma
- Dillweed ■ For fresh se ch of
● Lysigenous samples cr sperm
and only eti whale
schizogenous ○ Destructive on
distillation when it
passages - fro
■ Empyreu feeds
Pinaceae and m
metric oils on
Rutaceae th
(heat w/o squid
air e or
➢ Physical pr
access) cattlefi
Characteristics
■ Incineratio ep sh
● Posses
n: only uti ■ Ambrein
characteristic
Pinaceae al
odor
& fol
● High refractive ➢ Constituents of Volatile oil
Cuppresia licl
index - ● Terpenes
ceae
refractometry es ○ Natural
● Enzymatic
● Optically active of products
actions
● Immiscible in th whose
● Expression
water but e structure
● Ecuelle a piquer -
they can be m s are
rolling a fruit rind
sufficiently al made up
in a tough lined
soluble to e of
with sharp tiny
impart their m isoprene
projections
odor in water us units
enough to
→ aromatic k (C5)-
puncture the rind
waters de building
and not the fruit
er blocks
● Enfleurage -
➢ Volatile oils (vs of ● acetate-mevalonate
flower petals on a
Fixed oils) as pathways
fatty pomade →
● Can ia
Ethanol extract
be ■ Moschus spp I. Monoterpenes
distill A. Hydrocarbon volatile oils
➢ Components of Volatile Oils
ed 2. Civet 1. Turpentine oil (Pinus
from ■ A palustris)
their
Stereoptene Eleoptenes gla ■ Rectified
natur nd turpentine =
Solid oxidized
al hydrocarbon Liquid hydrocarbon portion ula Turpentine oil +
portion sour r NaOH
ces sec ■ terpinhydrate/terp
(vs. inol
➢ Medicinal and reti
sapo Commercial Uses: ● Expectorant
on
nifie Fabrication of ■ Components: 𝛼 &
ap
d) perfumes 𝛽-pinene
pe
● No permanent 1. Top notes - A
ari
grease on spot most volatile l
ng c
test products;
out o
● They do not they leave
war h
become skin readily
rancid, they dly o
2. Middle notes - l
resinify - dis
intermediate
oxidized tenacity and cha
rgi v
volatility
ng o
➢ Methods of 3. Base note - low l
obtaining volatile volatility and high poc
a
oils tenacity ket t
● Distillation ■ Aka: fixatives s of i
○ Water : staying Civ l
distillation power et e
■ Turpe ■ Most oil cat
ntine based s o
oil perfume
(Pa i
■ For l
rad
dry
ox P
sampl
us e
e
p
○ Water and her
p
steam ma e
distillation phr r
■ Clove odi m
& tus i
cinna ) n
mon t
■ For
3. Ambergris
not
too ■ Most valuable o
base note i
dry & l
not ■ P
■ Mentha piperita
too at
PHARMACY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW | By: Louie Fernand D. Legaspi, RPh
 ● Con
PHARMACOGNOSY
pogon C st
stitu winterianus o ru
ent: ■ Citronellal n al
men 4. Hammamelis oil s pr
thol ■ Hammamel t
o
(ant us i
ripru t bl
virginiana e
ritic) u
■ Constituent: m
○ ( e
2-hexanal
+ n s,
■ Use: t
) c
Hemorrhoid s
s ar
al :
y m
preparation
n ( in
t D. Ketone Volatile -
Oils at
h )
e 1. Camphor iv
t ■ Cinnamomu e,
c
i m a a
c camphora r nt
; ■ Natural v i-
( camphor: o rh
- (+) n e
) ■ Synthetic e u
n camphor: 3.Buchu oil
a m
racemic (±) ■ Berosma
t at
■ Anti-pruritic, betulina
u ic
rubefacient, ■ Constituent:
r anti-
a Diosphenol
infective E. Phenol Volatile Oils
l ● F
■ C 1. Thyme
■ Japane o
a ■ Thymus vulgaris
se r
m ■ Constituent:
Pepper m Thymol
mint oil p e
h ■ Antifungal &
- n antibacterial
Mentha o
3. Fennel
arrensi r 2. Clove Oil
s ■ Constituent:
■ Eugenia Fenchone, trans-
● Hig caryophyllus
+ anethole
h
■ Constituent: 4. Chinese star anise
men
Eugenol ■ Constituent:
thol m
con ■ Toothache trans-anethole
e
c. drops:
n dental G. Oxide Volatile oils
■ flavoran t analgesic
t, h 1. Eucalyptus
carmina 3. Creosote oil Oil/Cajuput oil
o ■ Facus
tive, ■ Eucalyptus
stimula l grandiflorus globulus
nt, = ■ Constituent: (Myrtaceae)
counter Creosole ■ Cineole : cajuptol
-irritant e ■ Disinfectant + eucalyptol
C. Aldehyde u like Guiacol H. Ester volatile oil
volatile oils t 4. Juniper tar 1. Gaultheria oil/
1. Cinnamon e ■ Juniperus Wintergreen oil/
oil (aka oxycedrus
c Betula Oil/ Sweet
Cassia oil) ■ Constituent:
t Birch oil
■ Constitu Cadinene
ent: i ■ Gaultheria
■ Anti-eczema
Cinnam c procumbens
in (Polytar®)
aldehyd ■ Betula lenta
e m ■ Main constituent:
F. Phenolic ether
■ Flavor, i methyl salicylate
1. Nutmeg or
carmina x Myristica Oil
tive, RESINS & RESIN
t ■ Myristica
antisepti
c u fragrans COMBINATIONS
r ■ Constituents
e : ● Amorphous products with
2. Lemon
peel oil ● Safrole complex chemical nature
■ Rind of = ● Myristici ● Hard transparent or
the fruit n translucent and when heated
Citrus ■ Use: they soften and melt
l Hallucinoge
limon ● Complex mixtures of:
o n
■ Lemon ○ Resin acids
w ● Date-
oil ○ Resin alcohols
e rape
■ Constit ○ Resinotannols
uent: r drugs
2. Anise ○ Esters
citral,
■ Pimpinella ● Resenes - B-
limonen m
e anisum complex neutral
. substances devoid
3. Citronella p ■ Trans-
oil anethole, of characteristics
.
■ Leaves anisaldehyd
2. Spearmint e
of ➢ Resin Combinations
■ Mentha ■ Flavoring 1. Oleoresin = Resin + Volatile
Cymbo
spicata Oils
PHARMACY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW | By: Louie Fernand D. Legaspi, RPh
2. Oleo-Gum-Resin =
PHARMACOGNOSY benzoin tincture *All alkaloids are solid except for:
Resin + V. Oil + ○ From root 2. Peru balsam ● Coniine
Gum 5. Mastic ○ Parasiticide ● Arecoline
3. Balsams = resin + ○ Masticin 3. Tolu balsam ● Nicotine
any aromatic 6. Kava-kava ○ Expectorant ● Spartein
compound ○ Styrylpyrones ○ Flavorant ○ Anti-arrhythmic
(cinnamic, benzoic ■ Methysticin, 4. Benzoin ○ From:
or esters of these yangonin, ○ Major component ■ Lupinus mutabilis -
acids kawain of compound Lupin
4. Resin acids = ○ Tranquilizer benzoin tincture ■ Cysticus coparious
oxyacids (-COOH ○ Smooth muscle ○ Sumatra - - Scotch broom
and phenol) relaxant Indonesia
5. Glycoresin = resin + 7. Cannabis/ Indian ○ Siam - Thailand  Alkaloidal reagents:
carbohydrate hemp/ Marijuana/
Pot o Form
double
A.Resins ○ Tops of Cannabis
sativa salts with
1. Rosin/Colophony compound
○ Sharp ○ Resin: Hashish ALKALOIDS s of
fragments ○ Constituents:
mercury,
○ Amber in ■ THC ● Bitter, basic nitrogenous gold,
color ■ Cannabidiol compounds platinum
2. Podophyllum ■ Nabilone ● Physiologically active and other
○ From ● Most of them end in -ine heavy
American B. Oleoresins metals
mandrake/ 1. Turpentine Lobella
May apple 2. Capsicum (Bantro
○ 3 resins: ○ African chilies: n)
■ Podophyl Labuyo Indian
lum - ○ Louisiana long tobacco
caustic pepper: siling ■ Lobella inflata
agent for haba ■ Constituent: Lobeline
warts
○ Capsaicin → rich ■ CNS Stimulant and
■ Peltatin - in Vit. C smoking deterrent
purgative
3. Ginger B. Tropane/ Solanaceous
■ Podophyl
○ Bisabolene, Alkaloids
lotoxin -
zingeberol 1. Belladonna
Etoposid
e, ○ Carminative, ■ Deadly nightshade
Teniposid stomachic, ■ Atropa belladonna
e mouthwash ■ Anticholinergic,
3. Yerba santa/ 4. White pine mydriatic
Eriodictyon 5. Balsam of Copaiba ■ (-) hyoscyamine →
○ Paralysis of ○ NOT TRUE atropine
bitter balsam 2. Hyoscyamus or Henbane
tastebuds for ■ Leaves of
masking C.Oleo-gum- resin Hyoscyamus niger,
quinine 1. Myrrh/Gum myrrh 0.04%
4. Jalap ○ Embalming agent ■ Toxic to swine
○ Jalapin and ○ Commiphora ■ Scopolamine,
purganol molmol hyoscyamine
(drastic ○ Use: astringent 3. Egyptian hyoscyamus -
purgative) 1.5%
○ Astring-o-sol -
preserves tissues ■ Hyscyamus muticus
& integrity of 4. Duboisia
mouth ■ Duboisia
A. Pyridine -
2. Asafetida myoporoides
Piperidine
○ Most fetid resin ■ Commercial source of
1. Nicotine
○ Devil’s dung (Nicorette®) atropine
○ Ferula asafetida ■ Leaves of 5. Withania
Nicotiana ■ Withania somnifera
D. Balsams tabacum ■ Commercial sources
1. Storax/ Styrax ■ Use: of atropine
○ Constituent: ● CNS 6. Stramonium or Jimson
Storesin stimulant weed or Jamestown weed
■ 𝛼&𝛽 ● Smoking ■ Datura stramonium
→ deterrent (Solanaceae)
Lev 2. Areca, areca nut, 7. Mandragora or European
ant’s betel nut Mandrake
stor ■ Dried ripe ■ Roots of Mandragora
ax seed ■ Mandragorin - emetic
(offi ■ Masticatory 8. Coca
cial stimulant ■ Huanuco coca -
com ■ Dried ripe Erythroxylon coca
mer seed of areca ■ Truxillo coca - E.
cial catechu truxillense
sour ■ Composition: ■ Cocaine
ce arecoline - ● “Crack”, “coke”
anthelminthic - ● Psychomotor
of
taenicide stimulant, local
𝛼&𝛽
■ Tannin anesthetic
stori content
cin) ●
causes cocktail
○ For preparation oropharyngeal
of Compound 9. Atropine
cancer
PHARMACY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW | By: Louie Fernand D. Legaspi, RPh
 ■ Antispas
PHARMACOGNOSY emetic
modic ■ Mydriatic and ■ Dried rhizome C
■ Antisialog cycloplegic - root of o
ogue - paralysis of Cephaelis n
naglalaw upper lids ipecacanhua s
Reagent Composition Mnemonics
ay ■ Antidote for cholinesterase ■ Constituent: t
Wagner’s reagent Iodine ininhibtors
KI emetine or i
■ (+) inotropic agent methylcephael p
Mayer’s reagent 10. Scopolamine/
Potassium mercuric in (amoebic) a
iodide Hyoscine ■ Use: t
Tr ● Ipecac i
Valser’s reagent Mercuric
eat iodide syrup - o
me emetic n
Dragendorff’s Potassium
nt bismuth ● Ipecac ■ Unripe poppy seed
reagent iodide
of capsules of Papaver
fluidextract
mo (14x more somniferum
Bouchdart’s Iodine
tio in KI, most ■ Only legal source is
potent
reagent sensitive
n than ■ Stone of immortality
sic syrup) ■ Opiates - naturally-
Marme’s reagent K cadmium
kn iodide
● Ipecac + occuring
es Opium =
Sonnencheim’s Phosphomolybdic a. Morphine
s Dover’s
reagent acid o Most important
Tr powder -
a o Most abundant
Scheibler’s reagent Phosphotungstic diaphoretic
o Narcotic
acidn 2. Sanguinaria or analgesic
s- Blood root -
s acid b. Codeine
Hager’s reagent Picric bloody red
c ○ Discovered by:
■ Sanguinaria
Gold compounds - o - canadensis ○ Most widely
p used opium
■ Constituent:
Tannic acid - or - Sanguinarine
alkaloid -
Tr cough syrup
a ■ Use:
○ Obtained from
n stimulating
methylation of
s expectorant
morphine
d emetic
○ Methyl
er 3. Tubocurarine
morphine
m chloride
○ Use:
■ Aka curare or
antitussive
C. Quinoline Alkaloids south
american c.
1. Cinchona ○ Only Non-
arrow poison
■ Red Cinchona narcotic opium
bark - Cinchona ■ Strychnos
castelnaei alkaloid
succirubra ○ Use:
■ Yellow ■ Constituent:
tubocurarine Antitussive
Cinchona bark - ○ anarcotin /
C. calisaya ● Skeletal
muscle narcotine
■ Parent d. Papaverine
alkaloids: relaxant
■ Assay: Head ○ Smooth
Cinconine and
drop assay in muscle
Cinchonidine →
rabbits relaxant
Quinine &
O ○ antitussive
Quinidine
p e. Thebane
● Anti-malarial
i ○ No particular
● Now: anti-
u use
arrhythmic
m ■ Opioids -
■ “Cinchonism” / derived,
● cinchona
toxicity synthetic,
G direct
● temporary u
loss of affinity
m
hearing with
● hallmark: opioid
o
tinnitus p receptors
■ DOC for i Diacetylm
Malaria: u orphine or
Artemisinin m Heroin
Combination S Acetylatio
Therapy E n of
■ Wormwood - : morphine
Artemisia annua potent
■ Artemether - ○ Incre analgesic
■ Artesunate - ased ○ Less frequent
2. Cuprea dang SE
■ Remijia er of (constipation)
pyrdiena habit c. Apomorphine
(Cupressaceae) form ○ Condensation
■ Commercial ation of morphine +
source of , HCl
quinidine ○ Use: Emetic
very
■ Destructive d. Hydrocodone
pote
distillation ○ Use: antitussive
nt
b. Hydromorpho
D. Isoquinoline Alkaloids E. Indole Alkaloids
ne
1. Ipecac 1. Rawolfia serpentina
○ More
■ Most potent
PHARMACY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW | By: Louie Fernand D. Legaspi, RPh
 ■ Dried root of
PHARMACOGNOSY
● Ergometrine
Rauwolfia ○ Derivative ■ Constituent:
serpentina of ● Only alkaloid Dare to believe
■ Constituent: Ergonovin that can mimic
SOmething amazing iS
reserpine e methampheta
mine going to happen in
■ Use: ● Methylsergide
yoUr life. When yoU
● Treatm ○ Prophylact 4. Peyote/ Mescal
buttons believe, all thingS are
ent of ic
poSSible.
snakeb treatment
ites to for
migraine
insanity
○ Derivative
(folklori
of
c use Ergonovin
only) e
● Hypotens ● Ergotamine ■ Part: Dried tops ~Joel OSteen
ive ○ DOC for ■ Constituent:
effects
● Lysergic Acid Mescaline
(proven)
Diethylamide ■ Use:
● Also (LSD) Hallucinogenic &
have
○ Most euphoric agent
sedative
and active I. Purine Alkaloids
tranquilizi and C
ng most a
propertie specific f
s psycho f
2. Catharanthus or e
mimetic
Vinca alkaloids i
drug n
■ Vincristine ○ Hallucinog e
(Catharanth enic agent
us roseus) K
o
■ Vinblastine F. Imidazole Alkaloids l
■ Uses: 1. Pilocarpine a
Antineoplasti
■ Leaflets of ■ Coffee bean
c
Pilocarpus ● C. arabica
3. Nux Vomica jaborandii ● C. liberica
■ Dried ripe ■ Treatment of
seed of ● C. robusta
Glaucoma ■ Caffeine +
Strychnos
G. Steroidal Alkaloids Chlorgenic acid --
nux vomica
1. Green hellebore/ roast + heat →
■ Official
American hellebore caffeole
source:
Strychnos ■ From roots of ■ Decaffeinated:
ignatii Veratrum viride 0.08%
● ■ Use: Cardiac T
Bean depressant h
■ Constituents: ■ (-) inotrope e
2. White Hellebore o
● Strychnin
■ Veratrum album p
e - toxic
■ Use: insecticide h
central
y
stimulant ■ Roots
l
● Brucine - H. Alkaloidal Amines l
alcohol 1. Ephedra/ Ma Huang i
denatura ■ Constituent: n
nt Ephedrine e
4. Physostigmine ■ Use: Nasal L
or Eserine decongestant, e
■ Calabar, bronchodilator a
ordeal, or ■ Part: Overground f
Esere bean portion
■ From 2. Colchicine b
Physostigma u
■ Liliaceae
venenosum d
■ Can double
■ Treatment of s
chromosomes in
glaucoma (↓ DNA ■Treatment of
■ Use: Acute gout bronchial asthma
while 3. Khat/ Abyssynian ■ Tocolytic
production of Tea ■ Aminophylline
↑ ) ● For pedia -
5. Ergot bronchial
■ Dried asthma
sclerotium ● Semi-
of Claviceps synthetic
theophylline
purpurea on
derivative
rye, Secale
■ Tea
cereale
● Green tea
■ Constituent:
● Black tea
● Ergonovi
3. Theobromine
ne
■ Seed
○ Oxyto
cic ■ Diuretic in cardiac
agent & pulmonary
for edema
labor
PHARMACY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW | By: Louie Fernand D. Legaspi, RPh