Question 2:

Define receptors and explain signal transduction mechanism for plasma

membrane receptors.
Answer:
Receptors
Receptors are chemical structures, composed of protein, that receive and transduce signals
that may be integrated into biological systems. These signals are typically chemical
messengers which bind to a receptor and cause some form of cellular/tissue response, e.g. a
change in the electrical activity of a cell. There are three main ways the action of the receptor
can be classified: relay of signal, amplification, or integration. Relaying sends the signal
onward, amplification increases the effect of a single ligand, and integration allows the signal
to be incorporated into another biochemical pathway. In this sense, a receptor is a protein-
molecule that recognizes and responds to endogenous chemical signals. For example, an
acetylcholine receptor recognizes and responds to its endogenous ligand, acetylcholine.
However, sometimes in pharmacology, the term is also used to include other proteins that are
drug targets, such as enzymes, transporters, and ion channels.
Types of receptors
Receptors come in many types, but they can be divided into two categories: intracellular
receptors, which are found inside of the cell (in the cytoplasm or nucleus), and cell surface
receptors, which are found in the plasma membrane.
Intracellular receptors
Intracellular receptors are receptor proteins found on the inside of the cell, typically in the
cytoplasm or nucleus. In most cases, the ligands of intracellular receptors are small,
hydrophobic (water-hating) molecules, since they must be able to cross the plasma membrane
in order to reach their receptors. For example, the primary receptors for hydrophobic steroid
hormones, such as the sex hormones estradiol (an estrogen) and testosterone, are intracellular.
Cell-surface receptors(Membrane Receptors)
Cell-surface receptors are membrane-anchored proteins that bind to ligands on the outside
surface of the cell. In this type of signalling , the ligand does not need to cross the plasma
membrane. So, many different kinds of molecules (including large, hydrophilic or "water-
loving" ones) may act as ligands.
Ligand-gated ion channels
Ligand-gated ion channels are ion channels that can open in response to the binding of a
ligand. To form a channel, this type of cell-surface receptor has a membrane-spanning region
with a hydrophilic (water-loving) channel through the middle of it. The channel lets ions to
cross the membrane without having to touch the hydrophobic core of the phospholipid
bilayer.
G protein-coupled receptors
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a large family of cell surface receptors that share
a common structure and method of signalling. The members of the GPCR family all have
seven different protein segments that cross the membrane, and they transmit signals inside the
cell through a type of protein called a G protein 

Signal Transduction Mechanism for Plasma Membrane Receptors

Iintegral transmembrane proteins span the plasma membrane of the cell, with one part of the
receptor on the outside of the cell and the other on the inside. Signal transduction occurs as a
result of a ligand binding to the outside region of the receptor (the ligand does not pass
through the membrane). Ligand-receptor binding induces a change in the conformation of the
inside part of the receptor, a process sometimes called "receptor activation". This results in
either the activation of an enzyme domain of the receptor or the exposure of a binding site for
other intracellular signalling proteins within the cell, eventually propagating the signal
through the cytoplasm.
In eukaryotic cells, most intracellular proteins activated by a ligand/receptor interaction
possess an enzymatic activity; examples include tyrosine kinase and phosphatases. Often
such enzymes are covalently linked to the receptor. Some of them create second messengers
such as cyclic AMP and IP3, the latter controlling the release of intracellular calcium stores
into the cytoplasm. Other activated proteins interact with adaptor proteins that facilitate
signalling protein interactions and coordination of signalling complexes necessary to respond
to a particular stimulus. Enzymes and adaptor proteins are both responsive to various second
messenger molecules.
Many adaptor proteins and enzymes activated as part of signal transduction possess
specialized protein domains that bind to specific secondary messenger molecules. For
example, calcium ions bind to the EF hand domains of calmodulin, allowing it to bind and
activate calmodulin-dependent kinase. PIP3 and other phosphoinositides do the same thing to
the Pleckstrin homology domains of proteins such as the kinase protein AKT
Question 6:
Briefly explain all types of muscles and fibres with the mechanism of contraction and
relaxation, voluntary and involuntary actions mechanism and brain centers to control them.
Also explain the upright posture and balanced walking.
Answer:
Muscle and Its Types
Muscle is a soft tissue found in most animals. Muscle cells contain protein filaments of actin
and myosin that slide past one another, producing a contraction that changes both the length
and the shape of the cell. Muscles function to produce force and motion.
There are three types of muscle tissue recognized in vertebrates:
 Skeletal muscle or "voluntary muscle" is anchored by tendons (or by aponeuroses at
a few places) to bone and is used to effect skeletal movement such as locomotion and
in maintaining posture. Though this postural control is generally maintained as an
unconscious reflex, the muscles responsible react to conscious control like non-
postural muscles. An average adult male is made up of 42% of skeletal muscle and an
average adult female is made up of 36% (as a percentage of body mass).
 Smooth muscle or "involuntary muscle" is found within the walls of organs and
structures such as the esophagus, stomach, intestines, bronchi, uterus, urethra,
bladder, blood vessels, and the arrector pili in the skin (in which it controls erection of
body hair). Unlike skeletal muscle, smooth muscle is not under conscious control.
 Cardiac muscle (myocardium), is also an "involuntary muscle" but is more akin in
structure to skeletal muscle, and is found only in the heart.
Muscle Fibres and Its Types
A muscle fibre is the combination of one of the cylindrical, multinucleate cells that make up
skeletal muscles and are composed of numerous myofibrils that contract when stimulated.
Two criteria to consider when classifying the types of muscle fibres are how fast some fibres
contract relative to others, and how fibres produce ATP. Using these criteria, there are three
main types of skeletal muscle fibres. Slow oxidative (SO) fibres contract relatively slowly
and use aerobic respiration (oxygen and glucose) to produce ATP. Fast oxidative (FO) fibres
have fast contractions and primarily use aerobic respiration, but because they may switch to
anaerobic respiration (glycolysis), can fatigue more quickly than SO fibres. Lastly, fast
glycolytic (FG) fibres have fast contractions and primarily use anaerobic glycolysis. The FG
fibres fatigue more quickly than the others. Most skeletal muscles in a human contain(s) all
three types, although in varying proportions.
Muscle Contraction and Relaxation Mechanism (Voluntary)
The sequence of events that result in the contraction of an individual muscle fibre begins with
a signal—the neurotransmitter, ACh—from the motor neuron innervating that fibre. The local
membrane of the fibre will depolarize as positively charged sodium ions (Na+) enter,
triggering an action potential that spreads to the rest of the membrane will depolarize,
including the T-tubules. This triggers the release of calcium ions (Ca ++) from storage in the
sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). The Ca++ then initiates contraction, which is sustained by ATP.
As long as Ca++ ions remain in the sarcoplasm to bind to troponin, which keeps the actin-
binding sites “unshielded,” and as long as ATP is available to drive the cross-bridge cycling
and the pulling of actin strands by myosin, the muscle fiber will continue to shorten to an
anatomical limit.
Muscle contraction usually stops when signaling from the motor neuron ends, which
repolarizes the sarcolemma and T-tubules, and closes the voltage-gated calcium channels in
the SR. Ca++ ions are then pumped back into the SR, which causes the tropomyosin to
reshield (or re-cover) the binding sites on the actin strands. A muscle also can stop
contracting when it runs out of ATP and becomes fatigued 
Sliding Filament Model of Contraction
Key Points
 The sarcomere is the region in which sliding filament contraction occurs.
 During contraction, myosin myofilaments ratchet over actin myofilaments contracting
the sarcomere.
 Within the sarcomere, key regions known as the I and H band compress and expand to
facilitate this movement.
 The myofilaments themselves do not expand or contract.
Key Terms
 I-band: The area adjacent to the Z-line, where actin myofilaments are not
superimposed by myosin myofilaments.
 A-band: The length of a myosin myofilament within a sarcomere.
 M-line: The line at the center of a sarcomere to which myosin myofilaments bind.
 Z-line: Neighbouring, parallel lines that define a sarcomere.
 H-band: The area adjacent to the M-line, where myosin myofilaments are not
superimposed by actin myofilaments.
Sarcomere Structure
To understand the sliding filament model requires an understanding of sarcomere structure. A
sarcomere is defined as the segment between two neighbouring, parallel Z-lines. Z lines are
composed of a mixture of actin myofilaments and molecules of the highly elastic protein titin
crosslinked by alpha-actinin. Actin myofilaments attach directly to the Z-lines, whereas
myosin myofilaments attach via titin molecules.
Surrounding the Z-line is the I-band, the region where actin myofilaments are not
superimposed by myosin myofilaments. The I-band is spanned by the titin molecule
connecting the Z-line with a myosin filament.
The region between two neighboring, parallel I-bands is known as the A-band and contains
the entire length of single myosin myofilaments. Within the A-band is a region known as the
H-band, which is the region not superimposed by actin myofilaments. Within the H-band is
the M-line, which is composed of myosin myofilaments and titin molecules crosslinked by
myomesin.
Titin molecules connect the Z-line with the M-line and provide a scaffold for myosin
myofilaments. Their elasticity provides the underpinning of muscle contraction. Titin
molecules are thought to play a key role as a molecular ruler maintaining parallel alignment
within the sarcomere. Another protein, nebulin, is thought to perform a similar role for actin
myofilaments.
Model of Contraction
The molecular mechanism whereby myosin and acting myofilaments slide over each other is
termed the cross-bridge cycle. During muscle contraction, the heads of myosin myofilaments
quickly bind and release in a ratcheting fashion, pulling themselves along the actin
myofilament.
At the level of the sliding filament model, expansion and contraction only occurs within the I
and H-bands. The myofilaments themselves do not contract or expand and so the A-band
remains constant.

Involuntary Mechanism of Muscle Movements

Different types of neurons work together in a reflex action. A reflex action is an automatic
(involuntary) and rapid response to a stimulus, which minimises any damage to the body
from potentially harmful conditions, such as touching something hot. Reflex actions are
therefore essential to the survival of many organisms.
A reflex action follows this general sequence and does not involve the conscious part of the
brain. This is why the response is so fast.

Reflex arcs
The nerve pathway followed by a reflex action is called a reflex arc. For example, a simple
reflex arc happens if we accidentally touch something hot.
1. Receptor in the skin detects a stimulus (the change in temperature).
2. Sensory neuron sends electrical impulses to a relay neuron, which is located in the
spinal cord of the CNS. Relay neurons connect sensory neurons to motor neurons.
3. Motor neuron sends electrical impulses to an effector.
4. Effector produces a response (muscle contracts to move hand away).
Organisms are able to modify a reflex action and overcome it, but this uses the brain and has
to be learnt. For example, keeping hold of a hot object requires a nerve impulse to be sent to
the motor neuron of the reflex arc to interfere with the normal reflex action to drop the object.
 Maintenance of Upright Posture and Balance
The skeleton supporting the body is a system of long bones and a many-jointed spine that
cannot stand erect against the forces of gravity without the support given by coordinated
muscle activity. The muscles that maintain upright posture—that is, support the body's
weight against gravity—are controlled by the brain and by reflex mechanisms that are "wired
into" the neural networks of the brainstem and spinal cord.
Added to the problem of maintaining upright posture is that of maintaining balance. A human
being is a very tall structure balanced on a relatively small base, and the center of gravity is
quite high, being situated just above the pelvis. For stability, the center of gravity must be
kept within the base of support provided by the feet (Figure 12-13). Once the center of
gravity has moved beyond this base, the body will fall unless one foot is shifted to broaden
the base of support. Yet people can operate under conditions of unstable equilibrium because
their balance is protected by complex interacting postural reflexes, all the components of
which we have met previously.
The afferent pathways of the postural reflexes come from three sources: the eyes, the
vestibular apparatus, and the somatic receptors. The efferent pathways are the alpha motor
neurons to the skeletal muscles, and the integrating centers are neuron networks in the
brainstem and spinal cord.
In addition to these integrating centers, there are centers in the brain that form an internal
representation of the body's geometry, its support conditions, and its orientation with respect
to verticality. This internal representation serves two purposes: It serves as a reference frame
for the perception of the body's position and orientation in space and for planning actions,
and it contributes to stability via the motor controls involved in maintenance of upright
posture.
Biological Control Systems
There are many familiar examples of using reflexes to maintain upright posture, one being
the crossed-extensor reflex. As one leg is flexed and lifted off the ground, the other is
extended more strongly to support the added weight of the body, and the positions of various
parts of the body are shifted to move the center of gravity over the single, weight-bearing leg.
This shift in the center of gravity, demonstrated in Figure 12-14, is an important component
in the stepping mechanism of locomotion.
It is clear that afferent input from several sources is necessary for optimal postural
adjustments, yet interfering with any one of these inputs alone does not cause a person to
topple over. Blind people maintain their balance quite well with only a slight loss of
precision, and people whose vestibular mechanisms have been destroyed have very little
disability in everyday life as long as their visual system and somatic receptors are
functioning.
The conclusion to be drawn from such examples is that the postural control mechanisms are
not only effective and flexible, they are also highly adaptable.