C
c: 1. Symbol often used for velocity. 2. The velocity of
light in a vacuum, 2.997 925⫻10 8 m/s. 3. A seismic
wave reflected at the Earth’s mantle-core boundary.
C¿¿: An object-oriented programming language, a
superset of the C language that was originally devel-
oped for the Unix operating system. Supports data
abstraction and object-oriented and generic program-
ming, and facilitates modularity in programming. See
also Java.
cable: 1. The assembly of electrical conductors used to
connect geophone or hydrophone groups to the
recorder. See also streamer. 2. The assembly of electri-
cal conductors and tensile members used to support a
logging sonde 共wireline兲, well geophone, or bird.
cablebreak: An arrival in a well-velocity survey caused
by energy travel in the cable that supports the well
geophone. Wave velocity in cables is 2500-3500 m/s.
cable drilling: A method of making a hole in hard rock by
alternately lifting and dropping a tool.
cable strum: Vibration of a marine streamer or ocean-
bottom cable produced by occasional sudden tension,
such as might be caused by pitching of a towing ship,
jerks from a tail buoy, or variations in current. A source
of noise in marine seismic data.
cable tools: Equipment for cable drilling 共q.v.兲. Occasion-
ally used for seismic shotholes in areas of extremely
hard surface rock. See spudder.
cache: 共kash兲 A temporary storage place. Computers
include caches at several levels, including cache
memory and disk cache. A cache memory may be on
the same or a separate chip from the microprocessor,
and is faster to access than regular RAM. Disk cache,
either a reserved area of RAM or a special hard-disk
cache, may store recently accessed data for fast access.
RAM can be viewed as a cache. For example, recently
requested Web pages may be stored in a browser’s
cache so that the browser can return to a page from the
cache rather than from the server.
CÕA code: Coarse Acquisition code used to carry informa-
tion for GPS positioning.
CAD: Computer-Aided Design, computer-aided drafting.
cadastral survey: 共k⳵ das’ tr⳵l兲 A survey to determine
boundary lines.
CAEX: Computer-Aided EXploration; interactive inter-
pretation employing seismic, well, and other data.
cage: Perforated steel surrounding a marine energy source
共small explosive or air gun兲 to attenuate the bubble
effect 共q.v.兲 by dissipating energy in the turbulent flow
of water in and out of the cage. See Flexotir and Figure
F-13.
Cagniard apparent resistivity: 共cāgn’ yard兲 1. A resistiv-
ity calculated from orthogonal electric and magnetic
field measurements, used for magnetotelluric measure-
ments in a layered earth. For more complicated struc-
ture, the full tensor impedance must be considered. 2.
In the magnetotelluric method, an apparent resistivity in
ohm-meters at period T obtained from 0.2T 兩 Z 兩 2 ,
45
where Z is the Cagniard impedance 共q.v.兲.
Cagniard de Hoop technique: An exact method for a
synthetic seismogram calculation that involves the use
of inverse Laplace transforms and iteration in the com-
plex plane. See Aki and Richards 共1980兲.
Caignard impedance: In the magnetotelluric method, the
ratio of the horizontal electric field component in some
direction, E x , to the magnetic field, H y , in a perpen-
dicular direction. For a horizontally layered earth, it is
independent of the choice of x-direction. See also
impedance.
cake: Mud cake 共q.v.兲.
calculus of variations: The mathematics of finding a
function that will maximize 共or minimize兲 a definite
integral.
caldera: A large circular depression of volcanic origin.
calibrate: 1. To adjust an apparatus so that it reads values
correctly. 2. To determine the number of units of a
quantity being measured per scale division of the read-
out device. 3. To check equipment readings by measur-
ing a known standard. 4. To adjust values so that the
integrated traveltime agrees with data from surface
sources into a well seismometer in the borehole. 5. To
transform a logging tool signal into a quantified physi-
cal parameter, or the result of this transformation
recorded on a log.
calibration factor: A constant used to compensate for
inaccuracies in electromagnetic field parameters, cur-
rent channeling, and static shifts. For transient electro-
magnetic methods, it depends only on the transmitter-
receiver distance.
calibration resistor: A pure resistance of a known value
used to calibrate a frequency-domain transmitter and
receiver.
calibration tails: Calibration records run before and/or
after a log run and attached to the logs.
caliche: 共k⳵ lē’ chē兲 A cemented surface layer that forms
in semi-arid temperate zones by the precipitation of
calcium carbonate. Caliche is often a difficult surface
for seismic acquisition.
caliper log: A well log that measures hole diameter. Open-
hole caliper logging tools sometimes have four or more
arms. See Figures M-11 and S-13. Tools for studying
casing or tubing corrosion use many ‘‘fingers.’’
call: An instruction to transfer control to a subprogram.
camera: A recording oscillograph used to produce a vis-
ible pattern representing electrical signals or to make a
visible seismic record on photosensitive paper or film
or by xerography. See also plotter.
camouflet shooting: 共kam ou flā’兲 To generate S-waves
by asymmetry of P-wave sources.
cannel coal: 共kan’ ⳵l兲 A sapropelic coal derived from
organic residues by putrefaction under anerobic condi-
tions rather than petrification. High in volatile compo-
nents.
canonical: Simplest form of a generalized relation.
canonical transformation: A transformation from one set
cap
of coordinates and moments to another set in which the
equations of motion are preserved.
cap: A small explosive designed to be detonated by an
electrical current, which in turn detonates another
explosive. Seismic caps are designed to detonate with
little uncertainty in their time of detonation.
capacitance: The ratio of charge 共Q in coulombs兲 on a
capacitor to the potential across it 共V in volts兲 is the
capacitance 共C in farads兲: C⫽Q/V.
capacitive coupling: See coupling.
capacitive reactance: Electrical impedance X C resulting
from capacitance:
X C ⫽1/ 共 2 ␲ f C 兲 ohms,
where f is frequency in hertz and C is capacitance in
farads.
capacitivity: 共k⳵ pas’ i tiv ⳵ tē兲 Permittivity, the property
of a material that enables it to store electrical charge.
Measured in farads per meter. The ratio of the capaci-
tivity of a material to that of free space is the dielectric
constant of the material. Free space has a capacitivity
of 8.854⫻10 ⫺12 farad/m. See also electric suscepti-
bility.
capex: Capital expenditures.
capillary pressure: The pressure required to displace one
fluid with another with which it is not miscible. The
difference in pressure across the interface separating
imiscible liquids.
cap rock: 1. Impermeable sealing rock above a reservoir
rock. 2. The dense anhydrite and gypsum rock above a
salt dome that results from leaching of the soluble
materials in the salt body.
caprock effect: A sharp positive gravity anomaly pro-
duced by the dense caprock of a salt dome, superim-
posed on a broader negative caused by the salt dome.
Shallow salt is usually denser than surrounding sedi-
ments, so caprock is not essential to produce a positive
gravity anomaly.
capture cross-section: 1. The atomic capture cross-
section for neutrons is the effective area within which a
neutron has to pass to be captured by an atomic
nucleus. It is a probabilistic value dependent on the
nature and energy of the particle as well as the nature of
the capturing nucleus. Atomic capture cross-section is
often measured in barns (1 barn⫽10 ⫺28 m2 ). 2. The
macroscopic capture cross-section, ⌺, is the effective
cross-sectional area per unit volume for capture of
neutrons; it depends on the number of atoms present as
well as their atomic capture cross-sections. The unit of
measure for ⌺ is cm2 /cm3 ⫽10 3 cu, where cu
⫽capture unit 共q.v.兲. 3. The rate of absorption of
thermal neutrons with a velocity V is V⌺.
capture unit: A unit of measure of a macroscopic capture
cross-section; 0.1 m2/m3. Also called sigma unit and
abbreviated cu or su.
carbonate factory: Conditions of temperature and water
clarity that favor the generation of carbonates. Gener-
ally, this applies to shallow tropical or subtropical seas
away from river mouths so that suspended sediment is
not present.
carbon-dioxide flooding: See miscible recovery methods.
card: 1. A plug-in printed-circuit module. 2. A punch-card
used for data storage.
cardinal theorem: Sampling theorem 共q.v.兲.
46 catalyst
Carpenter electrode array: 共kar’ p⳵n t⳵r兲 Four colinear
equispaced electrodes used in electrical surveying. In
the Carpenter-1 共or Wenner兲 array, the two central
electrodes are the potential electrodes; in the
Carpenter-2 array, one end pair are the potential elec-
trodes; in the Carpenter-3 array, the current and poten-
tial electrodes alternate.
carrier: A radio wave having a characteristic 共e.g., fre-
quency, amplitude, phase兲 that can be varied by modu-
lation.
carry: 1. In arithmetic operations, the transfer of a value
from a lower order position to the next higher order
position as a result of the lower order having equaled or
exceeded the base of the number system. For example,
if subscripts indicate the base,
8 10 ⫹2 10 ⫽0⫹carry 10 10 ;
1 2 ⫹1 2 ⫽0⫹carry 2 2 .
2. A computer status bit that indicates whether or not
the last arithmetic operation resulted in a carry from
high-order bit position.
Cartesian coordinates: 共kar tē’ zhan兲 Rectangular coor-
dinates where the axes are straight lines and the angles
between them are right angles. Named for Ŕené Des-
cartes 共1596 –1650兲, French scientist and philosopher.
cascade: 共ka skād’兲 To arrange in series.
cascaded filtering: Applying several filters in succession.
cascading menu: A list where entries include subentries,
which in turn include sub-subentries, etc.
cascaded migration: The sequential implementation of a
number of migration processes to improve the accuracy
over a single migration step.
casing: Tubes or pipes used to keep a borehole from
caving in and to prevent fluids within the hole from
entering surrounding formations and prevent formation
fluids from entering the borehole. Shot-hole casing is
usually in 10-ft lengths that screw together, drill casing
in 30-ft lengths.
casing-collar: The coupling between joints of a casing.
casing-collar locator: A magnetic or scratcher device for
locating casing collars, used to correlate cased-hole
logs and serve as reference depths in completion opera-
tions.
casing hanger: Device used to support casing within a
borehole.
casing-head gas: Gas produced along with the oil from an
oil well.
casing point: The lowest depth in a well where casing is
set and cemented.
casing shoe: A short, hollow, heavy, cylindrical steel unit
placed at the bottom of a casing string to protect it as it
is lowered into a borehole.
CAT: Computerized Axial Tomography. See Scudder
共1978兲.
catalog: 1. Collection of master curves or type curves
共q.v.兲 for interpreting magnetic, electrical, and electro-
magnetic survey measurements. Catalog lookup
involves using a library of previously calculated and
stored data to determine interpretation parameters. 2. A
list of computer programs; a menu or library.
catalyst: 共kat’ ⳵ list兲 A substance that promotes a reaction
and ends up unchanged.
catcher
catcher: 1. A device to prevent cap wires from being
blown out of the hole by the shot and endangering
personnel by making contact with high-voltage power
lines. 2. A device to catch a Dinoseis gas gun before it
falls back to the ground after an explosion, thus pre-
venting a second sharp impact that would complicate
the waveform. 3. A device used to retain a core in a core
barrel.
catching samples: Obtaining and studying samples of for-
mations brought to the surface in the drilling mud.
categorical: 共kat ⳵ gor’ i k⳵l兲 Absolute, unqualified,
unconditional.
cathead: A spool-shaped attachment to a winch around
which a rope can be wound for hoisting or pulling. A
breakout cathead helps in unscrewing drill pipe, a
makeup cathead for screwing it together.
cathode: 1. The electrode where reduction occurs and
electrons are taken up. The negative terminal of an
electrolytic cell or the positive terminal of a battery. 2.
The source electrode for electrons inside a vacuum tube
or semiconductor diode device that converts informa-
tion into an electron beam 共and subsequently to light
energy to provide a visual display兲.
cathode-ray tube: A device for viewing waveforms 共such
as voltage as a function of time兲 and other information.
Abbreviated CRT or CRO.
cathodic protection: Protection for buried pipelines and
other metallic materials subject to electrochemical cor-
rosion. The pipeline is made electrically negative with
respect to ground.
cation: 共kat’ ı̄ ⳵n兲 A positively charged ion. Compare
anion.
cation exchange capacity: Number of negative charge
sites on clay surfaces that can attract sodium ions from
pore fluid. Each sodium ion carries six clay-bound
water molecules.
cationic membrane: A membrane that permits the pas-
sage of cations but not of anions. Shale acts as such a
membrane, allowing sodium ions but not chloride ions
to pass. Important in generating electrochemical SP
共q.v.兲.
catline: A hoisting or pulling line to move heavy equip-
ment around a drill rig.
cat push: Line-cutting supervisor.
Cauchy criterion: 共kō shē’兲 An optimization criterion
involving the minimizing of
兺 ln兵 1⫹ 关共 d 쐓i ⫺d i 兲 / ␴ 兴 2 其 ,
where d 쐓i are observed and d i are model data. Implies
that errors have the probability distribution
共 1/ ␲␴ 兲 兵 1/ 兵 1⫹ 关共 d⫺d o 兲 / ␴ 兴 2 其其 ,
where ␴ is the standard deviation about the maximum
likelihood point d 0 . See Amundsen 共1991, 2027兲.
Cauchy-type integral: The function at a point z 0 within a
closed contour C can be expressed in terms of a line
integral along C if f (z) is a continuous analytic func-
tion:
f 共 a 兲 ⫽ 共 1/2 ␲ i 兲 冖 f 共 z 兲 / 共 z⫺z 0 兲 dz.
47 CEM
Named for Augustin Louis Cauchy 共1789–1857兲,
French mathematician.
causal: 共kau’ z⳵l兲 Not existing before some finite starting
time and having finite total energy.
causality: The property of a sequence such that there is
zero energy before some finite starting time. Minimum-
phase wavelets are causal but zero-phase ones are not.
caustic: 共kau stik’兲 A surface to which rays emanating
from a single source and reflected by a curved reflector
are tangent. A surface formed by adjacent rays.
cave: An immersive environment where an interpreter can
sense 3D effects of a data set, usually by projection
onto three walls, ceiling, and/or floor. The 3D visual-
ization may be provided by stereo effects, rotation of a
display so that it can be seen from different directions,
virtual reality, or other ways.
caving: Collapse or sloughing of the walls of a borehole.
cavitation: 共kav, i tā’ sh⳵n兲 The formation and collapse of
cavities 共bubbles兲 in a fluid caused by the static pres-
sure becoming smaller than the fluid vapor pressure.
The collapse generates a shock wave by implosion. The
outward momentum of water and gases from an under-
water explosion 共and other marine energy sources兲 usu-
ally produces such a low-pressure region, the collapse
of which produces a bubble effect.
C-AVO: Variation of amplitude with offset 共q.v.兲 for con-
verted waves.
CBL: Cement-Bond Log 共q.v.兲.
CCD: Charge-Coupled Device.
CCP: Common Conversion Point 共q.v.兲.
CD: Compact Disk, a computer storage device with large
memory capacity.
CDI: Conductivity-Depth Image 共q.v.兲.
CDM: Continuous DipMeter; see dipmeter.
CDP: Common-Depth-Point; see common midpoint.
CDR: Compensated Dual-Resistivity tool.
CD-ROM: Compact Disk with Read-Only Memory, to
which one cannot write data.
CDT: Conductivity-Depth Transform. See conductivity-
depth image.
celestial equator: 共s⳵ les’ ch⳵l兲 See equinoctial.
celestial latitude: Angular distance north or south of the
ecliptic. Different than declination.
celestial longitude: Angular distance east of the vernal
equinox measured along the ecliptic. Different from
right ascension.
celestial navigation: See positioning.
celestial pole: The projection of the Earth’s axis onto the
celestial sphere.
celestial sphere: An imaginary sphere of infinite radius
concentric with the Earth on which all celestial bodies
are imagined to be projected.
Celsius: 共sel’ sē ⳵s兲 A temperature scale where water
freezes at 0 °C and boils at 100 °C at one atmosphere
pressure; formerly called centigrade. If T C , T K , and
T F are Celsius, Kelvin, and Fahrenheit temperatures,
respectively,
T C ⫽T K ⫺293.15⫽ 共 5/9 兲共 T F ⫺32 兲 .
Named for Anders Celsius 共1701–1744兲, Swedish
astronomer.
CEM: Crone Electromagnetic Method; see shootback
method.
cement additive
cement additive: Additives to cement to control the set-
ting time, control the weight, reduce fluid loss, etc.
cementation factor: The exponent m in the Archie For-
mula 共q.v.兲.
cement-bond log „CBL…: A well log of the amplitude of
the acoustic wave that indicates the degree of bonding
of cement to casing and formations. See Figure C-1.
Also called an amplitude log. The wavetrain may also
be displayed, as in the character log, 3D, microseismo-
gram, VDL, or acoustic signature log.
cement channeling: Uneven movement of a cement
slurry behind casing that then allows free fluid flow
through the channels.
cementing: Applying a liquid slurry of cement and water
to form a protective sheath around casing to secure the
well casing and prevent the migration of undesirable
fluids or for other purposes. In squeeze cementing the
slurry is forced through perforations in the casing to
isolate formations, seal off water, or repair leaks.
center-line fault: Fault pick midway between up- and
down-thrown terminations.
center of gravity: 1. The point in a material body through
which the gravitational attraction acts regardless of the
orientation of the body. The point about which all
weight moments cancel. The moment of a point mass is
FIG. C-1. Cement-bond application of microseismogram log. (a) Before squeeze; (b) after squeeze. If the casing is
poorly cemented, the energy that travels through the steel casing is strong and little energy travels in the formation; if
the casing is well cemented, the casing signal nearly disappears and the formation signal is strong. (Courtesy Welex.)
48 central limit theorem
the product of the mass and its distance from the
rotation point being considered. 2. Used for other types
of data, e.g., the distribution of CMP points within a
seismic bin.
centigrade: Celsius 共q.v.兲.
centipoise: A unit of viscosity, equal to 10 ⫺3 kg/(s.m).
The viscosity of water at 20 °C is 1.005 centipoise.
central induction sounding: An electromagnetic tech-
nique in which the vertical magnetic field is measured
as a function of frequency at the center of a large
horizontal transmitting loop.
central limit theorem: A statement about the characteris-
tics of the distribution of the means of random samples.
If we could draw an infinite number of random samples
of a given size where we calculate the mean of each
sample, 共a兲 the mean of the means of the samples
equals the mean of the population from which the
samples were drawn; 共b兲 the variance of the sampling
distributions equals the variance of the population
divided by the sample size. 共c兲 If the original popula-
tion is normally distributed 共i.e., is bell-shaped兲, the
sampling distribution will also be bell-shaped, and if
the original population is not normally distributed, the
distribution will increasingly approximate a normal dis-
central processing unit „CPU…
tribution as the sample size increases.
central processing unit „CPU…: The heart of a computer
that controls operations and interprets and executes
programs. Typically includes the arithmetic logic unit
and an instruction processing unit.
CEP: Circle of Equivalent Probability; the radius of a
circle such that half of the measurements fall within the
circle. A circle containing 90% of the measurements
would be 90% CEP.
cepstrum: 共sep’ strum兲 The Fourier transform of a loga-
rithmic frequency distribution. Let ↔ indicate a Fourier
transform operation. If g(t)↔G( ␻ ), the cepstrum
ĝ( ␨ ) is
冕 ⬁
ĝ 共 ␨ 兲 ⫽ 共 1/2 ␲ 兲 关 ln关 G 共 ␻ 兲兴 ⫹ j ␥ 共 ␻ 兲兴 e j ␻␨ d ␻ .
⫺⬁
The transform is usually carried out in three steps:
Ĝ 共 ␻ 兲 ⫽ln关 G 共 ␻ 兲兴 ⫽ln兩 G 共 ␻ 兲 兩 ⫹ j ␥ 共 ␻ 兲 G 共 ␻ 兲
冕 ⬁
Ĝ 共 ␻ 兲 ↔ĝ 共 ␨ 兲 ⫽ 共 1/2 ␲ 兲 关 ln关 G 共 ␻ 兲兴 ⫹ j ␥ 共 ␻ 兲兴 e j ␻␨ d ␻ .
⫺⬁
The inverse transform is
冕 ⬁
ĝ 共 ␨ 兲 ↔Ĝ 共 ␻ 兲 ⫽ g 共 ␨ 兲 e ⫺ j ␻␨ d ␨ ,
⫺⬁
G 共 ␻ 兲 ⫽exp关 Ĝ 共 ␻ 兲兴 ,
g 共 t 兲 ↔G 共 ␻ 兲 .
The variable ␨ is called quefrency and ␥ˆ is called the
saphe 共being permutations of frequency and phase, as
cepstrum is of spectrum兲. The cepstral domain is often
indicated by the hat. The transform can also be
expressed as z-transforms; see Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 298 –299; 554 –555兲.
cesium clock: See frequency standard.
cesium vapor magnetometer: 共sē’ zē ⳵m兲 A type of opti-
cally pumped magnetometer 共q.v.兲. Sensitive to 0.001
nT. Also spelled caesium.
CFP: Common Focusing Point, involved in imaging. See
common-image point.
chain: 1. A unit of length equal to 66 ft. 2. To measure
distances directly with a steel tape 共chain兲 as opposed to
measuring by stadia, electronic distance measurement,
or triangulation. Accuracy of the order of 1:5000 can be
achieved with care. 3. An ordinary ordered group of
computer records.
chain rule: If z(y) and y(t) are differentiable dz/dt
⫽(dz/dy)dy/dt.
chaining: 1. Measuring distances with a chain. 2. A sys-
tem of storing data records in which each record
belongs to a specific group or chain.
chainman: A surveyor’s assistant, who helps to measure
distances with a chain. Chainmen often work in pairs to
measure out seismic spreads using a steel tape or wire
that is as long as the group length.
chair display: A display combining vertical and horizon-
tal slices through a 3D volume. See Figure T-6.
Challenger expedition: An oceanographic voyage in
1872–1875 by HMS Challenger, led by John Murray.
49 chaos theory
Among other discoveries, it established the magnitude
of the mid-Atlantic ridge.
Chandler wobble: A precession of the Earth’s rotational
axis about its axis of greatest moment of inertia. Also
called the free nutation of the Earth. The wobble
period is about 435 days and the amplitude is about
0.14 s of arc. Named for Sweth Carlo Chandler 共1846 –
1913兲, American astronomer.
change detection image: An image comparing two
images acquired at different times, sometimes made by
subtracting the earlier from the latter.
channel: 1. A single series of interconnected devices
through which data can flow from source to recorder.
Seismic systems may have thousands of channels
allowing the simultaneous recording of energy from
thousands of geophone groups. 2. A measured or com-
puted quantity that occurs as a sequence of samples
indexed against time, depth, or some other physical
dimension. 3. A localized elongated geologic feature
resulting from drainage or water action. The properties
of the material in-filling a channel often differ from
those of the material into which the channel is cut,
which makes the channel observable and sometimes
bends raypaths creating dip and/or velocity anomalies
in underlying reflections. 4. A feature in seismic data
that is interpreted as indicating erosion and fill by a
river system, such as a curvilinear feature on a 3-D
horizon slice 共see Figure H-8兲. 5. An allocated portion
of the radio-frequency spectrum. 6. A time gate during
which measurements are made in time-domain electro-
magnetic surveying. Measurements made during sev-
eral time gates following a source pulse yield several
channels of data. 7. A layer whose velocity is such that
seismic energy gets trapped; see channel wave. 8. A
gate with upper and lower energy thresholds followed
by a count rate meter, used in gamma-ray spectrom-
eters. 9. A component of a mainframe processor that
supports and controls I/O.
channel wave: 1. An elastic wave propagated in a layer
where most of the energy is trapped. 共a兲 The layer may
have lower velocity than those on either side of it 共so
that total reflection can occur at the boundaries兲, or 共b兲
a layer boundary may be a free surface 共so that the
reflectivity is nearly one兲. Instead of having a sharp
interface as a boundary, a velocity gradient that bends
rays that tend to escape back toward the channel may
provide a channel. The SOFAR channel 共q.v.兲 in the
deep oceans is an example. However, some energy may
escape 共leaking mode兲, e.g., by converting to another
wave mode. See Figure C-2. A channel is also called a
wave guide and channel waves are also called guided
waves and normal-mode propagation. Coal seams
and a surface water layer often carry channel waves
共also called seam waves兲. See Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 483-487兲.
chaos theory: 共kā’ os兲 Theory dealing with the unpredict-
ability that is intrinsic to nonlinear systems. The effects
of a small 共perhaps unmeasurable兲 perturbation grow
progressively larger and thus prevent long-term predict-
ability. Chaos in a dynamic system can be viewed in
terms of diverging time-dependent orbits 共paths兲, which
comprise a finite geometric form that is called the
chaotic attractor 共or strange attractor兲. The diverg-
ing orbits do not repeat exactly and are confined to
chaos theory 50 chaos theory

FIG. C-2. Channel waves. (a) The Sofar channel is formed by velocity inversion. The velocity-versus-depth curve
changes with latitude and other factors. (b) Energy from a source in the channel is repeatedly refracted or reflected back
toward the velocity minimum and so undergoes less divergence than normal. (From Ewing et al., 1948.) (c) Phase and
group velocity versus normalized frequency for a liquid layer on an elastic substratum. (From Ewing et al., 1957.) (d)
First-mode wavetrain from a source 4 km distant where the ocean constitutes the channel. (e) The high-frequency
portion of (d), the water wave; its arrival is used in refraction work to determine the range. (From Clay and Medwin,
1977.)
character
finite-phase space; the orbits stretch and fold repeat-
edly. Chaotic attractors are fractals 共q.v.兲. Before a
system becomes chaotic, its parameter typically under-
goes a cascade of bifurcations in a geometric series.
character: 1. The recognizable aspect of a seismic event;
the waveform that distinguishes it from other events.
Usually a frequency or phasing effect, often not defined
precisely and hence dependent upon subjective judg-
ment. 2. The recognizable aspect of a graph or picture
that identifies it with some situation. 3. A single letter,
numeral, or special symbol in a computer system. See
also byte, with which it is sometimes used interchange-
ably.
characteristic: 1. A distinctive feature of a set, object, or
attribute. Characteristics of a set are its name and type;
of an object is its name; of an attribute are its label,
count, representation code, units, and value. See also
character. 2. The integer part of a common logarithm.
3. The exponent number for a quantity expressed in
scientific notation. 4. As an adjective or prefix, often
written in the German, eigen, as in eigencurrent, eigen-
frequency, eigenfunction, eigenstate, eigenvalue, eigen-
vector 共see individual entries兲.
characteristic curve: An anomaly graph whose shape is
distinctive of a particular model shape. See type curve.
characteristic root: Eigenvalue; see eigenfunction.
character log: A sonic log that displays the full wave-
form.
characteristic thermal diffusion distance: 公( ␬␶ ),
where ␬ is thermal diffusivity and ␶ is the time for a
temperature change to occur. See Fowler 共1990, 229–
230兲.
charge: 1. An explosive such as used as a seismic source,
The ‘‘charge’’ is often the weight of the explosive. 2. To
increase the stored energy.
chargeability „M兲: One of several units of induced polar-
ization in the time domain. 1. The ratio of initial decay
voltage 共or secondary voltage兲 to primary voltage. 2.
The dimensionless induced-polarization parameter of a
material in which there is an induced-current dipole
moment per unit volume P energized by a current
density J: P⫽⫺M J. 3. The fractional change in resis-
tance measured on a decay curve, as a function of time:
M ⫽ ␦ ␳ (t)/ ␳ . 4. The integrated area under an IP decay
curve between times t 1 and t 2 , normalized by the
primary voltage V p . Units are millivolt-seconds per
volt.
冕
M ⫽ 共 1/V ␳ 兲 V t dt.
For standardization, on-time and off-time may be indi-
cated by subscripts, that is, 33 M 1 or M 331 means ‘‘cur-
rent on for three seconds and decay is measured for the
first second of a three-seconds off time.’’ Field mea-
surements of chargeability are usually calibrated to the
M 331 standard, which differs by a factor of about 1000
from the value of M given in definitions 1 and 2 above.
5. The quantity described above multiplied by the con-
ductivity, often expressed in millifarads/unit length.
Called specific capacity when measured in farads per
meter. 6. Chargeability can be related to frequency
effect 共q.v.兲.
51 check sum
charge anchor: A device fastened to an explosive charge
to hold the charge in a fixed position in the shothole and
prevent it from floating or moving.
charge-coupled device „CCD…: An electronic medium in
which data is encoded as the presence of positive or
negative charges.
charged: 1. Filled with hydrocarbons 2. A borehole
loaded with explosives or air guns ready for firing.
Chebyshev array: 共cheb’ ⳵ sh⳵v兲 A frequency filter or
uniformly spaced linear array in which elements are
weighted according to Chebyshev polynomials. Such
weighting equalizes the amplitude of minor lobes and
gives a sharp cutoff. Called equal-ripple filter. See
Figure C-3. Also spelled Tchebyscheff array. Named
for Fafnutiy Lvorich Chebyshev 共1821–1894兲, Russian
mathematician.
check: A test of the reliability of data. Check problems
with known results are run through computers to verify
correct functioning. 共a兲 A summation check consists of
adding a set of figures and using the sum 共check sum兲
to verify accuracy and completeness. 共b兲 A duplication
check requires that an operation be repeated and yield
identical results when repeated. 共c兲 An echo check is
used to verify transmitted data; the data are sent back
共echoed兲 to the source station for comparison with the
original data. An echo check is also a technique
whereby a computer prints out values of variables and
data used in a program. 共d兲 Error-detecting checks
search data for forbidden combinations. A parity check
is such a check; the number of one bits plus a parity bit
must add up to an odd number for odd parity or to an
even number for even parity. A longitudinal parity
check 共LPC兲, written at the end of a record, does for
each track what the parity bit does for each byte. 共e兲 A
validity check is a verification that a figure lies within
a certain permissible range.
check bit: Parity bit; see check.
check digit: An extra character attached to a number as a
means of checking the validity of the number.
check shots: Direct measurement of traveltime between
the surface and a given depth. Usually sources on the
surface are recorded by a well geophone 共see well
shooting兲 to determine time-to-depth relationships at
the well location.
check sum: A summation check; see check.
FIG. C-3. The Chebyshev array response has all minor
lobes of equal height. The response shown is for a 6-ele-
ment array.
check valve
check valve: A valve that allows flow in only one direc-
tion.
chemically enhanced recovery: An enhanced oil recov-
ery 共q.v.兲 method that involves injecting polymers, sur-
factants, or alkaline substances to improve oil produc-
tion. Polymers increase the viscosity of injected water
共thickens the water兲 so that the water matches that of
the reservoir oil as close as possible, thus making fluid
flow more uniform. Surfactants break down the surface
tension of oil that has collected in droplets so that it can
be produced. Usually a small amount of surfactants are
injected and are followed by polymer flooding and
finally by untreated water. Alkalyne flooding is similar
to surfactant flooding except that the surfactants are
generated in the reservoir by reacting with petroleum
acids.
chemical remanent magnetism „CRM…: See remanent
magnetism.
chemisorption: 共chem, ⳵ sorp’ sh⳵n兲 Adsorption caused
by chemical rather than simply electrostatic causes.
Cheops pyramid: 共kē’ ops兲 The surface given by the
double-square-root equation 共q.v.兲 that describes the
traveltime surface of a point diffractor in offset space
where the velocity is constant; see Figure D-20.
cherry pick: To select the easiest.
chessboard technique: 1. A grid arrangement used in
solving the acoustic wave equation. See Claerbout
共1976, Fig. 10-1兲. 2. A potential-field continuation
method for converting level-flown data to drape-flown
and vice-versa. Level-flown data are continued to a
series of levels that span the drape range, giving a set
like stacked 3D chessboards; interpolation is carried out
vertically to give drape profiles.
child, children: A node pointed to by an element in a tree
structure. A child can access all of parent’s memory but
does not affect other childs 共children兲. A child can
become a parent. Also called daughter.
chimney: See gas chimney.
chip: 1. A solid-state circuit or circuit element; an inte-
grated circuit or IC. 2. The minimum time interval for
a one or a zero in a binary pulse code.
chirp: Signal of continuously varying frequency. Often
implies a linear change of frequency with time. A
vibroseis-like technique for shallow penetration gener-
ally using higher frequencies.
chi-square: 共kı̄兲 A quantity distributed as
␹ 21 ⫹ ␹ 22 ⫹¯⫹ ␹ k2 ,
where ␹ 1 , ␹ 2 ,..., ␹ k are independent, Gaussian, with
zero mean, and with unit variance. The chi-square test
is a statistical test of data distribution. If f i are
observed, frequencies of occurrence and e i are the
expected number of occurrences, the goodness of fit y
is
y⫽⌺ 共 f i ⫺e i 兲 2 /e i .
The goodness of fit can be related 共by the use of tables兲
to the probability that the observed data fit the model
with the assumed number of degrees of freedom.
chlorine log: A log based on the counting rate of gamma
rays produced by capture of thermal neutrons by chlo-
rine in the formation. By limiting the count to a certain
energy range, the tool is made more sensitive to chlo-
52 circulation
rine and relatively insensitive to formation porosity.
The main replacement for the chlorine log has been the
neutron-lifetime log and thermal-decay-time log.
choke: An orifice that restricts the flow of fluids.
chopper: 1. An electrical switching device sometimes
including an oscillator, used to interrupt a dc or low-
frequency ac voltage so that it can be measured by an
ac voltmeter or amplified by an ac amplifier. 2. A
helicopter.
chopping filter: A high-pass filter 共q.v.兲.
Christmas tree: The casing-head assembly of pipes,
valves, etc. that controls the flow of fluids from a
producing well.
Christoffel equation: 共kris’ tof ⳵l兲 A form of the wave
equation for plane waves used for calculating velocity
and slowness surfaces:
␬2 共 ␥C␥T 兲 u⫽ ␳␻ 2 u,
where ␬ is wavenumber, ␥ is the direction cosine
matrix, C is the stiffness tensor, u the particle displace-
ment vector, ␳ the density, and ␻ the angular frequency.
The quantity in parentheses is called the Christoffel
matrix.
chromatograph: 共krō mad’ ⳵ graf兲 See partition gas chro-
matograph.
chron: The time of a reversal of the Earth’s magnetic
polarity; a period of reverse polarity would be marked
by a chron at the top and another at the bottom.
chronographic chart: See chronostratigraphic chart.
chronostratigraphic chart: 共krōn, ⳵ strat’ ⳵ graf, ik兲 A
diagram that summarizes conclusions from seismic-
sequence analysis. Geologic time increases upward and
the geographic distribution of units is plotted horizon-
tally. See Figures C-4 and S-5. Also called chrono-
graphic chart.
chronostratigraphy: Classification of sedimentary rock
strata according to time of deposition. Seismic reflec-
tions generally indicate constant times of deposition.
The study of the age of strata and their time relation-
ships, contrasted with lithostratigraphy, which is based
on the mineralogic composition and grain size. Com-
pare lithostratigraphy and see Figure S-5.
CI: Contour Interval 共q.v.兲.
CIP: Common Image Point 共q.v.兲.
circle shooting: A marine technique for acquiring 3D data
over the flanks of a salt dome or similar structure,
wherein the boat track forms a spiral centered on the
dome. This technique avoids time lost in changing from
one line to another. It also lessens the CMP smearing.
circular error probability „CEP…: Circular error prob-
ability is the radius of a circle such that half of the
measurements fall within the circle. A circle containing
90% of the measurements would be 90% CEP. Where
the probability is anisotropic, it becomes an ellipse.
circular frequency: Angular frequency ␻ ⫽2 ␲ f, where
f ⫽ordinary frequency.
circular patch: Receivers arranged approximately in a
circle.
circulation: 1. The integral along a closed loop, 兰 V•⳵␭,
where V is fluid velocity and ⳵␭ is a segment of a loop
that moves with the fluid. 2. The movement of drilling
fluid from a mud pit through pump, drill pipe, annular
space in the hole, and back into the mud pit.
circulation loss 53 Clarke ellipsoid

circulation loss: Loss of drilling fluid into a porous for- C-language: A general purpose programming language
mation. that combines powerful capabilities with structured
circumferential wave: Seismic wave that travels parallel syntax. See also C⫹⫹. Bell Laboratories tradename.
to the Earth’s surface. Clarke ellipsoid: 共clark兲 The basis for the North Ameri-
cis ␪: Euler’s identity: can geodetic datum, the reference datum in most of the
cis ␪ ⫽cos ␪ ⫹i sin ␪ ⫽e i ␪ . Western Hemisphere; the Clarke 1866 ellipsoid. 共There

FIG. C-4. Chronostratigraphic chart. (a) Cross-section interpreted from seismic line with unconformities interpreted as
sequence boundaries. (b) Chronostratigraphic chart corresponding to (a). (c) Coastal onlap chart (called relative sea
level in early papers) interpreted from (a). (After Vail et al., 1977.)
classification
is also a Clarke 1880 ellipsoid that is used in Africa.兲
See Figure G-2. Named for Alexander Ross Clarke
共1828 –1914兲, British geodesist.
classification: Assigning data to categories on the basis of
measurements of several quantities. Supervised classi-
fication uses foreknowledge of the actual identification
of certain areas to classify similar areas. Used to train
neural networks.
class 1, 2, 3, 4 reservoirs: A classification of reservoir
sands according to their normal-incidence impedance
contrasts with surrounding rocks 共and their AVO
responses兲. Also written with Roman numerals: class I,
II, III, IV. See amplitude variation with angleÕoffset
„AVAÕAVO…, Figure A-12, and Rutherford and Will-
iams 共1989兲.
clastic rock: A rock composed of fragments derived from
other rocks.
clathrate: 共klath’ rāt兲 Gas hydrate 共q.v.兲.
clay smear potential: A ranking of the probability that
clay will be smeared out sufficiently along a fault
surface to prevent the flow of fluids across the fault.
clean: 1. Containing no appreciable amount of clay or
shale. Applied to sandstones and carbonates. Antonym:
dirty 共q.v.兲. 2. To remove soft magnetization so that
hard remanent magnetization may be studied. See
degaussing.
click: 1. Activating some operation of the matrix element
corresponding to the location of a cursor on a video
display. 2. A kilometer or kilometer per second.
client: A program or process that does data processing or
computing.
clinoform: Inclined deltaic foreset or fan deposition. Cli-
noforms 共progradational patterns兲 may produce dis-
tinctive seismic reflection patterns. See Figure D-6.
clip filter: A space domain filter that sets values that
exceed some threshold to the threshold value or, more
often, to zero.
clipped: Distorted because amplitude exceeded a maxi-
mum permitted amount. Clipping in analog systems
usually occurs because of saturation of some element of
the system, resulting in distortion of the waveform; see
Figure C-5. Digital clipping 共loss of a bit兲 may have
variable effects depending on what the lost bit repre-
sents 共i.e., whether it is the sign, the most significant
bit, a complement code, etc.兲; the clipped signal some-
times bears little resemblance to the unclipped signal.
clock: A generator of the basic timing signal pulses to
which system operations are synchronized.
clock rate: The time between clock pulses. Used in elec-
trical work to synchronize transmitter and receiver.
closed data set: Data whose values are subject to a con-
straint so that the parameters are not all independent
FIG. C-5. Clipping. Loss of a digital bit can cause various
effects depending on how the data are formatted (e.g., the
sign bit might be lost).
54 coding
and there are forced correlations between parameters.
An example of a closed data set would be values
expressed as percentages of a whole.
closure: 1. The property of a structure whereby it has a
closing contour. Vertical closure is the vertical distance
from the apex to the lowest closing contour; areal
closure is the area contained within the lowest closing
contour. Compare trap. 2. The cumulative error around
a survey loop; mis-tie 共q.v.兲. 3. The condition where
radioactive daughters are created and preserved, or lost
at a known rate, so that counting them can be used for
age determination. Closure occurs at different tempera-
tures for different minerals.
cluster: 1. Natural grouping of data. 2. A computer made
of a number of interconnected computer processors
共often pentium or alpha chips兲 for massive parallel
processing, such as a Beowulf cluster.
cluster analysis: Analysis to see if data sort out into
separate regions defined by combinations of variables.
clustering: Nonuniform distribution of fold, offsets, or
azimuths in a 3D survey.
clutter: 1. Coherent interference, in contrast to incoherent
nonrepeatable interference. 2. Noise on a radar screen
resulting from unwanted echoes or scattering such as
from a rough sea or from rain.
cmos: 共sē’ mos兲 Complementary metallic oxide semicon-
ductor 共MOS兲. A technology that employs both nega-
tive and positive MOS to minimize power and cooling
requirements.
CNL: Compensated Neutron Log.
coagulation: Grouping of data that have values close to
each other. Especially used prior to making a color
display in which different colors are assigned to differ-
ent groups.
coarsening: Increasing in particle size. The direction of
coarsening tends to be characteristic of different strati-
graphic situations. The portions of gamma-ray or SP
borehole-log curves that indicate coarsening upward
are called funnel shaped; see Figure C-6.
coastal onlap chart: A chart made in sequence strati-
graphic analysis that qualitatively indicates eustatic
changes; see Figure C-4.
coastline effect: Distortions in electromagnetic ground
waves and natural magnetic fields produced by the
contrast in electrical conductivity between land and
highly conductive ocean water.
COBOL: 共kō’ bol兲 Common Business-Oriented Lan-
guage, one of the first languages designed for commer-
cial data processing incorporating commonly used
English nouns, verbs, and connectives.
COCORP: COnsortium for COntinental Reflection Pro-
filing, a program of seismic work to study the Earth’s
deep crust and upper mantle by low-frequency,
common-midpoint techniques.
coda: 1. The concluding portion of an earthquake seismic
record after identifable waves have passed, presumably
caused by scattering, etc. 2. The trailing waveshape that
follows the onset of a wave arrival.
code: 1. A system of characters and rules for representing
information in a language capable of being understood
by a computer. See source program and object pro-
gram. 2. A set of program instructions.
coding: 1. Formatting; see format. 2. The process of writ-
ing a computer program.
coefficient of anisotropy
coefficient of anisotropy: See anisotropy (seismic).
coefficient of coherence: See coherence.
coefficient of variation: Ratio of standard deviation to the
mean. See statistical measures.
coercive force: 共kō ur’ siv兲 The magnetic field intensity
required to reduce the magnetization of a sample to
zero. Generally associated with remanent magnetiza-
tion. See Figure H-14, hysteresis, and coercivity.
coercivity: The demagnetizing field intensity required to
reduce the induction of magnetic material from satura-
tion to zero. Coercivity is used as a figure of merit for
the magnetic hardness of a material, particularly in
reference to the distribution of coercive forces among a
magnetic system’s components. The latter might be
different mineral phases, grain sizes, etc.
coeval: Developing at the same time as.
cofactor: See matrix.
cogeneration: The simultaneous generation of electricity
and process steam or heat.
coherence: 共kō hēr’ ⳵ns兲 1. The property of two
wavetrains having a well-defined phase relationship,
i.e., being in-phase. 2. Measures of the similarity
among more than two functions. For example, seismic
reflection events are coherent in a linear way with
FIG. C-6. Coarsening-upward often produces a funnel-shaped pattern with gamma-ray or SP logs. Resistivity logs
(right trace), commonly plotted to the right of the depth scale, tend to produce the mirror response. Fining-upward
(dirtying-upward) produces the opposite pattern. (After Emery and Myers, 1996, 69)
55 coherence analysis
respect to dip, in a hyperbolic way with respect to
normal moveout, and in a nonanalytic though system-
atic way with respect to geophone locations. The prin-
cipal evidence for a separate seismic event is coherence
among the members of a set of seismic traces over a
short time interval 共of the order of a 1 1/2 or so cycles
of the dominant frequency兲 compared with less coher-
ence elsewhere. Coherence is used qualitatively in
record picking and quantitative measures of coherence
are used in automatic picking schemes. Time slices and
horizon slices often display a coherence measure 共see
Figure A-24d兲. See semblance and Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 145–146; 288 –289兲. 3. A measure of the simi-
larity of two functions or portions of functions. If the
functions have power spectra P ii and P j j and cross-
power spectra P i j 共which may be complex兲, their coher-
ence is P i j /( P ii P j j ) 1/2 . Also called coefficient of
coherence. Coherence is a frequency-domain concept
analogous to correlation in the time domain.
coherence analysis: Correlating small portions of a trace
with respect to surrounding traces. Abrupt changes in
the system of correlation, that is, incoherencies, are
displayed in a variable-density form to emphasize
coherence analysis 56 coherence analysis

FIG. C-7. (a) The color aspects of hue, saturation, and density shown on a color cube. The choices available are usually
displayed on a color pallette at a work station. (b) The selection of colors can enhance or obscure features. The channel
indicated by dark red on this horizon slice is nearly obscurred by use of too many colors. (c) Color compared with
variable area permits visualization of both positive and negative amplitudes in like manner to avoid the polarity bias
associated with variable-area displays. Bright spot and flat spot are shown here. Color enlarges the effective dynamic
range. (From Brown 1999, 28, 29, 40, 41, 34.)
coherence analysis 57 coherence analysis

FIG. C-7(b) and (c).

coherence filtering
changes in correlation, perhaps because of faulting,
stratigraphic change, etc. Common coherence measures
include cross-correlation, semblance, and eigenvector
analysis; see Figure A-24d. Coherence cube is an
Amoco tradename.
coherence filtering: 1. A multichannel filter that empha-
sizes coherent events. 2. A method of noise suppression
that filters out the coherent portion of two signals.
coherency inversion: Identifying interval velocity of a
layer by ray tracing through a velocity model of arbi-
trarily complicated overlying layers. Constructing a
velocity-depth model from picked CMP-stacked data.
Generally, normal-incidence rays are traced through
overlying layers and traveltimes computed, and then the
velocity of the overlying layer is adjusted to minimize
errors. See also stacking velocity inversion 共q.v.兲.
coherent: Said of waveforms that have the same phase
relationship.
coherent detection: Coherence filtering 共q.v.兲.
coherent noise: Noise wavetrains that bear a systematic
phase relation 共coherence兲 between adjacent traces.
Most source-generated seismic noise 共ground roll, shal-
low refractions, multiples, etc.兲 is coherent. The distinc-
tion between random and coherent noise is usually a
matter of sampling 共trace spacing兲, that is, very closely
spaced geophones observe as coherent what phones
more widely spaced 共often ⬎1–2 m兲 perceive as ran-
dom. See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 183–184兲.
coincident time line: A line 共surface兲 where two different
waves have the same arrival time. The intersection of a
coincident time line with the surface gives the cross-
over point for refraction data. See Figure H-3.
cokriging: A geostatistical method of interpolating spa-
tially organized data based on a sparse set of data that is
considered as exact and other sets that are dense but
inexact. Often involves interpolating between well data
locations using seismic data as the dense but inexact
data. It is a method of bivariate least-squares prediction
filtering that is essentially a bivariate version of Wiener
filtering. See also kriging and Journel and Huijbregts
共1978兲.
colatitude: Angular distance from the North Pole, the
complement of the latitude, or 90° minus the latitude in
the Northern Hemisphere, or 90° plus the latitude in the
Southern Hemisphere.
Cole-Cole plot: A plotting convention for in-phase versus
quadrature measurements in which frequency relax-
ation appears as a semicircle. Useful for dielectric
relaxation, seismic velocity, and induced polarization
measurements. See Argand diagram.
Cole-Cole relaxation model: 共kōl kōl兲 A model for
induced polarization 共IP兲 effects in which the effective
impedance varies as a power of the frequency. The
complex resistivity ␳共␻兲 is given by
␳ 共 ␻ 兲 ⫽R o 兵 1⫺m 关 1⫺1/ 共 1⫹i ␻ ␶ 兲 c 兴 其 ,
where R o is the dc resistivity, ␶ is the time constant, and
c is the frequency dependence. Typical ranges for
parameters are m⫽0.1 to 1.0, depending on the min-
eral content, ␶ ⫽10 ⫺4 to 10 4 depending on grain size,
and c⫽0.2 to 0.6 depending on the particle size dis-
tribution. Compare Warburg impedance, for which the
value of c is 0.5.
collar: A coupling device to connect two lengths of pipe.
58 Combisweep
collar log: Casing-collar locator 共q.v.兲.
collateral data: 共k⳵ lat’ ⳵r ⳵l兲 Secondary data pertaining to
an area of interest.
collet: 共kal’ ⳵t兲 A cone-shaped sleeve used to hold a rod-
like object.
collimated: Nondivergent, parallel.
collocated: 共kō lō kā t⳵d兲 Located at the same place.
cologarithm „colog…: 共kō, log ⳵ rith’ ⳵m兲 The logarithm of
the reciprocal of a number:
colog共 x 兲 ⫽log共 1/x 兲 .
color: See primary colors, hue, saturation, density and
Figure C-7.
color bar: A display of the values represented by different
colors.
color display: A display of measurements that have been
color encoded. See also attribute and Figure C-7.
colored: Having different values at different frequencies.
Compare white.
colored sweep: A vibroseis sweep that is not linear with
frequency so that its frequency spectrum is not flat.
Also called a nonlinear sweep.
colorimetry: Estimation of intensity or hue of color in a
colored solution by visual comparison or by measuring
the absorption of the complementary color as light is
transmitted through the solution.
color mimicry: A technique for correlating the response
to different types of measurement for features in two-
dimensions. A set of photos, maps, or other displays are
projected through primary color filters and the images
superimposed. See Grossling 共1969兲.
colorÕopacity editor: The function that changes the color
or opacity of portions of a data set in a visualization.
color palette: 共col’ ⳵r pal’ it兲 The colors available for a
display at a work station or by a plotter.
color processing: Encoding a set of measurements as a set
of colors.
color wheel: Distribution of colors at different azimuths
such that complimentary colors are 180° opposite each
other. Thus the color sequence is red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, violet, and back to red.
column vector: See matrix.
comb: An infinite sequence of impulses ␦ (t⫺n⌬t)
occurring at time intervals ⌬t:
⬁
兺
comb共 t 兲 ⫽ ␦ 共 t⫺n⌬t兲 ,
n⫽⫺⬁
comb共 t 兲 ↔comb共 f 兲 ,
where frequency f ⫽1/t if t is time and ↔ indicates a
Fourier transform operation. See Figures C-8 and F-19.
If the impulses are spaced T apart,
comb共 t/T 兲 ↔comb共 T f 兲 .
Combisweep: A vibroseis sweep technique using several
sequential linear sweeps separated by short listening
commercial
periods used to reduce correlation ghosts. A Prakla-
Seismos tradename.
commercial: See resource.
common-azimuth migration: Migration of data obtained
within a narrow angular range of source-to-receiver
directions.
common-conversion point „CCP…: The common reflect-
ing point where mode conversion from P- to S-waves or
vice-versa occurred for a set of data. Reciprocity 共the
conversion point being the same when source and
receiver are interchanged兲 does not apply 共unless
source and receiver modes are also interchanged兲. See
Figure C-13.
common-depth point „CDP…: The reflecting point that is
common to a subset of data. The use of this term for
common-midpoint 共q.v.兲 is discouraged because the
reflecting point is not in common if reflectors dip. See
Figure C-9.
common-depth-point gather: Common-midpoint gather
共q.v.兲.
common-depth-point stack: Common-midpoint stack
共q.v.兲.
common-focus point: Common-imaging gather 共q.v.兲.
common-geophone gather: A set of seismic traces having
the same geophone location. Also called a common-
receiver gather. See Figure C-9.
common-image gather: A gather of traces from various
offsets or angles, adjusted for traveltime differences
from zero offset, in time or depth. If the events are not
flat in time or depth, the resulting stacked image will
not be optimum.
common-imaging-point gathers: The set of data that are
reflected at the same point after prestack migration.
common-imaging point „CIP…: See common-imaging
gather. See Figure C-9g.
common-midpoint „CMP…: Having the same midpoint
between source and detector. See Figure C-9. Some-
times erroneously called common-depth-point or
common-reflection-point.
59 common-source gather
common-midpoint gather: The set of traces that have a
common midpoint 共q.v.兲.
common-midpoint „CMP… method: A recording-
processing method where each source is recorded at a
number of geophone locations and each geophone loca-
tion is used to record from a number of source loca-
tions. After correcting these data for statics, normal
moveout, and DMO 共q.v.兲 共since dipping reflections do
not involve a common reflecting point兲, they are com-
bined 共stacked兲 to provide a common-midpoint sec-
tion that approximates the traces that would be
recorded by a coincident source and receiver at each
location, but with improved discrimination against
noise. The objective is to attenuate random effects and
events whose dependence on offset is different from
that of primary reflections. See Figure C-9.
common-midpoint stack: A stack 共q.v.兲 of common-
midpoint gather traces.
common mode: Having signals that are identical in phase.
For example, signals that appear simultaneously at both
input terminals of a differential amplifier.
common-mode rejection: A differential amplifier that
ignores a signal that appears simultaneously at both
input terminals.
common-offset gather: 1. A side-by-side display of traces
that have the same source-to-geophone distance 共off-
set兲; see Figure C-9f. 2. A side-by-side display of
crosswell traces in a receiver well that have the same
elevation difference with respect to source elevations.
common-offset stack „COS…: A stack of traces that have
the same offset and which are located within a limited
range of midpoint locations.
common-range gather: Common-offset gather 共q.v.兲.
common-receiver gather: Traces from different source
locations into a single receiver; see Figure C-9e. Used
in borehole-to-borehole measurements.
common-reflection point: 1. A point in the subsurface
where energy is reflected for certain reflectors and
certain source-receiver pairs; see Figure C-9c. 2. Often
used erroneously for common-midpoint 共q.v.兲 because
CMP reflection points are not common where there is
dip.
common-reflection-point gather, common-depth-point
gather: A collection of the seismic traces that all
reflect from the same point, often corrected for normal
moveout 共velocity兲. After correcting for various pos-
sible velocities, events on the gather are horizontal
when the velocities are correct. Same as depth gather.
Differs from common-midpoint gather 共q.v.兲 if there is
dip or lateral velocity changes.
common-scatterpoint „CSP… gather: A collection of
prestack migrated traces that involve the same scatter-
point. The maximum offset is limited by the migration
aperture and the fold may be large. The gathers, formed
with an inaccurate velocity model usually are analyzed
by conventional techniques 共such as semblance analy-
sis兲 to yield a more accurate velocity model. conven-
tional NMO corrections, scaling, and stacking of a CSP
gather is the same as Kirchhoff prestack migration.
common-shot gather: See common-source gather.
common-source gather: 1. A side-by-side display of
traces that have the same source location; such as a field
record; see Figure C-9d. 2. A side-by-side display of
crosswell traces at different depths in the receiver well
communication 60 compaction

that have the same source location.
communication: 1. Different locations connected so that
fluids can flow freely between the locations. 2. The
ability to interchange data, as when two computers
‘‘have communication with each other.’’
commutate: 共kom’ y⳵ tāt,兲 To periodically reverse the
direction of an electric current 共for example, by peri-
odically changing connections兲 so that it becomes uni-
directional; e.g., to reverse every other cycle of an
alternating current.
commutative: Operations that yield the same results
regardless of the sequence in which they are performed.
compaction: Loss of porosity with increasing differential
pressure, usually in a nonelastic way, e.g., by grain
deformation, repacking, recrystalization, etc. The nor-

FIG. C-9. Common-midpoint method. (a) In six-fold shooting with 24-geophone groups and the source point moved
two group intervals between successive shots; the same subsurface is sampled six times (A⇒23, B⇒21, C⇒19, D⇒17,
E⇒15, F⇒13). (b) A reflector that dips does not have a common reflecting point and common-midpoint stacking results
in reflection-point smearing unless DMO (q.v.) processing or migration precedes stacking. (c) To achieve a common-
reflection point in the case of dip requires unequal surface spacing. (d) A common-source gather is a collection of
traces having the same source; (e) common-receiver gather; (f) common-offset gather. (g) If there are horizontal
velocity variations, prestack migration is required to form a common-imaging-point gather. Compare Figure C-13. All
diagrams assume constant velocity.
compaction correction
mal porosity ␾ of shales given by the Hubbert-Rubey
law is
␾ ⫽ ␾ o e ⫺c P ,
where ␾ o is the initial porosity 共the Atterberg limits,
q.v.兲, c is a constant, and P is the differential pressure,
the difference between the overburden pressure and the
formation fluid pressure. This leads to a pressure-with-
depth curve that is roughly logarithmic:
P⫽ 共 1/c 兲 ln共 ␾ / ␾ o 兲 .
Compaction is nearly irreversible, i.e., relieving the
pressure that compacted a rock does not uncompact it,
but releaving the pressure is apt to produce a small
change 共unloading effect兲.
compaction correction: An empirical correction applied
to porosity values 共such as derived from the sonic log兲
in uncompacted formations. Undercompaction is indi-
cated by low velocities in adjacent shales. See also
differential compaction.
comparative interpretation: The comparison of survey
data with type curves that have been calculated for
bodies of assumed contrasts and geometry.
comparator: A circuit that compares two signals and indi-
cates the result of the comparison.
compass: Magnetic compasses are located at strategic
points along streamers to help determine the streamer
position. Gyrocompasses are used to determine vessel
orientation.
compensated log: A well log made with a sonde designed
to correct unwanted effects or one that has been cor-
rected. The compensated density log uses the signal
from a secondary detector to correct for the effect of
mud cake and small irregularities in the borehole wall.
The BHC compensated sonic log uses dual transmit-
ters and receivers to reduce the effects of irregularities
in borehole size and sonde tilt.
compensation test: Aircraft maneuvers to derive compen-
sation coefficients to correct for the effects of the air-
craft on magnetometer measurements. At high altitude
the aircraft flies in different directions 共heading test兲
and undergoes oscillating pitch, roll, and yaw of 5–10°
to determine a figure of merit, which should be ⬍1–2
nT. A new figure of merit has to be determined with
each change of aircraft configuration. After proper com-
pensation, the magnetic effects of the aircraft should
cancel out regardless of the aircraft’s flight direction.
See also lag test.
competent: 共kom’ pi t⳵nt兲 A bed that retains its strati-
graphic thickness under stress. It folds or breaks under
stress, in contrast to an incompetent bed that tends to
flow.
compiler: 共k⳵m pı̄’ l⳵r兲 A program for converting a source
program in a high-level language to an object program
in machine language prior to loading and running. A
program for converting concurrently with running the
program is called an interpreter.
complement: 共kam’ plē m⳵nt兲 The difference between a
particular value and full scale. In the decimal system,
the complement of x is (10 ␮ ⫺x), where ␮ is a fixed
number; and in binary the complement of x is (2 ␮
⫺x). Adding the complement of x is equivalent to
subtracting x, and computers often find it easier to
generate the complement and add than to subtract. See
61 complex resistivity
also one’s complement and two’s complement.
complementary error function „erfc…:
erfc共 t 兲 ⫽1⫺erf共 t 兲 ,
where erf(t) is the error function 共q.v.兲.
complementary filter: A filter that complements another
filter. For example, a 2000-m low-pass filter can be
complemented by a 2000-m high-pass filter to show the
high frequencies that the low-pass filter rejected.
complement of chargeability: An IP time-domain mea-
surement of the area under a decay curve; integrating
over the interval between 0.45 and 1.75 s on a
Newmont-type receiver.
completion: See well completion.
complex delta function: See impulse.
complex frequency: A damped wave can be expressed as
the product of an absorption factor e ⫺ ␣ t and a periodic
factor e j ␻ t :
Ae ⫺ ␣ t e j ␻ t ⫽Ae j 共 ␻ ⫹ j ␣ 兲 t ,
where ( ␻ ⫹ j ␣ ) is the complex frequency.
complex impulse: The complex delta function, ␦ *(t)
⫽ ␦ (t)⫹( j/ ␲ )t, where ␦ (t) is an impulse 共q.v.兲.
complex number: A number with both real and imaginary
parts, such as
z⫽x⫹ jy⫽Ae j ␪ ,
where j⫽ 公⫺1. 关The symbol i is also used to indicate
公⫺1. 兴 The modulus or magnitude of the above com-
plex number is A⫽(x 2 ⫹y 2 ) 1/2 and the angle indicat-
ing its direction with respect to the real axis is
␪ ⫽tan⫺1 共 y/x 兲 .
A graph of a complex function or quantity 共such as a
frequency spectrum兲 is shown in Figure C-10.
complex ratio: See Turam method.
complex relative permittivity: See dielectric constant.
complex resistance: Impedance 共q.v.兲.
complex resistivity: Representation of apparent resistivity
as having real and imaginary parts. Complex resistivity
is the proportionality between voltage and current
where the two are not in-phase. It is used to accomodate
variations in resistivity with frequency as observed in
FIG. C-10. A complex function (such as a frequency
spectrum) requires 3-D representation. The distance from
the frequency axis gives the modulus, and the angle with
the real plane is the phase.
complex spectrum
induced-polarization surveys.
complex spectrum: See Fourier transform.
complex-trace analysis: Finding the complex number
representation F(t) of a real time-series f (t):
F 共 t 兲 ⫽ f 共 t 兲 ⫹ j f ⬜ 共 t 兲 ⫽A 共 t 兲 e j ␥ 共 t 兲 ,
where f ⬜ (t) is the quadrature series, A(t) is the
amplitude of the envelope of the trace 共also called
reflection strength兲, and ␥ (t) is the instantaneous
phase. Displays of instantaneous phase 共or cosine of
the instantaneous phase兲 show the continuity of an
event. Instantaneous frequency is d ␥ (t)/dt. Instan-
taneous frequency can be thought of as the frequency of
the complex sinusoid that locally best fits a complex
trace. Used to determine seismic attributes. In the space
domain, ‘‘local’’ is sometimes used instead of ‘‘instan-
taneous.’’ See Figure C-11 and Taner et al. 共1979兲.
Complex-trace analysis often involves the Hilbert
transform.
compliance: 共k⳵m plı̄’ ⳵ns兲 The relationship of strain to
stress. Compliance is a tensor of rank 4, but it is also
expressible as a 6⫻6 matrix that is the inverse of the
stiffness matrix. See elastic constants. Compliance is
the mechanical or acoustical equivalent of electrical
capacitance.
composite: 共k⳵m’ paz ⳵t兲 1. Made up from two or more
different elements, as a composite decay curve or com-
posite time-distance curve 共q.v.兲. 2. To mix or combine
the energy of different seismic channels without first
applying static and normal-moveout corrections.
composite amplitude: A sum of the absolute amplitude of
reflections attributed to the top and base of a reservoir.
composite decay curve: A time-domain decay curve con-
taining more than one component, usually with differ-
ent time constants or even a combination of positive
and negative decay curves. See Figure D-2.
composite displays: See Figure D-17.
composite reflection: A wavetrain composed of two or
more overlapping reflections.
composite time-distance curve: A refraction traveltime
versus offset-distance graph synthesized from data
obtained by several sources and short spreads at various
locations, as opposed to the graph that would have been
obtained from a single source into an extensive spread
of geophones. See Figure T-8d.
compositor: A device for mixing 共q.v.兲.
compressed section: A record section with the horizontal
scale compressed. Associated with considerable vertical
exaggeration. Used to present regional and stratigraphic
aspects of seismic data. Also called a squash plot.
compressibility: Change of density with pressure; the
reciprocal of bulk modulus. The total compressibility is
the sum of the compressibilities of the various parts.
The compressibility of water is 3⫻10 ⫺6 /psi, of oil 3
to 10⫻10 ⫺6 /psi, of pore spaces 3 to 100
⫻10 ⫺6 /psi. See elastic constants.
compressional wave: A P-wave 共q.v.兲.
Compton scattering: 共k⳵m’ t⳵n兲 The principal interaction
mechanism for gamma photons in the 0.4 to 3.0 MeV
range for media in the intermediate atomic number
range. The incident photon changes direction and is
available for repeated scattering, so that the probability
of total dissipation increases with the volume of the
62 condensed section
scatterer. Named for Arthur Holly Compton 共1892–
1962兲, American physicist.
computational error: See error.
computer: 1. One who computes corrections for geophys-
ical data; a computor. 2. A machine capable of accept-
ing information, applying prescribed processes to the
data 共a sequence of arithmetic and logical operations as
requested by program instructions兲, and supplying the
results to some output device. A simple computer pro-
gram is shown in Figure F-14. 3. An analog computer
uses a physical analogy of position, electric current,
flow, temperature, etc. to solve relationships. 4. A digi-
tal computer applies numerical processes to sets of
discrete numbers.
computer generations: Historical levels of computer
hardware technology: first generation, vacuum tubes;
second generation, transistors; third generation, inte-
grated circuits; fourth generation, very large scale
integration 共VLSI兲; fifth generation, massively parallel
processors.
computer graphics: The visual display of data stored in a
computer.
computerized tomography „CT…: Examination of cores
by x-ray scans 共with medical-type equipment兲 and
tomographic analysis to show the distribution and con-
nectivity of porosity.
computer language: The form in which program instruc-
tions can be supplied to a computer for translation into
a machine language program that then can be executed.
Such languages include Algol, Cobol, Fortran, PL-1,
APL, Pascal, C⫹⫹, Basic, and others.
computer modeling: See numerical modeling.
concatenate: 共kon kat’ ⳵ nāt,兲 To unite in a series; to
connect together; to chain. The action by a computer
program of relating data in some organized manner so
as to treat multiple data sets or files as one.
concentration cell: See electrochemical SP.
concentration overvoltage: See overvoltage.
concentric fold: A flexural-slip fold. See folding.
concession: The right to search for oil or gas or minerals
and to remove any that are discovered, in return for
payments and royalties 共portions of the minerals recov-
ered兲. See also lease.
concordance: 共kon kord’ ⳵ns兲 Parallelism of reflections to
sequence boundaries.
concordia diagram: The time graph of 206Pb/ 238 U vs.
207
Pb/ 235 U, assuming a closed system.
concertina display: Simultaneous display of a number of
plots having a major feature in common, such as dis-
play of a number of parallel seismic lines or of different
attribute displays of the same section or of the same
map.
condensate: A light hydrocarbon liquid consisting of vari-
ous proportions of butane, propane, pentane, and
heavier fractions with little or no ethane or methane,
obtained by condensation of hydrocarbon vapors. Con-
densate is usually gaseous in the subsurface.
condensate well: See gas-oil ratio (GOR).
condensed section: A relatively thin, continuous strati-
graphic succession that encompasses a considerable
time span and has reasonable geographic extent. Usu-
ally a deep marine section of hemipelagic and pelagic
sediments deposited far from the coastline 共distal兲.
Generally, it is very fine grain and rich in both number
condition 63 conditional jump

and diversity of fossils, and hence is useful for age
dating. Often the distal part of a maximum flooding
surface 共q.v.兲 and the top of a transgressive system tract
共q.v.兲. See also Figure S-32.
condition: 1. Treating drilling mud with additives and
circulating mud through a borehole to make the mud
uniform throughout the system. 2. A restriction or con-
straint, as an initial condition or boundary condition
共q.v.兲. 3. See condition number.
conditional jump: An instruction causing a transfer to an
instruction other than the next sequential instruction
only if a specific condition is satisfied. The next sequen-
tial instruction is executed if the condition is not satis-
fied. See branch.

FIG. C-11. Complex-trace analysis. Real (a) and quadrature (b) traces for a portion of a seismic trace. The envelope
is shown as the dotted line in (a) and (b). Instantaneous phase is plotted in (c), instantaneous frequency in (d), and
weighted average frequency as the dotted curve in (d). (e) Isometric diagram of a complex trace. (From Taner et al.,
1979.)
conditional probability
conditional probability: P(E 兩 C i )⫽probability of E if
C i has already occurred. Bayes’s theorem gives the a
posteria probability:
P 共 C i 兩 E 兲 ⫽ P 共 C i 兲 P 共 E 兩 C i 兲 / 关 ⌺ P 共 C j 兲 P 共 E 兩 C j 兲兴 ,
where P(C i )⫽a priori probability of C i .
conditional simulation: A geostatistical method of creat-
ing equally probable images of a regionalized variable
based on spatial data. By relaxing some of the kriging
constraints, conditional simulation reproduces the vari-
ance of the control data so that the result captures the
heterogeneity and connectivity most likely present. It is
used to produce measures of uncertainty such as prob-
ability and uncertainty maps.
conditioning: Preparing data for processing or interpreta-
tion by removing bad data, smoothing, resampling, or
applying other reduction operations.
condition number: The value given when the largest ele-
ment of a diagonal matrix is divided by the smallest
element. For a nondiagonal matrix, the condition num-
ber is the ratio of the largest to smallest eigenvalues.
The condition number is infinity if an element is zero. A
too large condition number means that the matrix is
ill-conditioned and therefore unstable.
conductance: The product of conductivity and thickness;
with direct current, the reciprocal of resistance. With
alternating current, the resistance divided by the imped-
ance squared; the real part of admittance. Measured in
siemens 共⫽mho⫽inverse ohm兲.
conductance referencing: A correction procedure where
the total conductance is kept fixed as the thicknesses
and resistivities are adjusted. Usually the resistivity is
selected to be the average resistivity and the thicknesses
are adjusted.
conduction angle: The number of degrees in a half-cycle
ac wave during which a silicon-controlled rectifier is
turned on. If ␾ is the phase control angle, the conduc-
tion angle is ␲ ⫺ ␾ .
conduction current: Electrical current resulting from the
motion of free charges under the influence of an electric
field. The density of conduction current J at a point in
an isotropic medium is J⫽ ␴ E, where ␴ is the conduc-
tivity and E is the electric field. Conduction currents
usually are more important than displacement currents
in electromagnetic prospecting, depending on the fre-
quency range. Since in general J and E are vectors, the
conductivity ␴ is a symmetric tensor given in Cartesian
coordinates by
冏 冏
␴ xx ␴ xy ␴ xz
␴ yx ␴ y y ␴ yz .
␴ xz ␴ yz ␴ zz
If one of the coordinates is in the direction of maximum
conductivity and one in the direction of minimum con-
ductivity, nondiagonal elements vanish. In isotropic
materials ␴ xx ⫽ ␴ y y ⫽ ␴ zz .
conductivity: The ability of a material to conduct electri-
cal current. In isotropic material, the reciprocal of resis-
tivity. Sometimes called specific conductance. Units
are siemens per meter.
conductivity-depth image: A diagram showing conduc-
tivity as a function of distance and depth, derived from
64 conjugate function
profiles of surface or airborne EM data. See also para-
section.
conductivity log: Induction log 共q.v.兲.
conductivity tomography: Using a transmitter and
receiver in different wells to construct a tomographic
picture. See Figure T-10.
conductor: A body within which electrical current can
flow readily. Often, the ‘‘target’’ of an electromagnetic
survey. An electronic conductor conducts electricity
primarily by electron mobility and an ionic conductor
primarily by ion mobility. Electrolytes are ionic con-
ductors. Resistivity⬍10 ⫺5 ⍀.m.
conductor casing: A second casing string with the annular
space filled with cement to protect fresh-water sands.
conductor pipe: A short string of large-diameter casing
used on offshore and marsh wells and some other
conditions to contain the mud upwelling from the annu-
lus so that it flows into the slush pit.
cone bit: A roller bit having conical cutters with teeth for
cutting into formations. See Figure D-26b.
cone penetrometer: Device used by civil engineers to
determine the shear strength of shallow sediments.
confidence bounds: The probability that an interval con-
tains an element with given characteristics; the limits
between which a specified percentage of measurements
are expected to lie. A measure of the uncertainty in
values. Often taken as the standard deviation 共q.v.兲.
Generally calculated by tracing the estimates of the
uncertainties in the various measurements that contrib-
ute to determining a value, but measurement uncertain-
ties are not always the principal contributors to uncer-
tainty. A rule for calculating uncertainty in
electromagnetic applications is to use confidence levels
of 95% for data with high signal-to-noise ratios to 68%
for noisy data. See Raiche et al. 共1985兲.
configuration: 1. Arrangement, as of geophones in a
group; array 共q.v.兲. 2. The hardware and/or software
making up a computer system, and how it is put
together.
conformability: See conformal mapping and map projec-
tion.
conformable: 共k⳵n for’ ma b⳵l兲 Two adjacent parallel
beds separated by a surface of original deposition,
where no disturbance or denudation occurred during
their deposition.
conformal mapping: Mapping one area into another
when there is a continuous one-to-one correspondence
of points and where angles are preserved.
conic: A curve defined by a quadratic equation. See Figure
C-12.
conical wave: 1. A head wave 共q.v.兲. Also called Mach
waves. 2. A head wave generated by tube waves.
coning: 共kōn’ ⳵ng兲 The upward encroachment of reservoir
water into the oil column at a well because of a high
rate of production, or the downward encroachment of
gas into the oil column.
conjugate: 共kon’ j⳵ gāt,兲 The conjugate of a complex
number is the number with the sign of the imaginary
part reversed. Often designated by a superscript asterisk
or superscript bar.
If Z⫽a⫹ jb⫽Ae j ␪ , then Z*⫽Z̄⫽a⫺ jb⫽Ae ⫺ j ␪ .
conjugate function: Any 2D function F(z) may be writ-
conjugate gradient method
ten in terms of orthogonal conjugate functions ␾ (x,y)
and ␺ (x,y):
F 共 z 兲 ⫽F 共 x⫹iy 兲 ⫽ ␾ 共 x,y 兲 ⫹i ␺ 共 x,y 兲 .
conjugate gradient method: A method for approaching a
minimum for a multidimensional function. Steepest
descent 共q.v.兲 is such a method.
conjugate points: Pairs of object and image points that
correspond to each other. Object and image within any
pair can be interchanged.
conjunction: 共k⳵n junk’ sh⳵n兲 1. The condition for which
an AND-gate is used; intersection. Each of two 共or
more兲 situations must occur. Often written A艚B or
A•B 共read as ‘‘A and B’’兲. See Figure B-5. 2. Align-
ment of celestial objects at the same azimuth and eleva-
tion.
connate water: 共kon’ āt兲 Water trapped in the interstices
of the sediments at the time of deposition, as opposed to
water that migrated into the formations after deposition.
See interstitial water.
connectivity mapping: Determining whether two reser-
voirs are connected hydraulically, e.g., by the ability to
transmit channel waves from one to the other.
Conrad discontinuity: 共k⳵n’ rad兲 A sharp increase in the
P-wave velocity in the crust, commonly at a depth of
17–20 km. The velocity below the Conrad discontinu-
ity is of the order of 5.5– 6.7 共often 6.0– 6.7兲 km/s
共compared to around 8.1 km/s for the upper mantle
immediately below the Moho兲. The Conrad discontinu-
ity is not observed everywhere.
FIG. C-12. Conic section equations.
65 continuous-velocity log „CVL…
console: The computer operator’s control panel. Generally
includes start-stop keys, keyboard for entering instruc-
tions or data, and display. Also, a work station.
constant separation traversing: Electric profiling 共q.v.兲.
constant velocity stack „CVS…: Velocity analysis
involves making trial stacks assuming several trial
velocities that are constant in time and space, to deter-
mine the stacking velocities that produce the best
results. See velocity panels and Figure V-7.
constraint: An auxiliary restriction, usually expressed as
an inequality 共for example, x⭐b 兲. See Figure L-5.
constructive interference: See interference.
contact: A boundary 共often a fault兲 between two blocks of
different lithologies involving different physical prop-
erties.
contact log: A microresistivity log 共q.v.兲 in which the
sonde is held against the borehole wall.
contact resistance: The resistance observed 共a兲 between a
grounded electrode and the ground, 共b兲 between an
electrode and a rock specimen, or 共c兲 between electrical
contacts.
continental crust: The 30– 60-km thick layer of sedimen-
tary and felsic rock lying above the Mohorovicic dis-
continuity that forms the continents and continental
shelves. See Figure P-5.
continental shelf: The zone adjacent to a continent where
the ocean floor dips about 0.1° that lies between the
shoreline and is less than about 200 m deep, where
there generally is a marked increase in water depth
共shelf break兲. The significantly greater slope beyond
this point is called the continental slope; it terminates
at an oceanic trench or where the slope again becomes
more gentle 共continental rise兲, which extends to the
abyssal plain. The continental margin is the part
between the shoreline and 4000 m depth.
continuation: Determining a field over one surface from
measurements of the field over another surface 共specifi-
cally, at another elevation兲. The field at the elevation z,
F(x,y,z), can be found from the field on the surface,
F(x ⬘ ,y ⬘ ,0). Where the surfaces are horizontal and no
sources intervene, the upward-continuation relation
共an application of Green’s theorem兲 is
F 共 x,y,z 兲 ⫽
兩z兩
2␲ 冕冕 F 共 x ⬘ ,y ⬘ ,0 兲
R3
dx ⬘ dy ⬘ .
An interchange of the two fields in this equation gives
the downward-continuation relation. See downward
continuation and Peters 共1949兲, Telford et al. 共1990,
§2.6.7 and 3.7.5兲, and Pawlowski 共1995兲.
continuity: Condition of an unbroken electric circuit.
continuity equation: Where V⫽velocity and ⳵␳ /⳵t is the
time rate of change of density, the relation ⫺ⵜ•V
⫽⳵␳ /⳵t.
continuous profiling: A seismic method in which geo-
phone groups are placed uniformly along the length of
the line and sources are so spaced that continuous
共usually 100%兲 subsurface coverage is obtained along
the line. Continuous profiling can be accomplished with
a variety of spread arrangements. Refraction continuous
profiling requires continuous control on the refractor
being mapped; this may require irregular surface lay-
outs.
continuous-velocity log „CVL…: A sonic log 共q.v.兲.
contour
contour: 共kon’ toor兲 A line separating points whose values
are higher than the contour value from points lower,
representing the locus of a constant value on a map or
diagram. Allowance has to be made for uncertainties so
that noise is not contoured, and a contour value of C i
can be thought of as marking the middle of a zone that
contains values C i ⫾N, where N is the mean noise
level. Often the smallest meaningful contour interval is
about twice the noise level so that uncertainty ranges do
not overlap. See Sheriff 共1989; 13–21兲.
contour interval „CI…: The difference in value between
two adjacent contour lines.
contourite: A mound-like or lenticular sediment mass
deposited ‘‘along a contour’’ by along-slope bottom
currents, in contrast with turbidity deposits that are
deposited by currents flowing down slope.
contrast: The difference in value or tone between high-
light and shadow in an image.
contrast stretching: Increasing the contrast to use the full
range of a display by expanding the original range of
values or tones.
control: 1. Accurately known data that can be used to
check the validity or accuracy of a series of measure-
ments. 2. The data on which a map or section is based.
Posting the control on a map or section allows one to
evaluate the interpretation as to what happens between
control points. 3. The section of computer code that is
currently executing.
control character: A nonprinting character that controls
an operating function.
control lines: Survey lines usually orthogonal to the
traverse lines; commonly acquired with larger spacing,
to control line-to-line instrument variations. Also called
tie lines.
controlled mosaic: A composite aerial photograph made
by rephotographing component vertical photographs to
compensate for scale variations resulting from tilt and
variations in flight altitude.
controlled rectifier: An electronic circuit element consist-
ing of a controlled diode or solid-state switch. The
diode is usually turned ‘‘on’’ by a small voltage from an
external circuit and turned ‘‘off’’ when the voltage is
FIG. C-13. Conversion point. (a) Where P-waves convert to S-waves upon reflection (i.e., C-waves), reflecting angles
r are smaller than incident angles i, and interchanging source and receiver changes the reflecting point. (b) For common
source and receiver points, the conversion point generally moves toward the receiver for shallower reflectors.
66 conversion point
reversed. Used to switch large currents in IP transmit-
ters. When the semiconductor is silicon, a controlled
rectifier is called SCR. A GTO 共gate turn-off switch兲
controlled rectifier can be turned on and off indepen-
dently of the current through the diode.
controlled-source electromagnetics „CSEM…: An elec-
tromagnetic sounding or prospecting system that uses
artificially generated fields with prescribed characteris-
tics rather than natural fields. Includes all electromag-
netic techniques that use their own transmitters.
controller: 1. See depth controller. 2. A computer periph-
eral that handles multiple devices of the same kind
共e.g., a tape controller or a disk controller兲.
control station: A point whose position 共horizontally
and/or vertically兲 is used as a base for a dependent
survey or as control for adjusting survey errors.
control total: A sum obtained by adding the numbers in a
field; used for checking to avoid dropout.
convection: Transfer of energy or mass by motion of the
medium. A transport phenomenon where the field varies
in time with the aid of motion of the medium. Examples
include heat transport because of nonuniform heating
and chemical concentrations in an unstable liquid. Con-
trast with diffusion 共q.v.兲.
convergence: 1. The condition when calculated values
approach finite-limiting values as the number of terms
or iterations used increases. 2. In iterative operations,
such as modeling, the condition when calculated values
become sufficiently close to observed values. 3. The
effect of computing a survey on a curved surface as if
the surface were plane. Applying convergence correc-
tion changes from assumed rectangular coordinates to
geodetic coordinates.
convergence correction: See convergence.
convergent margin: Active margin 共q.v.兲.
conversational mode: An interactive procedure in which
each entry from a terminal elicits a response from the
computer and vice-versa.
conversion point: The reflecting point where P-waves
convert to S-waves or vice-versa. The set of data that
have the same conversion point constitute a common-
conversion-point 共CCP兲 gather; after NMO correction,
converted wave
they can be stacked together to display converted
waves. The conversion point is moved when the source
and receiver are interchanged. See Figure C-13.
converted wave: Seismic energy that has traveled partly
as a P-wave and partly as an S-wave, being converted
from one to the other upon reflection or refraction at
oblique incidence on an interface. Since mode conver-
sion is small for small incident angles, converted waves
become more prominent as the angle of incidence 共and
usually offset兲 increases.
converter: A device to perform digital-to-analog 共D/A兲 or
analog-to-digital 共A/D兲 conversion.
convolution: 共kon, v⳵ loo’ sh⳵n兲 Change in waveshape as
a result of passing through a linear filter. 1. A math-
ematical operation between two functions, g(t) and
f (t), often symbolized by an asterisk:
冕
g 共 t 兲 * f 共 t 兲 ⫽ g 共 ␶ 兲 f 共 t⫺ ␶ 兲 d ␶ .
␶ individual transforms 共or multiplying their amplitude
Convolution is not restricted to one dimension. For
example, in two dimensions,
冕冕
g 共 x,y 兲 * f 共 x,y 兲 ⫽ g 共 ␣ , ␤ 兲 f 共 x⫺ ␣ ,y⫺ ␤ 兲 d ␣ d ␤ .
␣ ␤
2. Linear filtering. If a waveform g(t) is passed into a
linear filter with the impulse response f (t), then the
output is given by the convolution of g with f. In
discrete form where the input is a series of impulses of
varying size, each will generate an f (t) of proportional
amplitude and the output will be the superposition of
these. This can be expressed as
L discontinuity 共⬇2900 km deep兲 that separates it from
g t* f t⫽ 兺gf
k⫽0
k t⫺k .
This expresses that the output of a linear filter at the
instant t is a weighted linear combination of the inputs.
L is the convolution operator length and (L⫹1) is the
number of points in the operator. 共A simple computer
program is shown in Figure F-14.兲 The frequency-
domain operation equivalent to time-domain convolu-
tion consists of multiplying frequency-amplitude curves
and adding frequency-phase curves. Convolution is
sometimes done by 共a兲 replacing each spike of the
input with a proportionately scaled version of the
impulse response and superposition forms the output;
共b兲 folding where the impulse response of the filter is
reversed in time and slid past the input, the output for
each position of the impulse response being the sum of
the products of input and folded impulse response for
corresponding points; 共c兲 multiplying z-transforms of
the input and of the impulse response to give the
z-transform of the output; or 共d兲 multiplying Fourier
or Laplace transforms to give the Fourier or Laplace
transform of the output. See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995,
279– 81 and 540–2兲. Well logs may be thought of as the
convolution of the response of the earth adjacent to the
borehole with the logging sonde impulse response. 3.
Convolution in two dimensions is used with gravity,
magnetic, and other data to produce grid residual, sec-
ond derivative, continuation maps, etc.; see Fuller
共1967兲.
67 corer
convolutional model: The concept that a seismic trace
f (t) can be represented by the convolution of an
embedded 共equivalent兲 wavelet w(t) with a reflectivity
function r(t) plus random noise n(t):
f 共 t 兲 ⫽w 共 t 兲 * r 共 t 兲 ⫹n 共 t 兲 .
This model is a consequence of the concept that each
reflected wave causes its own effect at each geophone
共or hydrophone兲 independent of what other waves are
affecting the geophone and that the geophone response
is simply the sum 共linear superposition兲 of the effects of
all the waves. The model can be modified to allow for
propagation effects such as absorption. The convolu-
tional model is implied in most seismic processing and
interpretation.
convolution theorem: The Fourier transform of the con-
volution of two functions is equal to the product of their
spectra and summing their phase spectra兲. See Figures
F-20 and F-22.
cookbook: A method that is prescribed step-by-step.
cool colors: The blue and green colors as opposed to the
red and yellow colors.
Cooley-Tukey method: A Fourier-analysis algorithm that
considerably reduces computing time; see fast Fourier
transform and Cooley and Tukey 共1965兲.
cooperative inversion: See joint inversion.
coordinate transform: See Figure C-14.
copy: The degree to which events or traces look alike.
core: 1. A rock sample cut from a borehole or retrieved
from the sea floor. See core analysis. 2. The Earth’s
core is the central portion bounded by the Gutenberg
the mantle. The core’s radius is ⬇3500 km; it is pre-
sumed to be composed predominantly of iron and sili-
cates. See Figure E-1. Divided into outer core 共which
will not transmit S-waves兲 and inner core, the radius of
the inner core being about 1220 km. The inner core was
discovered by Inge Lehmann in 1936. 3. A material of
high magnetic permeability placed in the center of a
coil of wire. Used in the flux-gate magnetometer for
measuring magnetic fields. 4. A magnetic core 共q.v.兲 is
a device that used to be used in rapid-access memories.
core analysis: Cores from boreholes are analyzed for
porosity, permeability, fluid content, and fluid identifi-
cation 共water and/or oil saturation, residual oil兲, lithol-
ogy, and structure 共fractures, cross bedding, etc.兲.
Results are often illustrated on a log or graphed against
depth.
coregionalization: 共kō’ rē g⳵n ⳵l ⳵ zā. shon兲 The mutual
spatial behavior between two or more regionalized vari-
ables.
corer: A device for obtaining a solid sample of rock from
a borehole or from the ocean bottom. A core barrel is
a hollow cylinder attached to a special bit, used to
obtain a continuous core section from the bottom of a
borehole. Cores are obtained from the bottom of a
borehole with a wireline corer, the core barrel being
retrievable without having to trip out of the hole. A
sidewall corer obtains a sample from the borehole wall
by firing a hollow cylindrical bullet from a tool sus-
pended in the borehole. A core slicer using diamond-
edged blades cuts a triangular core about 1 inch on a
Coriolis acceleration 68 corner reflector

side and up to 3 ft-long from the side of a smooth
borehole. A box corer usually penetrates less than 3 ft
into the sea floor and has a spade-like device that
retains a sample. A gravity corer penetrates the ocean
floor solely by its own weight. The piston in a piston
corer retracts as the cylinder penetrates the sediments.
The jaws of a grab sampler seize a portion of the sea
bottom for retrieval.
Coriolis acceleration: 共kor, ē ō’ lis兲 1. A velocity-
dependent acceleration in a reference frame that is
moving with respect to an inertial reference frame.
Specifically, the acceleration of a body in motion with
respect to the Earth resulting from the rotation of the
Earth, as seen by an observer on the Earth. The Coriolis
acceleration on a body moving on the surface of the
Earth with a velocity V is 2 ␻ V sin ␾ where ␻
⫽angular rotation of the Earth and ␾ ⫽latitude. A
Coriolis acceleration of a moving gravimeter is
involved in the Eöt v ös effect 共q.v.兲. Named for
Gustave Gaspard Coriolis 共1792–1843兲, French math-
ematician.
corner frequency: 共a兲 The frequency at which a graph of
the logarithm of the frequency response has an abrupt
change of slope. Also called break frequency. 共b兲 For
a seismic wave generated by an earthquake, the fre-
quency at which the spectral field begins to decrease. It
is related to the dimensions of the source.
corner reflector: A radar reflector made of sheets of metal
or metal screen at right angles to each other. It reflects
like a mirror at normal incidence no matter from which

FIG. C-14. Coordinate transforms. Unit vectors in x, y, z, ␪, ␾ directions are indicated by i, j, k, ␪, ␾ (a) Rectangular-
cylindrical conversion; (b) rectangular-spherical conversion. (c) Vector operations in rectangular, cylindrical, and
spherical coordinates.
correction
direction it is viewed. See Figure C-15.
correction: A quantity that is applied to a measured quan-
tity to negate known effects, that is, to reduce a mea-
surement to some arbitrary standard.
correlation: 共kor, ⳵ lā’ sh⳵n兲 1. Identifying a phase of a
seismic trace 共or record兲 as representing the same phase
on another trace 共or record兲, indicating that the events
are reflections from the same sequence of reflectors or
head waves from the same marker. 2. The degree of
linear relationship between a pair of traces; a measure
of how much two traces look alike or the extent to
which one can be considered a linear function of the
other. The time-domain concept analogous to coherence
in the frequency domain. See autocorrelation and cross
correlation. 3. Determination of equivalence in strati-
graphic position of formations; for example, in different
wells based upon similarities in well-log character. 4.
Geologic correlation involves determining structural or
stratigraphic units that are equivalent in time 共age兲 or
stratigraphic position. 5. The matching of different well
logs and other well data, either in the same well or in
different wells.
correlation coefficient: A measure of the goodness of fit
of one function to another. A normalized cross-
correlation; see cross-correlation.
correlation filter: A matched filter 共q.v.兲.
correlation ghost: Nonlinearities in generating a vibroseis
signal introduce second harmonics. The correlation of
reflected second harmonics with the generated fre-
quency produces correlation ghosts that follow the sig-
nal for a downsweep but anticipate it for an upsweep.
correlation matrix: See covariance matrix.
correlation method: A seismic method of shooting iso-
lated profiles and correlating events to learn the relative
structural positions of reflection horizons. The correla-
tion is often based on similarities in the character of
events and in the intervals between events.
correlation shooting: See correlation method.
correlation sonar: A navigation/positioning system. The
reflection interference pattern resulting from a pair of
sonar pulses a few tens of milliseconds apart is
observed by a sonar array. Successive observations are
correlated with each other to find the amount of move-
ment of the ship between the observations, and hence
its velocity. The data can be integrated to give position
with respect to a starting point. See Dickey and Edward
共1978兲.
correlative surface: The landward physical extension of a
marine flooding surface not involving any significant
hiatus.
correlator: 1. That which one correlates with; either a
function or a device. 2. Matched filter 共q.v.兲.
correlogram: 1. A measure of the spatial dependence
共correlation兲 of a regionalized variable over some dis-
tance. Related to a variogram 共q.v.兲. 2. Graph of the
autocorrelation function for positive time shifts.
corridor: A short interval following the first arrival in an
upgoing vertical seismic profile 共VSP兲, time shifted to
their two-way arrival times at the surface; this consti-
tutes an outer corridor 共usually no wider than 200–
300 ms兲 and the remaining portions an inner corridor.
The outer corridor is relatively free of upgoing mul-
tiples and these portions are stacked together to give a
corridor stack. Surface multiples are reduced by ver-
69 COST well
FIG. C-15. Corner reflector. After three reflections, a ray
emerges parallel to the incident ray regardless of the
approach direction of the incident ray.
tical seismic profile deconvolution 共q.v.兲. See Figure
C-16.
corridor stack: A summation of some of the traces in an
upgoing vertical seismic profile 共VSP兲 that has been
processed to retain only primary reflection events and
that has been time shifted to their two-way arrival times
at the surface. Summation is over a data window 共a
corridor兲 beginning at the first-break time and usually
ending 200–300 ms later. This eliminates most mul-
tiples. This is also called an outside corridor, and this
is meant when no modifying adjective is used. The
portion of the VSP remaining after the outside corridor
has been removed is sometimes stacked to yield an
inside cooridor stack that emphasizes multiples. See
Figure C-16.
corrugations: Artificial anomalies oriented with or per-
pendicular to survey lines that result from errors in
leveling, gridding, survey locations, etc. A type of
acquisition footprint. See herringbone.
corrupt: To introduce errors into data or a program.
COS: Common-Offset Stack 共q.v.兲.
cosine correction: Multiplying the depth that is estimated
from an anomaly not perpendicular to a profile by the
cosine of the angle between the profile direction and the
anomaly normal.
cosine law: In any plane triangle with sides a, b, and c and
the angle between sides a and b,
c 2 ⫽a 2 ⫹b 2 ⫺2ab cos ␾ .
If ␾ ⬎90°, the cosine is negative and the last term
becomes additive. See Figure S-10.
cosine transform: The Fourier-transform 共q.v.兲 of the
even or symmetrical part of a function. The sine trans-
form involves the odd or antisymmetrical part.
cosmetic: A procedure to improve an image’s appearance
and ease of interpretation rather than its information
content or signal/noise.
cosmic year: The period for the solar system to move
about the Milky Way galaxy, 220–250 Ma.
cospectrum: 共kō spek’ tr⳵m兲 See cross-spectrum.
cost: The consequences of an operation, not necessarily in
monetary measures.
COST well: A well drilled as a Continental Offshore
Stratigraphic Test.
coulomb
FIG. C-16. Corridor stack. ‘‘Corridor stack’’ means the outer corridor unless ‘‘inner’’ precedes it. (1) Median-filtered
VSP; (2) inside corridor; (3) inside-corridor stack; (4) outside-corridor stack; (5) outside corridor (reversed in direction).
(After Hinds et al., 1996.)
coulomb: 共koo’ lom兲 An ampere second, the SI unit for
electrical charge. Named for Charles A. Coulomb
共1736 –1806兲, French physicist.
Coulomb’s law: A force F exists between electrical
charges Q 1 and Q 2 that are separated by the distance r.
The force is attractive for charges of unlike sign and
repulsive for charges of like sign:
F⫽kQ 1 Q 2 /r 2 ⫽Q 1 Q 2 / 共 4 ␲ ␧r 2 兲 ;
k is 9⫻10 9 newton.meter2 /coulomb2 .
couple: Two parallel forces that act with equal magnitude
but in opposite direction on opposite ends of a bar,
producing torque.
coupled wave: A mode of wave propagation that involves
the transfer of energy back and forth between two
different wave-propagation modes with the same appar-
ent phase velocity.
coupler: 1. The telephone cradle used in connecting a
computer or teletype unit with a telephone line, such as
used in time-share computer connections. See acoustic
coupler. 2. A device for connecting explosive charges
together to make a larger explosive.
couplet: Doublet 共q.v.兲.
coupling: 共kup’ l⳵ng兲 Interaction between systems. 1. A
device for fastening together, as a plug for connecting
electrical cables. 2. Aspects that affect energy transfer.
Thus the ‘‘coupling of a geophone to the ground’’
involves the quality of the plant 共how firmly the two are
in contact兲 and also considerations of the geophone’s
weight and base area, because the geophone-ground
coupling system has natural resonances and introduces
a filtering action. 3. The type of mutual electrical rela-
tionship between two closely related circuits. An
ac-coupling would exclude dc voltages by employing a
70 CPU
series capacitive element. A dc or direct coupling may
allow all components to pass, or it may exclude higher
frequency signals by using a capacitive element
shunted across the inputs. Capacative coupling may
occur because of mutual capacitive impedance, as
between the wires in IP circuits or between a wire and
ground. Inductive coupling occurs because of mutual
inductive impedance, such as between grounded IP
transmitter and receiver circuits, especially at higher
frequencies, greater distances, or lower earth resistivity.
This may give rise to false IP anomalies. Also called
electromagnetic or EM coupling. Resistive coupling
in IP surveying is caused by leakage between wires,
between a wire and ground, or through the resistance of
the ground itself between two grounded circuits.
covariance: 共kō ver’ ē ⳵nc兲 1. A measure of the difference
between two quantities; a cross-correlation function
that is not normalized. A mean of zero is implied. See
Kirlin and Done 共1999兲. 2. For a variogram, the differ-
ence between the sill and the variogram model; see
Figure V-1. Kriging weights are based on correlogram
values.
covariance matrix: An indicator of the fit between a
calculated curve 共the ‘‘solution’’兲 and measured data
that indicates the confidence bounds for a solution. It is
a step toward calculating a correlation matrix that
shows the correlation between parameters. See Raiche
et al. 共1985兲.
cpi: Characters Per Inch.
cps: 1. Cycles Per Second; hertz, which is the preferred
SI terminology. 2. Characters per second, a measure of
the speed of data transfer.
CPU: Central Processing Unit 共q.v.兲.
crab
crab: To maintain an angle between a ship’s heading and
the desired course, such as to compensate for a cross-
wind or cross sea. Compare yaw, which is oscillation of
the ship’s heading.
crack porosity: The part of porosity that is thin and flat.
Cramer’s rule: 共krā’ m⳵rz兲 The solution to a set of linear
simultaneous equations,
a 11 x 1 ⫹a 12 x 2 ⫹...⫹a 1n x n ⫽b 1
a 21 x 1 ⫹a 22 x 2 ⫹...⫹a 2n x n ⫽b 2 ,
... ...
which is the determinant of the coefficients obtained by
replacing a column with the b’s, divided by the deter-
minant of the coefficients 共sometimes called ‘‘⌬’’兲:
冏 冏
b1 a 12 ... a 1n
x 1 ⫽ 共 1/⌬ 兲 b 2 a 22 ... a 2n
...
冏 冏
a 12 b1 ... a 1n
x 2 ⫽ 共 1/⌬ 兲 a 22 b2 ... a 2n
...
冏 冏
a 11 a 12 ... a 1n
⌬⫽ a 21 a 22 ... a 2n
...
This is usually not the most economical way for com-
puters to solve simultaneous equations. Named for
Gabriel Cramer 共1704 –1752兲, French mathematician.
Cramer-Rao multipliers: Multipliers equivalent to
changing parameter values that transform a model
curve to fit a data curve. See Raiche et al. 共1985兲.
Crank-Nicholson method: A finite-differencing method
of numerically solving partial differential equations
共such as the heat equation兲 that uses differences to
approximate derivatives. Specifically, a method of solv-
ing the acoustic wave equation 共Claerbout, 1976兲. See
Strang 共1986兲.
crash: Destructive failure of a memory device or of a
computer program.
crater: 1. A funnel-shaped cavity on the sea floor pro-
duced by escaping gas; a pockmark. 2. A funnel-
shaped cavity at the top of a borehole resulting from
loose material falling into the borehole, especially
resulting from the detonation of a shot in the borehole.
3. The result of an impact such as a meteor crater,
sometimes called an astrobleme. 4. To crash 共q.v.兲.
craton: A large ancient stable portion of the Earth’s crust.
creep: 1. Time-dependent strain. Gradually increasing the
deformation of a body under a stress. Creep often
becomes important at 40–50% of the temperature at
which a phase-change occurs. 2. Slow aseismic slip
along a fault.
crest: 1. The highest point on a structure. 2. The peak of
a seismic 共or other兲 wave.
crevasse splay: A small sediment distributary system sec-
ondary to a main channel, formed by flow through a
break in a natural river levee, usually during a flood.
Crevasse splays can also occur for submarine channels.
crew: Party 共q.v.兲.
71 cross borehole
CRIP: Complex-Resistivity Induced Polarization.
critical angle: Angle of incidence ␪ c for which the
refracted ray grazes the surface of contact between two
media 共of velocities V 1 and V 2 兲:
sin ␪ c ⫽V 1 /V 2 .
See Figure C-17. Has meaning only where V 2 ⬎V 1 . In
general, four critical angles can be defined for the ratios
of P- and S-waves in the two media provided they ⬍1:
V P1 /V P2 , V S1 /V S2 , V S1 /V P2 , V P1 /V S2 .
The first is usually intended unless otherwise specified.
critical damping: The minimum damping that will not
allow oscillation. See damping.
critical dip: 1. Dip in the direction opposite to the
regional attitude, possibly indicating a closure. 2. Dip
in the direction that is most critical in establishing
closure.
critical distance: 1. The offset at which the reflection time
equals the refraction time, that is, the offset for which
reflection occurs at the critical angle; see Figure C-17.
2. Sometimes incorrectly used for crossover distance
共q.v.兲, the offset at which a refracted event becomes the
first break.
critical point: 1. The pressure-temperature combination
above which the distinction between gas and liquid no
longer exists. 2. The set of conditions 共pressure, tem-
perature, composition兲 at which two phases become
indistinguishable. See Figure H-11.
critical porosity: Porosity above which grain-to-grain
contact is lost and hence shear strength vanishes. It is
often of the order of 50%.
critical pressure: The pressure needed to condense a
vapor at its critical temperature.
critical reflection: A reflection at the critical angle.
Amplitude may be exceptionally large in this vicinity.
Reflection at angles in this vicinity is called wide-angle
reflection. See Figure C-17.
critical surface: A major geological contrast where the
character changes dramatically; e.g., the top of crystal-
line basement.
critical temperature: The highest temperature at which a
fluid can exist as a liquid and above which its vapor
cannot be liquified regardless of the amount of pressure
applied. See Figure H-11.
CRM: Chemical Remanent Magnetism 共q.v.兲.
CRO: Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope.
Crone shootback: See shootback method. Named for the
company that developed the method, Crone Geophys-
ics.
crooked line: A seismic acquisition line that differs from
straight by a significant amount. Care must especially
be exercised where „a… the offset 共source-to-geophone兲
distance is sufficiently different from distances mea-
sured along the line that normal-moveout corrections
are significantly in error, or where „b… cross-dip is large
enough to confuse inline dip measurements and cause
significant error in dip calculations. Crooked lines tend
to result in crossline smear. Lines are sometimes delib-
erately made crooked so that cross-dip as well as inline
dip can be determined. Figure C-18 shows a crooked-
line plot, also called a scattergram.
cross: Cross-spread 共q.v.兲.
cross borehole: See crosshole tomography.
cross correlation 72 crosscut

cross correlation: A measure of the similarity of two plished by reversing one function in time and convolv-
waveforms, of the degree of linear relationship between ing:
them, or of the extent to which one is a linear function
of the other. For two waveforms G(t) and H(t), the ␾ ab 共 ␶ 兲 ⫽a 共 t 兲 *b 共 ⫺t 兲 .
normalized crosscorrelation function ␾ GH ( ␶ ) is given The equivalent operation in the frequency domain
as a function of the time shift ␶ between the functions involves multiplying the amplitudes of common fre-
by quencies and subtracting phase-response curves. See
⬁ Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 287–288 and 541–543兲.
兰 ⫺⬁ G 共 t 兲 H 共 t⫹ ␶ 兲 dt
␾ GH 共 ␶ 兲 ⫽ . cross-correlation filter: Matched filter 共q.v.兲.
⬁ ⬁
兰 ⫺⬁ G 共 t 兲 dt 兰 ⫺⬁ H 共 t 兲 dt crosscorrelation theorem: The Fourier transform of the
crosscorrelation of g 1 (t) and g 2 (t) is
For digital data this becomes
⬁ ␾ 12 共 f 兲 ↔Ḡ 1 共 f 兲 G 2 共 f 兲 ⫽⌽ 12 共 f 兲 ,
兺 ⫺⬁ G k H k⫹ ␶
␾ GH 共 ␶ 兲 ⫽ ⬁ ⬁ . where G 1 ( f ), G 2 ( f ), ␾ 12 ( ␶ ) are the Fourier trans-
兺 ⫺⬁ G k 兺 ⫺⬁ Hk
forms of g 1 (t), g 1 (t), ⌽ 12 ( f ), and the superscribed
The denominator in the above two expressions is the bar indicates a complex conjugate. Here ⌽ 12 ( f ) is
normalizing factor and is often omitted 共as in Wiener called the cross-energy spectrum. See Figure F-22 and
filtering兲. When normalized, a crosscorrelation of 1 Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 285, 538, and 541–542兲.
indicates a perfect match, values near zero indicate very cross-coupling effect: The effect in shipboard gravity
little correlation, and negative values indicate that one measurements produced by simultaneous accelerations
of the wavelets is inverted. Normalized crosscorrelation in two different directions.
is also called correlation coefficient. See also autocor- crosscut: A horizontal passageway driven from a drift to
relation. Unnormalized cross-correlation can be accom- an ore body.

FIG. C-17. Critical distance. Curvature of the reflection is hyperbolic if velocity above the reflector is constant. Reflec-
tion amplitude is often large in the vicinity of critical reflection and the phase of the reflection generally changes beyond
the critical distance.
cross dip 73 crossover

FIG. C-18. Crooked-line plot (computer drawn). Source points (squares) and geophones are laid out along a road,
there being one source point every third geophone group. Midpoints show as dots. A synthetic line made in processing
has cross-dashes showing the output trace spacing. The black boxes show midpoint locations that might be combined
to make a single trace by projecting (a) perpendicular to the line or (b) along strike. (Courtesy Grant Norpac.)

cross dip: The component of dip in the direction perpen-
dicular to a seismic line.
crossed dipole: A dipole array with orthogonal dipole
transmitters and receivers activated. Sensitive to azi-
muthal velocity variations that may be related to
fracture-induced stresses or anisotropy.
cross-energy spectrum: The Fourier transform of a cross-
correlation; see crosscorrelation theorem.
cross-equalizing: 1. Filtering one channel to match the
frequency spectrum of adjacent channels. The matching
involves a phase shift as well as an adjustment of the
amplitude of frequency components. Tends to align
coherent events better but may increase short-period
reverberations. 2. Filtering one data set to match the
frequency spectrum and arrival times of another data
set, as may be done with time-lapse sets in an effort to
match regions that have not been changed.
crossfeed: Crosstalk 共q.v.兲.
crosshole method: 1. A technique for investigating the
region between two or more boreholes by measuring
the transit times and/or amplitudes of P- and/or
S-waves from a source located in one borehole to
geophones in other boreholes. Usually implies cross-
hole tomography 共q.v.兲. Three-component geophones
may be used. 2. A technique for resistivity or electro-
magnetic measurements between boreholes, used for
fracture and cavity detection, reservoir studies, and
orebody delineation.
crosshole tomography: Reconstruction of an object from
wave projections using sources and receivers in differ-
ent boreholes. Traveltime tomography is based on
arrival times, attenuation tomography on amplitude,
and diffraction tomography 共q.v.兲 on the scattered
wavefield. See also tomography.
cross information: Information about the direction from
which an event approaches the spread, specifically the
component outside the plane of the section 共i.e., outside
of a vertical plane that includes the line兲. The objective
is to determine the orientation of the reflector in space;
see Figure C-19. Cross information is obtained with
cross-spreads, from intersecting seismic lines, from
crooked-line data, or in other ways.
crossing-points: Graphs of horizontal and vertical deriva-
tives of the magnetic field intersect at critical points that
have interpretation significance. Plots cross at two
points over dikes, at one point over contacts.
crossline: 1. The direction at right angles to the direction
in which the data were acquired. 2. Generally the direc-
tion parallel to that of the source lines in 3D surveys,
where receiver lines are perpendicular to source lines,
the direction of the receiver lines. 3. A vertical section
extracted from a 3D data volume in the crossline direc-
tion. 4. A cross-spread 共q.v.兲.
crossline smash: Stacking corresponding offset values for
velocity analysis.
crossover: 1. The reversal of the dip direction of the
electromagnetic field over the apex of a conductor. The
undisturbed electromagnetic field of stations in the
crossover distance 74 cross-spread

FIG. C-19. Cross information. Resolution of data from two nonorthogonal lines. The apparent dip seen on each line
is the component of dip in the direction of the line. For observation point A, reflecting point B is updip as indicated by the
dip-strike symbol.

plane of a vertical source loop that is horizontal. In the distance depending on the type of interaction. See cap-
presence of a subsurface conductor, the field will be ture cross-section.
horizontal over the apex but will have vertical compo- cross-spectrum: The expression of the mutual frequency
nents in opposite directions on either side of the con- properties of two time functions or series. The cross-
ductor. 2. The intersection of two curves. 3. The inter- spectrum is in general a complex-valued function and
section of two lines. hence involves a pair of real relationships; such as the
crossover distance: The source-to-receiver distance at amplitude and phase as functions of frequency. The real
which refracted waves following a deep high-speed part of the cross-spectrum is also called the cospec-
marker overtake direct waves or refracted waves that trum and the imaginary part the quadrature spec-
follow shallower markers. See Figure C-17. trum.
crossplot: A graph used to determine the relationship cross-spread: 1. A spread that makes a large angle 共often
between two different measurements. For example, a a right angle兲 with the line of traverse. The objective is
crossplot of porosity measured from one type of log
against porosity from another type of log 共Figure C-20兲
is used to show lithology or secondary porosity that
affects the two logs differently.
crosspower spectrum: The Fourier transform of the
cross-correlation function.
cross product: 1. A type of vector multiplication. If i, j,
and k are mutually orthogonal unit vectors so that two
vectors A and B may be expressed in terms of compo-
nents in these directions:
A⫽a 1 i⫹a 2 j⫹a3 k and B⫽b 1 i⫹b 2 j⫹b 3 k,
then the cross product A⫻B is orthogonal to both A
and B:
A⫻B⫽ 共 a 2 b 3 ⫺a 3 b 2 兲 i⫹ 共 a 3 b 1 ⫺a 1 b 3 兲 j
⫹ 共 a 1 b 2 ⫺a 2 b 1 兲 k.
Also called outer product. 2. The terms in an algebraic
multiplication that involve elements of different kinds;
e.g., 2ab is the cross product term in (a⫹b) 2 ⫽a 2
⫹2ab⫹b 2 .
cross-section: 1. A diagram showing the spatial relation of
elements in a vertical plane. 2. A geological diagram
showing the formations and structures cut by a vertical
plane. 3. A plot of seismic reflection events along a
seismic line. Events are usually 共but not always兲
migrated and the vertical scale is usually depth 共but FIG. C-20. Crossplot of different measurements on the
occasionally time兲. See plotted section. 4. A concept to same samples. In this example porosity from neutron-logs
represent the probability of collision between particles. is plotted against porosity from density-logs, showing
A particle has to pass within a certain distance of responses for different rock types. (Courtesy Schlum-
another particle for the two to interact, the effective berger.)
crosstalk
to obtain cross information, i.e., information about dip
perpendicular to the line, which will permit determining
the true direction from which energy reaches the spread
so that the true position of the reflector in space can be
determined. See Figure C-19. 2. A spread in the shape
of a cross; for example, a number of groups laid out in
line and perpendicularly. See Figure S-18.
crosstalk: 1. Crossfeed, interference resulting from the
unintentional pickup of one channel of information or
noise on another channel. 2. Specifically, interference
between the two sides of an acoustic system such as
side-scan sonar.
cross-track: Perpendicular to a seismic line.
cross validation: Estimating the reliability of kriged/
cokriged data by comparing predicted with actual val-
ues at locations that have not been involved in the
estimating process 共hidden data兲.
crosswell: See crosshole method.
crown block: See drill rig.
CRP: 1. Common Reflection Point. 2. Common Receiver
Point.
CRP gather: A set of traces having the same reflection
point.
CRT: Cathode-Ray Tube; also CRO 共Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope兲.
crude oil: Unrefined petroleum, i.e., oil as it comes from
the ground.
crust: The outermost shell of the Earth; the portion above
the Moho. The crust has a P-wave velocity that is
usually ⬍7 km/s and a mean density of 2.8 to 2.9
g/cm3. Continental crust 共acidic crust or sial兲 is gra-
nitic to gabbroic; oceanic crust 共basic crust or sima兲 is
basaltic. See Figure E-1.
crustal flexure hypothesis: A hypothesis that allows
some isostatic balance to be accommodated laterally by
the surrounding region rather than only vertically. Also
called the Vening Meinesz hypothesis. See isostasy.
cryogenic magnetometer: 共krı̄, ō gen’ ik兲 A magnetome-
ter that operates at the temperature of liquid nitrogen.
See SQUID magnetometer.
cryptochron: Very rapid magnetic-field reversal.
crystal clock: A clock that uses a crystal oscillator as a
reference frequency.
CSAMT: Controlled Source Audio-Magneto Telluric
technique. A technique similar to magnetotellurics in
the range 1 to 20 kHz using a source transmitter at least
five skin-depths distant from the receiver.
CSD: U.S. Continental Scientific Drilling Program.
CSEM: Controlled-Source ElectroMagnetics 共q.v.兲.
CSP: Common Source Point.
CSP gather: See common-scatterpoint (CSP) gather.
CT: Computerized Tomography 共q.v.兲.
cu: Capture Unit 共q.v.兲.
cube: A 3D volume of data, not generally cubic. A cube
view is a display that conveys the 3D aspect, such as a
perspective view.
cubic packing: A 3D arrangement of atoms described in
rectangular coordinates, with particles centered at each
location (n⌬,m⌬,p⌬) and only at such locations,
where ⌬⫽a constant and n,m,p are integers. Cubic
packing is not gravitationally stable.
cuesta: An erosional remnant with steep dip and scarp
slopes.
culture data: National/state/county/province boundary
75 current waveform
lines, lease lines, roads, buildings, power lines, etc.
cultural editing: Removing cultural effects; deculturing.
cultural magnetic anomalies: Local magnetic fields
caused by man-made features such as transmission and
telegraph lines, electric railways, steel drill casing,
pipelines, tanks, etc. Also called artificial magnetic
anomalies.
cultural noise: Man-made noise including the effects of
industrialization such as power lines.
curie: 共kyoor’ ē兲 A unit of radiation equal to 3.7⫻10 10
disintegrations/second, the number resulting from 1
gram of radium. Named for Maria Sklodowska Curie
共1867–1934兲, Polish-French physicist.
Curie depth: The depth in the earth at which the Curie
point 共q.v.兲 is reached, of the order of 30 km. Named for
Pierre Joliot-Curie 共1859–1906兲, French physicist.
Curie point: The temperature at which a material loses its
ability to retain magnetism, that is, where it changes
from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic behavior. Below
this temperature, atoms interact so that their magnetic
moments couple and behave collectively. At the Curie
temperature the atom’s thermal energy equals the cou-
pling energy, and above this temperature the atomic
magnetic moments are not coupled and the substance
behaves paramagnetically. The Curie temperature of
most rocks is approximately 550 °C which is usually
reached at depths of 30– 40 km. The analogous point
with antiferromagnetic materials is the Neel point.
Curie’s law: Magnetic susceptibility is inversely propor-
tional to the absolute temperature. This law applies
where dipoles are far enough apart that their interaction
is small, as in solutions of paramagnetic salts. In para-
magnetic solids the susceptibility is inversely propor-
tional to the difference between the temperature and the
Curie point, this latter fact being called the Curie-
Weiss law.
Curie-Weiss law: See Curie’s Law.
curl: The curl of the vector A is given by the vector
operation:
curl A⫽ⵜ⫻A,
where ⵜ is the operator del 共q.v.兲. Curl A is expressed
in rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates in
Figure C-14.
current channeling: Concentration of electrical current
flow observed in a magnetotelluric or controlled-source
EM survey caused by lateral variations in the local
resistivity structure. Also called current gathering.
Compare static shift.
current density: Current per unit cross-sectional area,
determined by the velocity and density of charge carri-
ers. Current density is a vector quantity, measured in
amperes per square meter.
current electrode: The A or B electrode in electrical log-
ging, resistivity, or IP surveying; see Figures A-18 and
E-10. Low electrical resistance of such contacts is
desirable to maximize the current into the ground.
current waveform: Electrical current as a function of
time as injected by a transmitter. A bipolar waveform
of positive and negative square-wave pulses separated
by off-times is used to avoid electrode polarization
effects.
cursor
cursor: 共kur’ s⳵r兲 An aiming device, such as a symbol
indicating the active point on a display or moveable
cross-hairs on a digitizer.
curvature: The rate of change of direction of a curve or
surface; the reciprocal of the radius of curvature R.
Curvature⫽1/R⫽ 共 d 2 y/dx 2 兲关 1⫹ 共 dy/dx 兲 2 兴 ⫺3/2 .
See Figure C-21.
curvature correction: Correction to gravity data to com-
pensate for Earth curvature because the Bouguer cor-
rection assumes a planar slab. See Bullard B gravity
correction.
curvature of gravity: A vector calculated from torsion-
balance data indicating the shape of an equipotential
surface. It points in the direction of the longer radius of
curvature.
curved path: A seismic raypath that is curved because
refraction changes the direction of the ray as the veloc-
ity changes. Increase in velocity with depth makes a
raypath concave upward.
curve fitting: Finding an analytic equation that approxi-
mates a set of data. The most common curve-fitting
technique is least-squares but other methods 共such as a
quadratic spline兲 are also used.
curve matching: An interpretation method whereby
observations are compared with master or type curves
共q.v.兲. Achieving a close fit implies that the actual
situation is similar to the model that the type curve
represents; this is not necessarily true because of inher-
ent ambiguity.
curve of maximum convexity: A diffraction curve 共q.v.兲.
curvilinear coordinates: A coordinate system that is not
rectangular. Cylindrical and spherical coordinates are
the most common orthogonal curvilinear coordinates.
See Figure C-14.
cusp: The pointed end of a line segment, especially the
points where two arcs intersect and terminate. The
limiting points where the direction sense reverses, as in
a triplication.
cut: To dilute, as may happen to drilling mud if formation
water or gas enters the hole.
CUT: Coordinated Universal Time, same as Greenwich
time 共q.v.兲.
cutoff: The frequency at which a filter response is down
by a predetermined amount, usually 3 dB. The cutoff
points designate the filter; e.g., an 18-57 filter has a
FIG. C-21. Curvature is the reciprocal of radius of curva-
ture. For small arcs, curvature is approximately 2h/S 2 .
76 cylindrical
low-frequency cutoff at 18 Hz and a high-frequency
cutoff at 57 Hz.
cuttings: Rock fragments dislodged by a drill bit and
brought to the surface by the drilling mud.
CVL: A Continuous-Velocity Log or sonic log 共q.v.兲.
CVL is a Birdwell tradename.
CVS: Constant Velocity Stack 共q.v.兲.
CW: Continuous Wave where successive cycles are
nearly identical. Usually 共but not necessarily兲 means
steady-state sinusoidal.
C-wave: 1. Converted wave 共q.v.兲, especially where mode
conversion occurs at the reflector; a PS- or SP-wave.
See Figure C-13. 2. Coupled wave 共q.v.兲.
cyan: 共sı̄’ ⳵n兲 One of the subtractive primary colors 共q.v.兲.
cybernetics: 共sı̄ b⳵r’ ned iks兲 1. Study of systems that
exhibit characteristics of human behavior. 2. The sci-
ence of control and communication between machines,
animals, and organizations. 3. The interaction between
automatic control and humans.
cycle: 1. The interval or distance before a function or
series repeats itself. Where the variable is time, a cycle
is one period; where the variable is distance, a cycle is
one wavelength. See Figure W-2. 2. A period of time
during which sea level falls from a highstand position
through a lowstand and returns to a highstand 共Van
Wagoner, 1995兲. 3. Milankovitch cycles 共q.v.兲.
cycle breadth: Period 共q.v.兲.
cycle-redundancy check: An error-detection scheme,
usually hardware implemented, in which a check char-
acter is generated by the remainder after dividing the
sum of all the bits in a block of data by a predetermined
number. The remainder is recalculated later to verify
that data have not been lost.
cycle skip: 1. Jumping a leg in correlating events, as may
occur in matching noncorresponding peaks in auto-
matic statics programs. 2. In sonic logging, the first
arrival may be strong enough to trigger one receiver but
not the other receiver, which may then be triggered by
a later cycle. The consequence is an abnormally high
calculated transit time. 3. Missing a cycle while count-
ing.
cycle stealing: A characteristic of direct memory access
devices. An input/output 共I/O兲 device can delay CPU
use of the I/O bus for one or more cycles while it
accesses memory.
cycle time: 1. The time required by a computer to cycle a
resource such as the arithmetic logic unit or memory.
The fundamental clock period of that resource. 2. The
time required by a computer to read from or write into
the system memory.
cyclic steam injection: An enhanced recovery method
where steam is injected into a formation to make vis-
cous hydrocarbons flow more readily. Steam is injected
for a time, followed by a soak period during which the
heat energy affects the surrounding formation, and then
the hydrocarbons are produced from the same well. The
pattern then repeats. Also called huff and puff.
cyclographic diagram: 共sı̄’ klō graf, ik兲 A sterographic
projection showing planes as great-circle intersections
of a sphere. Used in 3D structural representation. Also
called beta diagram. Compare pole diagram.
cylindrical: 1. Having symmetry so that measurements do
not depend on azimuth angle. 2. Two-dimensional
共q.v.兲.
cylindrical coordinates
cylindrical coordinates: See Figure C-14.
cylindrical divergence: Decrease in the amplitude of a
wave with distance because of geometrical spreading.
The energy spreads out as a wavefront expands in a
larger circle and hence the energy density varies
inversely as the distance. Surface waves undergo cylin-
drical divergence whereas body waves undergo spheri-
cal divergence.
77 cylindrical hydrophone
cylindrical hydrophone: A voltage is generated between
the outside and inside of a hollow cylinder of piezo-
electric material when subjected to radial pressure.
Such hydrophones are very stable and durable and their
sensitivity is independent of operating depth. Most
streamer hydrophones are of this type. See Figure H-12.