Case Analysis Final

Saint Mary’s University – Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING ARCHITECHTURE AND INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY– Civil Engineering Department
A
CASE STUDY
ON
CIVIL ENGINEERING COUNTERMEASURES ON DESTRUCTIVE EXTERNAL EARTH PROCESSES:

RIVER CUT BANK PROJECTS, MASS MOVEMENT PROJECTS, SHORELINE PROJECTS
Submitted to:
Engr. Irvin Paul Quines

Geology for Engineers Instructor
In Partial Fulfillment
Of The Requirements In The Subject:
CE 222: Geology for Engineers
Submitted by:
Agaloos, Mille Alfred

Hernandez, Mac Gilbert
Peňaranda, Lexther Jhon
Students
May 21, 2020
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CASE ANALYSIS 1: Various Civil Engineering Projects that Eradicates/Prevents River Cut Banks
INTRODUCTION
River bank erosion is one of the major and unpredictable hazards worldwide including in
Philippines. Soil detachment at river banks is due to two processes: hydraulic erosion imposed
by channel flow and sub aerial erosion due to the weakening and weathering of bank materials.
Over the past decade, there has been a dramatic increase of causes related to soil
erosion. Soil erosion, is a natural process that continuously occurs without any symptoms or
warning signs, and has been identified as a serious issue for decades. It is predicted to become
even more critical in the future as a result of uncontrolled development. Julien (2012)
hypothesized that the natural processes of erosion and sedimentation have been active
throughout geological time and have shaped the present landscape of our world. River bank
erosion would cause the riverbed to degrade and dump particles and sediments into receiving
water body. The bedform particles, along with river bank particles, would be detached from
their interlocking due to the action of water flow. The transportable particles would the start to
move and deposit at the downstream part of a river section (see Fig. 1). This process would
cause severe engineering and environmental problems if monitoring programs are not well-
managed and practiced.
Based on past researches, two major agents of erosion were found; wind and water
(Musa, Abdulwaheed, & Saidu, 2010). Water is perceived in many parts of the world as the
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most common agent of soil erosion. The influence of water as an agent includes the
degradation of river basin, landform and seashore. Water erodes soil and transports soil
particles from higher altitudes and deposits them in low lying areas. Water has been identified
as a major cause of soil erosion problems, compared to wind.
Philippines, due to its tropical rainforest climate relatively has a hot and humid
condition throughout the year and thus is identified to be prone to soil erosion. Soil resistance
against erosion is termed as soil erodibility and its value greatly depends on several factors such
as soil structure, infiltration levels and organic matter content. River bank erosions could lead
to the accumulation of sediment which in turn increases river pollution problems. The capacity
of sediments flushing depends on the rate of the river flow. The initiation of sediment
movement is highly anticipated by the action of velocity, bedform conditions and kinetic
energies at the river bed (Yang, 2006). If the shear stress imposed by the flow exceeds the
particle shear stress, then the particles start to move. More particles are transported if the
imposed shear by the flow action exceeds the particle shear stress. However, the imposed
shear by the action water flow starts to decrease at the downstream portion of river network
due to a tranquil flow. This phenomenon could lead to deposition or sedimentation at the
downstream part of the river network.
BODY
River bank erosion is the single most common problem at river which flows on alluvial
plain although the plain usually exists at lowland area. The erosion causes a lot of damage. That
can be seen from existence of meandering symptom at the river. The erosion will result in the
loss of land, or property, thus endangering people who live near the river (Siddeg AS, 2015).
Factors responsible for erosion are climate, topography, soil, Landover, land use and
management practices. Preventing or controlling soil erosion relies on selecting appropriate
strategies for soil conservation, which requires a thorough understanding of the process of
erosion. Many strategies for erosion control have been applied such as crop and vegetation
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management and soil management. However, the plant cover and the presence or absences of
conservation measures influence very much the rate of erosion.
Land degradation is a process that lowers the capacity of land. According to FAO, there
are six types of land degradation: water erosion, wind erosion, soil fertility decline, salinization,
water logging, and lowering of the water table. The unbalance between land resource
regeneration rate and population growth rate leads to lack of suitable land for agriculture.
Unless soil conservation and management practices are implemented properly, soil erosion can
cause loss of plant nutrient, weak soil aggregation and finally low agriculture production.
Improper land use practices in sloping areas accelerate soil erosion.
Soil erosion not only reduces soil depth, but also reduces the capacities of soil such as
water holding capacity, and decreased plant nutrient. In the long term, soil productivity will be
decreased. Furthermore, it can cause offsite effects including pollution in water, downstream
sediment in river bank and reservoirs
ENGINEERING APPROACHES
I. RIVER STABILIZATION
River-stabilization structures are designed to protect the riverbanks and prevent lateral
migration of alluvial channels through bank erosion. River-stabilization methods can be
classified according to two different approaches:
 strengthening the banks and

 reducing hydrodynamic forces.
According to the process of quantifying the use potential of land on the basis of its biotic
and abiotic attributes plays an important role in the rational and sustainable use of natural
resources. A fundamental challenge of sustaining the productivity, biodiversity and integrity of
ecosystems regionally and globally is to ensure that local decision makers including individual
land users, groups, or institutions use the quantification of the biophysical potential of
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ecosystems obtained by land evaluation. On the other hand, the quantifying soil respiration in
response to short-term tillage practices and climate change plays a large role in the erosion of
the soil.
a. Bank Erosion Processes
Processes of bank erosion are directly linked to the lateral migration of alluvial channels.
Bank erosion is the result of flowing water that applies active forces met by the passive forces
of the bank material to resist motion. The hydrodynamic forces in river bends induce secondary
flow where the free-surface streamlines are deflected toward the outer bank and the near-bed
streamlines are deflected toward the inner bank. Along a cross section, the streamlines are
deflected downward near the outer bank and deflected upward on the point bar. The resulting
effect is to decrease the stability of sediment particles and cause degradation near the outer
bank. On the other hand, the particle-stability increases and aggradation is expected near the
point bar. The scour at the toe of the outer bank shifts the thalweg to the outside of river bends
and causes steepening of the outer bank. Increased steepening of the outer-bank material
causes bank failure. Three modes of failure are typical of alluvial rivers, as sketched in Fig. 1.
With non-cohesive granular material, grain removal at the toe of the outer-bank induces sliding
of the granular material as soon as the bank angle exceeds the angle of repose of the material
[Fig. 1(a)]. In the case of cohesive bank material, rotational failure is typical and the presence of
tension cracks may accelerate the bank-erosion process [Fig. 8.1(b)]. In alluvial streams flowing
in stratified deposits, the underlying non-cohesive material is mobilized, thus leaving the
overlying cohesive material unsupported and subject to tension cracks and cantilever failure
[Fig. 1(c)]. In general, the most erosive banks are sandy and silty, whereas the least erosive are
clayey and gravelly.
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Figure 1. Bank
Failure types
Factors affecting streambank failure include hydraulic parameters that control the active
forces such as discharge magnitude and duration, velocity, and applied shear-stress magnitude
and orientation. Additional active forces that are due to seepage, piping, surface waves, and ice
can also contribute to bank erosion. Passive forces relate to bank-material size, gradation, and
cohesion. Biological factors such as vegetation can play a significant stabilizing role. Artificially-
induced activities such as urbanization, drainage, floodplain farming and development, boating
and commercial navigation, and water-level fluctuations from hydropower generation can have
detrimental effects on bank stability.
B. Slope Reduction and Benching
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Figure 2. Slope-reduction methods
The weight of soil at the toe of the slope counterbalances the weight of soil in the upper
part of the slope and aids the shear strength of the soil in resisting against failure. Direct slope
reduction is an excavation method whereby soil is removed from the slope to flatten the slope
angle, as shown in Fig. 2(a). This method is usually preferred when adequate space is available
on the floodplain. Where there is insufficient space, the slope may be flattened by use of fill
material, as shown in Fig. 2(b), or by cut-and-fill operations, as shown in Fig. 2(c). Slope, or
buttress, benching is also an indirect method of slope reduction. It differs from the method
described above only in the final shape of the slope section. The benching method produces a
benched or a series of stepped sections, as shown by Fig. 2(d). The end effect of this method is
a gross reduction in the angle of the slope.
C. SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE
The control of groundwater within a slope is often a feasible means of stabilizing the
slope. The control of groundwater may be achieved by two methods: (1) the prevention of
infiltration of surface water into soils, and (2) the provision for subsurface drainage to remove
the water from the soil mass. The first method is generally accomplished by merely providing
adequate surface drainage. The second method uses various subsurface-drainage techniques.
Subsurface drains are most effective when only a small quantity of water is required to
be removed to affect stabilization. A thin confined aquifer can be intercepted to reduce the
artesian pressure. Horizontal drains consist of a slotted pipe to remove excessive water from
cut slopes experiencing stability problems. Figure 8.3(a) shows an idealized concept for the
application of horizontal drains to streambank stability.
Stabilization of highway cut slopes frequently involves the use of a combination of

horizontal and vertical drainage systems. Vertical drains can be utilized in riverbank
stabilization, as sketched in Fig. 8.3(b). The main function of a drain-well installation is to
intercept groundwater moving toward the bank and thus to relieve pore pressures that would
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otherwise develop in a saturated fine-grained bank material. Usually this high-cost concept is
applicable only in cases in which high groundwater levels exist above
Figure 3. Riverbank drainage methods.
II. RIVERBANK RIPRAP REVETMENT
Several engineering methods can be used to strengthen riverbanks against erosion.

Methods commonly encountered include the use of riprap or large stones that are not easily
removed from the banks. Besides riprap in this section, the other methods are vegetation,
gabions, blocks and rocks, rock-fill trenches, windrow revetment, soil cement, fences,
bulkheads, and mattresses.
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When economically available in sufficient size and quantity, rock riprap is usually the
most widely used material for bank protection. A rock riprap blanket is flexible and is neither
impaired nor weakened by slight movement of the bank resulting from settlement or other
minor adjustments. Local damage or loss is easily repaired by the placement of more rock.
Construction is not complicated, and special equipment and construction practice are not
necessary. Riprap is usually durable and recoverable and may be stockpiled for future use.
Locally available riprap usually provides a cost-effective alternative to many other types of bank
protection. The appearance of rock riprap is natural, and after a period of time vegetation will
grow between the rocks. Finally, wave run-up on rock slopes is usually less than on other types
of structures. The important factors to be considered in designing rock riprap blanket
protection are: (1) the velocity (both magnitude and direction) of the flow or shear stress in the
vicinity of the rock; (2) the side slope of the bank line being protected; (3) the density of the
rock; (4) the angle of repose for the rock, which depends on stone shape and angularity; (5) the
durability of the rock; (6) the riprap blanket thickness; (7) the filter needed between the bank
and the blanket to allow seepage but to prevent erosion of bank soil through the blankets; (8)
the blanket stabilization at the toe of the bank; and (9) the blanket must be tied into the bank
at its upstream and downstream ends.
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a. Riprap gradation
The concept of a representative grain size for riprap is fairly simple. A uniformly graded
riprap with a median size d50 scours to a greater depth than a well-graded mixture with the
same median size. The uniformly distributed riprap scours to a depth at which the velocity is
less than that required for the transportation of d50 size rock. The well-graded riprap, on the
other hand, develops an armor plate; that is, some of the finer materials, including sizes up to
d50 and larger, are transported by the high velocities, leaving a layer of large rock sizes that
cannot be transported under the given flow conditions. Thus, the size of rock representative of
the stability of the riprap is determined by the larger sizes of rock.
III. RIVERBANK PROTECTION

a. Vegetation
Vegetation is probably the most natural method for protecting streambanks. It is less
expensive than most structural methods and it improves environmental conditions for wildlife.
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The presence of vegetation below the water surface can effectively protect a bank in two ways.
First, the root system helps to hold the soil together and increases overall bank stability by
forming a binding network. Vegetation takes water from the soil, providing additional capacity
for infiltration, and may improve bank stability by water withdrawal. Second, the exposed
stalks, stems, branches, and foliage provide resistance to the streamflow, causing the flow to
lose energy by deforming the plants rather than by removing soil particles. Dense vegetation
reduces flow velocities and induces deposition. Above the water surface, vegetation prevents
surface erosion by absorbing the impact of falling raindrops.
Using planted vegetation for streambank erosion control also has its limitations. These
may include the following: (1) their failure to grow; (2) they are subject to undermining; (3) they
may not withstand alternate periods of wetting and drying for varied durations; (4) they may be
uprooted by freezing and thawing of ice; and (5) they may suffer wildlife or livestock damage
b. Retaining walls
Retaining walls are near-vertical structures designed to prevent streambank erosion or
failure. Vertical retaining walls provide a substantial increase in waterfront land area and often
improve the access to water. Although some soils may be relatively stable in a vertical
embankment under dry conditions, wet soils are unstable in a vertical embankment. Retaining
walls, have been classified into three distinct types, discussed below: (1) gravity walls; (2)
cantilever walls; and (3) sheet-piling walls.
Figure 5. Gravity wall Figure 6. Reinforced cantilevered walls
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Figure 7. Sheet-piling walls

Gravity walls are massive walls that rely on their mass to restrain the movement of soil.
The walls are constructed to such proportions that any developed soil or hydrostatic pressures
that would tend to cause movement or failure of the wall are resisted by the weight of the wall
and resultant shear forces that develop at the base of the wall.
The concrete walls in Fig. 5 (a) are usually designed such that no tension is developed
within the concrete and no reinforcing steel is required for their construction. This type of wall
has been successfully adapted to the construction of very large walls.
Retaining walls constructed of stone-filled gabions in Fig. 5 (c) are another type of
gravity wall. Gabions are baskets made of metal mesh or geotextiles that are filled with stone
and have wide usage in hydraulic structures. To form a wall, the gabions are simply stacked
atop one another in such a number as to provide sufficient mass to retain the soil within a
streambank.
The timber crib walls in Fig. 5 (d) are similar to common fence construction except that
all wood should be treated with a preservative to minimize deterioration that is due to
repetitive wetting and drying or insect activity and the toe of the crib should always be
protected with riprap.
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Caissons, or large “boxes” of reinforced concrete in Fig. 5 (e) are constructed on land
and then floated to the site and flooded and sunk to form a continuous wall. The caisson is then
filled with concrete or compacted sand to provide the mass required for stability.
A cantilever wall refers to a reinforced concrete base with a stem wall cantilevered
upward from the base. The stem is designed to resist the lateral earth and hydrostatic forces.
The soil above the base provides mass to resist movement. Reinforced concrete is required for
strengthening cantilevered walls. The wall stem may be supported or stiffened by buttresses
fronting the wall or by counterforts behind the wall, as shown in Fig. 6.
Sheet-piling walls are sometimes referred to as flexible walls or flexible bulkheads. As

shown in Fig. 7, the walls are normally constructed by driving of the sheet piling and then
excavation of the earth fronting the wall. Although wooden and reinforced concrete sheet
piling have been used, steel sheet piling is most commonly used. Because of the limited
stiffness of the sheet piling and the resulting large deflections, the height of these walls is
somewhat restricted.
III. RIVER FLOW-CONTROL STRUCTURES
Flow-control structures are designed to reduce hydrodynamic forces against

streambanks by controlling the direction, velocity, or depth of flowing water. Among the most
important properties of a flow-control structure is its degree of permeability. As used here, the
term “permeable” means that a structure has definite openings through which water is
intended to pass. An impermeable structure may deflect a current entirely, whereas a
permeable structure may serve mainly to reduce the flow velocity. Structures made of riprap,
or filled with riprap, have some degree of permeability, but these are classed as impermeable
because they act essentially as impermeable barriers to a rapidly moving current of water.
Types of flow-control structures include hardpoints, spurs, guidebanks, retards, dikes, jetties,
fences, vanes, bendway weirs, and drop structures.
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BIOENGINEERING APPROACHES
I. POLE PLANTINGS
Pole plantings, or live stakes, provide an inexpensive approach to bank stabilization. Stakes can
often be cut from on-site or nearby vegetation and are installed by hand. Live stakes (e.g.
willow) generally require a shallow water table, often a feature of riparian areas. They require
1-2 years to establish roots and resist erosion.
II. COIR ROLLS
In lieu of rock or cement,

coir logs, made of soil and geotextile fabric, can be used as structural members, as
protection from scour, and as a substrate for vegetation to grow on and eventually
stabilize.
Below Willow
are designHarvesting & Design
sketches showing pole plantings tucked into the bank in between the
coir rolls. Sketch
This vegetation will eventually sprout, providing increased resistance to erosion
and stabilizing the bank over the long term.
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An example of coir rolls is shown on the right. Grass has been planted in the rolls. Rock
has been placed on the bank toe for added protection from scour. Often the best design
solution couples hard design elements such as this with bioengineering techniques.
III. TREE AND BRUSH REVETMENT
Often more resistant material is necessary to protect the bank toe from scour. In place
of field stone, an economical approach (in terms of materials and labor) involves revetment
with anchored trees and brush.
Woody material can be anchored into the stream bed (as shown below) or tied into the
bank using an excavator if such resources are available. Other bioengineering treatments
must be used to stabilize the upper bank slope.
A community funded and constructed project, installed with hand labor, is shown on
the right. Clearly this approach is most appropriate in smaller streams and rivers.
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CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATIONS
Engineering Approaches
– Advantages:
 Protected rivers improve water quality

 Durable, highly stable, can give rise to vegetation
 Local damages can be prevented
-example: Farms
– Disadvantages:
• Need construction practice and restricted to some design parameter
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• Need manpower, materials, equipment
• Comparatively costly
Bioengineering Approaches
Use of live vegetation and woody material for bank stabilization. Often less costly in
terms of materials (locally sourced), labor (often hand labor), and, once established,
maintenance. Requires time (several seasons) to establish, but self maintaining and re-
generating once establish.
CASE ANALYSIS 2: Various Civil Engineering Project that Eradicates/Prevents Mass Movement
INTRODUCTION
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Mass Movement, also known as Mass wasting, comprises gravity-induced downslope

movement of the loose uncompacted surface material such as soil, dirt, and mud. This mass
movement is a rapid or gradual sinking of a part of the Earth’s crust which typically occurs along
hillsides or the mountains. The enormous failure of slope masses such as rock, debris soils and
snow/ice are called mass movement (Parkash, National Institute of Disaster Management, New
Delhi). The term mass wasting was formerly referred to as the movement of a large portion of
crustal materials from one place to another. However, the term mass movement recently
includes mass wasting processes such as the sinking of some areas of the Earth’s ground
surface. It can occur due to various reasons such as the angle of repose or the slope of the hill,
earthquakes, lack of vegetation, overabundance of water, geology or the rock type, and of
course due to gravity (Mass Movement: Definition, Types & Examples, 2015). Even so, the
movement of water that contains minimal sediment load, downhill slopes and in rivers wherein
the flow is basically caused by a function of fluid dynamics which is a part of fluvial
geomorphology and hydrology therefore is eliminated from the definition of mass movement
(Griffiths, 2018).
Some reasons that triggers these debris flows, rock flows and mudflow landslides either
naturally like heavy precipitation or unnaturally like the vibrations coming from heavy vehicles
and the man-made modification of the hillslopes (Geology for Global Development, n.d.). The
variability in types of mass movements are also influenced by several independent factors such
as the uneven volume of sediment supply, the frequency of failures, the sediment thickness
involved in the failures, the slope gradients and the proximity to earthquake epicenters (Casas
et al., 2003). The cause of these movements may vary depending on what might trigger the
affected area but the one thing that is common about them is that they all can pose a great
threat to everyone that is near the same area.
There are various styles of mass movements such as falls, slides, flows, and creep, which
only differs in their fluid content, size, amount of material in transport, and rate (Stetler 2014).
Mass movement is considered as one of the most grievous forms of natural disasters. These
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movements can cause landslides, rockfalls, debris flows, mudflows, soil and rock avalanching,
and slow deformational creep, which make these mass movements one of the most prevalent
hazards which is responsible for thousands of deaths and destruction of lots of properties.
Sufficient understanding of mass movement behavior is important for managing related risks,
and considerable information about the evolution of the movement can be obtained by further
investigation of the deformation of the slope surfaces (Gili et al. 2000; Brückl et al. 2006; Baldi
et al. 2008; Teza et al. 2008; Sun et al. 2013). According to United Nations’ Space-based
Information for Disaster Management and Emergency Response (UN-SPIDER), these mass
movements are also sometimes associated with other disasters such as earthquakes, floods,
thunderstorms and heavy rainstorms. Thus, finding a way to control these dangerous mass
movements is a must.
BODY
As these movements pose a recurring hazard to human life and livelihood in various
parts of the world, it is consoling to think that we can prevent some effects of these mass
movements by preventive methods. However, the prevention for these movements is not for
the long run as it is a natural and ongoing process but there are actions that we can take to
reduce or mitigate the effects on people and infrastructure (Earle). There are various
engineering solutions that can be used as anticipatory means to be able to avoid the hazardous
effects of these mass movements. Proper design during construction of these engineering
solutions such as barriers and retaining walls, drainage pipe, terracing the slope to reduce
steepness, and revegetation eliminates the potential for increased mass movement.
Slopes in general are, if being triggered by an event, are prone to mass movement
hazards. Thus, all slopes must be evaluated for potential landslide hazards. Mass movements
can be prevented by making use of engineering techniques to make the slope more stable.
Some of the techniques are:
Geogrid
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One factor that affects these mass movements is the climate change as it locally
increases the intensity of rainfall increasing the frequency of fast-moving shallow landslides
(Rotaru et. al, 2007). Water content within slope plays an important role in the stability of a
slope. In addition, water acts as a lubricant as it increases the weight of the surface materials of
the earth. In order to avoid hazardous effects of these, geogrid is used as materials for control
for it ensures the soil’s capacity to grow plants, reduced the damage that caused by heavy rains
and wind in slope embankments. Geogrids is one most popular type of geosynthetics used in
the industry of the construction of roads for mechanical stabilization and reinforcement
purposes (Tutumluer et. Al, 2009). These Geosynthetics are widely used as materials for
separation, protection, drainage, filtration and sealing.
In order to create stable panoramic building sites on the dramatic hill of San Bruno
California within 300 feet of the San Andreas fault, the design and construction are described
by a geogrid system (Elhiau 13). The Geogrid system used had the advantage of developing its
strength and stability from the reinforced soil mass instead of relying solely upon the integrity
of the outboard weathered bedrock to be able to support the wall foundation. The geogrid that
is used in the wall system has been proven as a cost-effective scheme and aesthetical pleasing
design alternative for a site with significant slope, geologic and soil constraints.
Retaining Wall
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To be able to stabilize the slopes surrounding a property building a retaining wall is a

great scheme to use, these are hard-working structures to fight a constant battle of gravity. One
of the most common functions of a retaining wall is to stop mass movements on hillsides to be
able to control it. Civil engineers build retaining walls to create usable roadways as it can
provide environmental benefits, like reducing erosion and protecting areas from being
saturated (Soil Science Society of America, 2017). Retaining walls are designed to stop an active
earth pressure, usually a toe wall which is a type of a retaining wall found at the base of a slope
(DFID, 1999, 160 p.).
The 10-mile slide, part of the ancient Tunnel earthflow (Bovis 1985), that causes
landslides in British Columbia, Canada for over 4 decades, which is requiring maintenance work
along the highway and a railway track cross the sliding mass. A retaining wall was installed to
prevent mass movements caused by potential loosening of materials related with the slope
deformations and to delay recurring landslide retrogression (Carla et. Al, 2017).
Shotcrete Wall
Shotcrete walls, is widely used as rock support, are structural earth retaining
components for soldier piles and soil nail walls. Usually used in rock support in mines and civil
engineering projects. There is also a potential that a shotcrete wall can be used as a
replacement for cast-in-place (CIP) concrete for elements like retaining walls and soldier pile
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walls, considering its economic benefits and good long-term performance are demonstrated in
comparison with CIP concrete (Qiao and Zhou, 2015). The adhesion between the shotcrete and
the rock is one of the most important properties in many cases. Shotcrete is conveyed from
delivery equipment through a hose, and projected pneumatically at high velocity onto a surface
usually on hillside or slope to prevent slope failure (Malmgren et al, 2005). It is an excellent
choice for stabilizing earth and rock excavations. However, this scheme is only possibly limited
to early age drying shrinkage cracking and debonding that can be derived from reinforcing bars
or existing structures, and long-term durability concerns (Qiao and Zhou, 2015).
An excavation work was needed along Route 62 in Algonquin, Ill., which is being
widened to four lanes. In connection with this, the contractor for Schnabel Foundation Co.,
Cary, Ill., used an innovative method combining earth anchors and shotcrete to temporarily
shore a deep roadside excavation. The workers for the excavation performed the shoring work
in 5-foot increments down to grade and plastic drains were installed against the embankment
to relieve hydraulic pressure created by groundwater.
Drainage Controls
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As it was already mentioned, ultimately preventing mass movements is impossible as far

as gravity still exists, but innovation can help minimize the risk and hazard. One component in
order to prevent these movements is the drainage control system. Correction of some slop
instability is possible and this is accomplished by installing a drainage system, which reduces
water pressure in the slope, thereby preventing further movement (Keller, 2000). Remember
increase in water reduces the shear strength of the soil and can develop landslides and is the
most common landslides problems (Rotaru et. al, 2007). In building a retaining wall the design
and performance of it are based on keeping the area behind the wall relatively dry. To ensure
the quality of the project, the soils used must not become saturated while in the construction
stage and the final design must route water away from the back of the wall. If the soil behind a
wall is saturated, and the wet soil freezes and thaws multiple times, the wall can have cracks
because of that that is why a drainage control is as important as the retaining wall. The
drainage system that was planned must be able to effectively divert water away from the slope
without affecting the stability of the slope or causing further mass movement like erosion.
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Landslip Preventive Measures (LPM) program in Hong Kong
According to the Institution of Civil Engineers, the recurring landslides in Hong Kong
made their government start a slope retro-fitting project – known as Landslip Preventive
Measures and mitigation (LPMit) program in 2010. The LPM project aimed to reduce risks from
landslides by upgrading manmade slopes to modern safety standards and this scheme reduced
the chance of landslide in Hong Kong by 75%.
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Engineers working on LPMit generally works with a technique called soil nailing to make
slopes safer. It is amongst the most common used techniques for slope stabilization. The
concept of soil nailing involves the creation pf a stable block of composite material by
strengthening the in-situ ground with soil nails (Pun and Urciuoli). The developed technique by
a working group at the Hong Kong Institute of Engineers (HKIE) constitutes soil nailing sees steel
bars driven through the looser top layer of soil – known as fill material – into the more solid
ground beneath. It involves the use of a grid like structure of steel – known as surface grillage –
that connects the heads of the soil nails together and keeps them in place.
According to ICE, Soil nailing can mean less effort than other methods which could
involve major excavation works like cutting back a slope or digging up earth to replace it with
denser soil. The scheme also made it easier to upgrade a slope when a project team is working
height or close to buildings or roads.
Rock Bolts
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Another widely used primary support system to stabilize the rock masses around tunnel,
underground mine galleries, slopes, and others structure made in rock masses is a Rock Bolt
(Deb and Das, 2015). This technique involves bolting unstable rock to increase stability and
prevent slippage as it uses metallic bolts, tie-rods, and steel soil nails into the cliff (Cliff
strengthening, 2015). In addition, rock bolts are used to reinforce masses through restraining
the deformation within rock and reduces the yield region around the excavation boundary (Deb
and Das, 2015). It is suited to reduces mass movements like rockslides and collapses and also
reduces net erosion rates. It has been an important component of the supporting system, rock
bolts have been used to support and stabilize engineering structures slopes, retaining walls,
tunnels, bridge abutments, dam foundations, and underground excavations (Song et. all, 2017).
However, Rock bolting can be complicated to implement and therefore costly. Located
downtown Brisbane, Australia is the Kangaroo View Point which has a rugged cliff constructed
with rock bolts in order to avoid slope instability.
CONCLUSION
May it be a natural phenomenon or with the interference of human activities, mass

movement poses a great threat to those who are living near the affected area. The downslope
movement of large amounts of earth’s surface material by gravity creates disastrous events
that could affect lives and structures within its reach. Styles of mass wasting may differ with the
26 | 36
fluid content, size and amount of material in transport and some examples includes falls, slides,
flows, and creep. Different styles and origin of the movement must be identified and
researched to be able to know what’s the best preventive measure to use. In order to avoid
risk and disaster, infrastructures should not be built on unstable slopes and, if there is no other
choice, the cuts and fills that upset slope equilibrium must be kept to a minimum. In these
cases, it is a must to say that preventive methods are the most important.
Mass movement control tends to be both expensive and far from simple for some
techniques have high start-up cost as they require preliminary studies and specialized private
contractors to be hired. Even though preventing mass movements for a lifetime is impossible,
there is a way to be able to control it and these schemes to control slope stability must be
preventive enough to last in the long run. In order to minimize landslide risk and hazards
considering three steps could be a great help; identification of potential areas, prevention of
mass movements, and corrective measures when a mass movement occurs (Keller, 2000).
Fortunately, engineering methods can be used to help prevent slope failure. The effects of mass
movements on people and structures can be lessened by avoiding or by restricting conditions
on hazard-zone activity. Most of these techniques such as the geogrid, retaining wall, shotcrete
wall, drainage control allows significant reduction of mass movements and has been proven to
be helpful through the years. It is such a comfort to think that it is possible to prevent some
effects of mass wasting by the means of Engineering methods. The preventive methods on the
mass movements is a worthy endeavor for the reason that during the time that the methods
are still effective they can save lives and reduce damage to property and infrastructure.
27 | 36
CASE ANALYSIS 3: Various Civil Engineering Project that Eradicates/Prevents Shoreline

Retreat
INTRODUCTION
Shoreline retreat or coastal erosion is a “natural process that continually reshapes

shoreline through ocean currents, tidal movements, and wind and wave action” (Airoldi et al.,
2005). It is a result of human activities and natural environment changes making the coastal
dynamic action (wave, current, wind) lose balance in the coastal process, and the long-term loss
of sediments of coastal zone results in the destruction process of coastline retreat and beach
erosion (Ye Yincan et al, 2017). Some examples of the natural process of coastal erosion are
landslides and cliff retreat. Landslides and cliff retreat are part of the natural process of coastal
erosion along the shore. Waves that undercut bluffs often initiate landslides (American
Geosciences Institute, 2020). Bluff is a steep cliff overlooking a plain or body of water, it may be
composed of beach sand, or soil or a rock formation. The most vulnerable coasts are those
made up of unconsolidated sediments, such as beaches, dunes and sand cliffs, on open coasts
that experience net longshore drift of sediment and on the shores of coastal lakes and lagoons
(Geoscience Australia, n.d.).
The biggest factor affecting coastal erosion is the strength of the waves breaking along
the coastline. A wave’s strength is controlled by its fetch and the wind speed. Longer fetches &
stronger winds create bigger, more powerful waves that have more erosive power. As waves
approach a coastline they lose energy though because friction with the seabed increases. This
means that the bathymetry (the underwater elevation) of the ocean or sea bed also impacts
the strength of waves. Certain landforms further reduce wave’s erosive
power. Beaches increase the distance a wave travels before it reaches the coastline’s cliffs and
so reduces its energy. Headlands refract waves around them, reducing their erosive power at
one location while increasing it at another. Weathering also plays a role in the rate of erosion
by creating weaknesses in rocks that are exploited by the processes of erosion. Freeze-thaw
28 | 36
weathering, for example, creates cracks in rocks, increasing the rock’s susceptibility to hydraulic
action (Jackson, 2014).
There are five main processes of coastal erosion. These are corrasion, abrasion,
hydraulic action, attrition and corrosion/solution. Corrasion happens when destructive waves
pick up beach material such as pebbles and hurl them at the base of a cliff. Over time this can
loosen cliff material forming a wave-cut notch. Abrasion occurs as breaking waves,
concentrated between the high and low watermarks, which contain sand and larger fragments
wear away the base of a cliff or headland. It is commonly known as the sandpaper effect. This
process is particularly common in high-energy storm conditions. Waves hitting the base of a cliff
causes air to be compressed in cracks, joints and folds in bedding planes causing repeated
changes in air pressure. As air rushes out of the cliff when the wave retreats it leads to an
explosive effect as pressure is released. This process is supported further by the weakening
effect of weathering. The material breaks off cliffs, sometimes in huge chunks. This process is
known as hydraulic action (Internet Geography, n.d.). Attrition is when material such as rocks
and stones carried by waves hit and knock against each other wearing them down. As these
materials are worn down sand and rounded beach pebbles are formed (Geological Survey
Ireland, 2020). Corrosion/solution is the slight acidity of sea water causing bits of the cliff to
dissolve (Jha, 2018).
Techniques that try to prevent beach erosion revolve around methods to limit the
removal of sediment along specific areas of the coast or involve adding material to areas
undergoing erosion. Examples includes:
Jetties
A jetty is a long, narrow structure that protects a coastline from the currents and tides.
Jetties are usually made of wood, earth, stone, or concrete. They stretch from the shore into
the water. Jetties protect the shoreline of a body of water by acting as a barrier against erosion
from currents, tides, and waves. This strucure can also be used to connect the land with deep
29 | 36
water farther away from shore for the purposes of docking ships and unloading cargo. This type
of jetty is called a pier. Jetties can be popular tourist attractions. They usually provide safe
access to coastal areas (National Geographic Society, n.d.). On coastlines with strong longshore
currents and longshore sediment transport, jetties also function to arrest the crosscurrent and
direct it across the entrance in deeper water where it represents less hazard to
navigation(Cornell et al, n.d.).
Groins
Groins are man-made structures designed to trap sand as it is moved down the beach by
the longshore drift. As the longshore drift current approaches the groin, it is forced to slow
down and change direction. This chance in velocity causes sand suspended in the current to be
deposited on the up-drift side of the groin. As the current then continues around the groin, it
becomes turbulent and actually contributes to erosion on the down-drift side of the groin.
Although groins trap sand, the erosion they cause makes them detrimental to a beach
environment (An Educator’s Guide to Folly Beach, South Carolina, n.d.). A groin can be
successful in stabilizing a beach on the updrift side, but erosion tends to be aggravated on the
downdrift side, which is deprived by the groin structure of replenishment by drifting sand.
Partly to counteract this tendency, often multiple groins are built in so-called groin fields, which
can stabilize a larger beach area (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, n.d.).
30 | 36
Breakwater
Breakwater is an artificial offshore

structure protecting a harbour, anchorage,
or marina basin from water waves.
Breakwaters intercept longshore currents and
tend to prevent beach erosion. Over the long
term, however, the processes of erosion and sedimentation cannot be effectively overcome by
interfering with currents and the supply of sediment. (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica,
n.d.). They were mostly designed with gentle slopes and relatively large armor units that were
mainly stabilized by their own weight (Sustainable Industrial Design and Waste Management,
2007).
Seawall
31 | 36
A structure separating land and water areas. It is designed to prevent coastal erosion
and other damage due to wave action and storm surge, such as flooding. Seawalls are normally
very massive structures because they are designed to resist the full force of waves and storm
surge. In practice, seawalls and revetments are synonyms (Karsten, 2019). A
large seawall effectively acts as a form of coastal defense by redirecting the energy of a wave
made by a storm surge back to the ocean water. Seawalls are often used at locations off
exposed city fronts, where good protection are needed and where space is scarce. In the
coming years seawalls will be used on coastlines worldwide in the defense of rising sea levels
from Global Warming (Galloway, 2020).
Conclusion
Techniques that try to prevent beach erosion revolve around methods to limit the
removal of sediment along specific areas of the coast or involve adding material to areas
undergoing erosion. Examples include jetties, groins, breakwaters and seawalls. Jetties and
groins are artificial structures built perpendicular to the shoreline to prevent longshore drift.
32 | 36
Breakwaters and seawalls are artificial structures built parallel to the shoreline in order to
protect the shore from wave action. Unfortunately, nearly all these methods have shortcomings
(American Geosciences Institute, 2020). Preventing coastal erosion permanently is impossible
but through the help of these engineering structures, the effects of the activities that destroys
coastlines are lessen and coastal erosions are prevented even for a short period of time.
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36 | 36

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Saint Mary’s University – Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING ARCHITECHTURE AND INFORMATION

CIVIL ENGINEERING COUNTERMEASURES ON DESTRUCTIVE EXTERNAL EARTH PROCESSES:

Engr. Irvin Paul Quines

Agaloos, Mille Alfred

May 21, 2020

managed and practiced.

 strengthening the banks and

a. Bank Erosion Processes

B. Slope Reduction and Benching

Figure 2. Slope-reduction methods

Stabilization of highway cut slopes frequently involves the use of a combination of

Figure 3. Riverbank drainage methods.

II. RIVERBANK RIPRAP REVETMENT

Several engineering methods can be used to strengthen riverbanks against erosion.

III. RIVERBANK PROTECTION

Figure 5. Gravity wall Figure 6. Reinforced cantilevered walls

Figure 7. Sheet-piling walls

Sheet-piling walls are sometimes referred to as flexible walls or flexible bulkheads. As

III. RIVER FLOW-CONTROL STRUCTURES

Flow-control structures are designed to reduce hydrodynamic forces against

II. COIR ROLLS

In lieu of rock or cement,

III. TREE AND BRUSH REVETMENT

 Protected rivers improve water quality

• Need construction practice and restricted to some design parameter

• Need manpower, materials, equipment

Mass Movement, also known as Mass wasting, comprises gravity-induced downslope

To be able to stabilize the slopes surrounding a property building a retaining wall is a

As it was already mentioned, ultimately preventing mass movements is impossible as far

Landslip Preventive Measures (LPM) program in Hong Kong

May it be a natural phenomenon or with the interference of human activities, mass

CASE ANALYSIS 3: Various Civil Engineering Project that Eradicates/Prevents Shoreline

Shoreline retreat or coastal erosion is a “natural process that continually reshapes

Breakwater is an artificial offshore

 Güneralp, İ., & Marston, R. (2012). Process–form linkages in meander

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