Proceedings of the ASME 2013 International Pipeline Geotechnical Conference
IPG2013
ANALYSIS OF UNDERMINING AND LATERAL EROSION TO MAXIMIZE
DESIGNS OF RIVER CROSSING OF PIPELINES
Jorge Alejandro Avendaño
Agricultural and Civil Engineering Department,
Universidad Nacional de Colombia
Bogota, Colombia
ABSTRACT
Erosion of the riverbank is one of the main issues that affect the
oil lines in the world. Several studies, developed by the authors
of this paper, in different basins of the country, identified the
most common processes of instability and erosion of riverbanks
in the affected areas. Concerning the characteristics of the
problem, several alternatives have been considered to reduce
the erosion rate and give priority to the mitigation of
geomorphic processes and the stability of agricultural soils
adjacent to the riverbank. The general goal of this article is to
present several case studies and analytical tools that will allow
estimating and evaluating the processes of lateral migration and
undermining of the river-bed in the design of river crossing and
outline of oil pipelines, in general. The experience of these
authors in regards to erosion issues has allowed identifying the
contribution of deposits suspended from the banks and that can
be controlled combining stabilizing techniques according to the
affected area. Usually, the lower half of the slope that is
exposed to high shearing forces has to be protected through the
use of strong and durable materials while the rest of the slope
can be protected with native vegetation. Finally, the analytical
alternatives presented by mathematical modeling are employed
to predict hydraulic and mechanical effects from which can be
exposed to margins in the construction stage and operation of
the oil pipeline.
Key words: Lateral erosion, profound erosion and
mathematical modeling.
1 INTRODUCTION
In spite of the relevance of river ecosystems in Colombia, there
is relatively little knowledge about their dynamic. Still there are
many rivers in this country that do not have access to weather
and sedimentological monitoring, situation that complicates
fulfillment of studies to quantify the water supply quality of
water, erosion rate and sedimentation of these ecosystems.
Erosion can be defined as a set of inter-related processes that
comprehend the detachment, transportation and subsequently,
1 Copyright © 2013 by ASME
July 24-26, 2013, Bogota, Colombia
IPG2013-1914
Manuel García López
Agricultural and Civil Engineering Department
Universidad Nacional de Colombia
Bogota, Colombia
the soil materials deposited due to frictional force of fluids in
movement (Suárez Díaz, 2001; León Peláez, 2001). In regards
to the erosion caused by water, the process can be studied,
starting with the detachment of the soil particles through the
drops of rainwater, that are integrated in the process of
superficial flow; at the same time the flow streams produce
detachment of particles due to the water force in movement that
are driven down slope until incorporated to the natural
riverbeds (Suárez Díaz, 2001; León Peláez, 2001). The
susceptibility to the erosion depends on the weather, the
characteristics of the soil, the land morphology, the land cover
and the anthropic intervention.
Lateral and profound erosion in riverbeds is one of the natural
procedures that threaten the integrity of the pipelines in
crossing areas that are located in the proximities of the channel.
There are two main processes of erosions in the river basins
(hydraulic erosion and erosion due to gravitational faults). The
basin faults are generally presented by the combination of
hydraulic procedures that erode the lower part of the riverbank
and geotechnical processes that depend on the balance between
destabilizing and resisting forces of mud rush in materials that
integrate the riverbanks. The traction force of water in
movement and the gravitational force are the main forces that
lead to erosion.
The faults of the riverbanks are generally presented after high
flux periods that lead to an increase of weight of the failure
wedge that combined with a quick descent in the confining
pressure, reduction of the suction forces by saturation of the
bank and erosion in the lower part of the slope, makes the
destabilizing forces in the margin greater than the resisting
forces of the fault. The studies on erosion and stabilizing design
must integrate disciplines such as geology, fluvial
geomorphology, hydrology, aquatic and river ecology,
hydraulic and geotechnical engineering, ensuring the selection
of appropriate stabilizing methods that integrate physical as
well as biological procedures that are distinctive in the natural
river systems (Ramírez-Ávila, 2011).
 In Figures 2-2 y 2-3, undermining problems are illustrated on
The need to undertake studies that seek to a better the left bank of the ravine where the future stability of the
understanding of the natural processes taken place in the river pipeline is threatened. In a nearby area, there are paddocks for
systems and considerate the use of computing tools, to facilitate grazing cattle; on account of permanent floods of the low
analysis and prediction of the impacts on the pipelines due to border level of the riverbank during raining season.
natural hazards, allowed us to develop this article, which
purpose is to present to the gas and oil industry and the
community, the analytical tools to estimate and evaluate lateral
migration processes and undermining of the bed in the design
of river crossings.
2 EROSION PROBLEMS OF RIVER STREAMS IN
COLOMBIA
The following provides a summary of the studies related to the
lateral and profound erosion problems that have affected the
pipelines in Colombia. It is important to clarify that this is a
brief description of the dilemma and the studies are supported
by data information activities, fieldwork, geological and
geomorphological analysis, hydrological and hydraulic analysis Figura 2-2. Details of the right bank of the affected area.
and detailed geotechnical characteristics of the bedrock in the
area. In Figure 2-2, thin and erodible materials of the ravine shore
2.1 Singararé Ravine (2012) correspond to silty sands; the bottom of the riverbed is mainly
Overall, it is a meandering stream located in a material deposit made up of silt.
predominantly thin to granular. In these conditions, soil erosion
is produced in the outer edge of the curves and the material
deposit located in the inner part of the riverbank. The alignment
Unstable
of Colorados-Galán Oil Pipeline Wells is threaten by a course
riverbanks
change of the stream which is approaching fairly quick to the
alignment because of the PK309+000 where the left margin is
currently located at 20m from the pipeline compared to the 55m
where it was located a year and a half ago; this implicates that
the riverbed is approaching the right-of-way to a rate of
23m/year.

While evaluating aerial photographs of the region, huge

changes were found in the current riverbed (2012) of the
Singararé Ravine in comparison to the one in 1993 (Figure
2-1). Clearly, a great digression is present in this meandering
stream due to the soils of area already mentioned, where a
tectonic depression is located with a very low topographical
slope.
Figure 2-3. View of the greatly affected area.

In Figure 2-3, the view of the greatly affected area can be

clearly seen. The yellow line defines a step in the failed
material of the riverbed. Material, which had recently collapsed
in the left bank, was covered with bright green grazing.

The estimated potential of erosion, transportation and

Figure 2-1. Multi-temporal analysis of the riverbed located in
Singararé Ravine in proximity to Colorados-Galán Oil Pipeline
Wells.
sedimentation was made using the criteria of initial sediment
movement that, in most cases, are derived from an approach of
shear stress or speed. (e.g White (1940); Shields (1936);
Hjulstrom (1935); Yang (1976); etc). It is important to
emphasize that due to the stochastic nature of the sediment

2 Copyright © 2013 by ASME

movement, it is difficult to define with precision, the flow
condition by which the sediment particles will begin to move.
(Red: area of inflexion; turquoise: external margin; indigo:
internal margin; camel: area of inflexion; violet: area of inflexion;
grey: area of rapids or white waters; light blue: area of rapids or
white waters)
Figure 2-4. Flow speed and size of particles required for the
development of erosion, transportation and deposit procedures,
Adapted from Hjulström, 1935.
The results obtained indicate that these soil deposits are silty
sands badly graded, highly susceptible to undermining as well
as erosion. Labor protection of riverbanks were designed and
built to avoid any harm to the pipeline in a near future.
2.2 Guafal River (2006)
In this area of study, the river makes a transition between
crossing and meandering, going from a section where the
riverbed has been working in terraced deposits to the
floodplain. During flood season, the intricacy of the riverbed,
the attack to riverbanks and old channels are easily perceived.
3 Copyright © 2013 by ASME
Figure 2-5. Multi-temporal analysis of Guafal River
In Figure 2-5, the overlap of the lines of the riverbanks is
shown in a period of 40 years. It is established that when there
is downstream of water crossing, the river has occupied a width
of 400m that could increase. Furthermore, there is a possibility
that the riverbed could resume some of its former courses.
The analysis have put in evidence lateral erosion processes due
to channel attack of the external side of the curves, which
facilitates the loss of material in the lower part of the riverbank
and later on, the detachment of floor slabs, displacing the shore;
another process identified that involves tubes, due to a Venturi
effect when the water passes through and this causes the flow
speed to increase as well as increasing the potential of run-off
materials. This process is called local undermining. When the
tubes are exposed, they receive a thrust of water that if it
reaches a non-buried length (exposed to the flow) of more de
30 m, it can induce the resonance (for the gas pipeline, the
resonance would occur with a length of 12m). Undermining
processes are also observed at the riverbed.
 252

250

Elevación (m)
248

246

244

242

240
0 50 100 150
Abscisa

Sección Z fondo Z max agua

2.3 Aipe River (1987)

Figure 2-6. General image of the area of intersection.
The oil pipeline of the section consists of a steel tube that has a
10’’ nominal diameter and 0.25’’ of thickness, with simple
coating of coal-tar, which is found broken because of visible
dents received by run-off material and evidence of corrosion
prints on the pipe. The gas pipeline located at a distance of 5 to
9m south of the oil pipeline consists of a pipe of 4’’nominal
diameter with an epoxy coating (FBE), which is in a good state.
Figure 2-6 taken on December, 2005, during an aerial
reconnaissance, shows the place where the river unplugged the
pipe.
The Aipe River has a meandering riverbed in the intersection
area with long sections of minor sinuosity between major
curves. In a curve of great radio, the right shore undermine in
the intersection of two lines, one of oil pipeline and the other,
gas pipeline, this curve shows a tendency to increase the
curvature in time, like the process of formation of a new
meander, which forced to take necessary precaution in regards
to new lateral shifts in the future

Oil pipeline Gas pipeline

Figure 2-8. Panoramic view of Aipe river in the underwater

intersection.

As illustrated in Figure 2-9, the river has undermined the right

bank, leaving uncover the underwater intersection of the oil and
Figure 2-7. Detail of the place where the river unplugged the pipe.
gas pipeline. It is under the impression that the underwater
In Figure 2-7, the layout of pipes is noticeable, in forefront, the intersection was done too confined to the riverbed at the time of
oil pipeline and to the right; the gas pipeline is slightly construction, perhaps without considering the possibility of
submerged. The curvature of the oil pipeline, the sinking of displacement by later undermining.
land by effects of pipe vibration and floating material lying
down on the land are emphasized. Using Maza´s model (1994),
it was calculated a major undermining of 2.2m under
equilibrium of the riverbed for a return flow of 100 years.
Accordingly, it is recommended to excavate under the pipes of
a length of 600m to make these pipes descend approximately
4m.

4 Copyright © 2013 by ASME


Figure 2-9. Detail of the underground intersection of the oil and
gas pipeline by lateral displacement of the river.
With basis of the measurements, rainfall data and water level
gathered, a calculation of the undermining was made for a
maximum level of 2.5 of water sheet, with showed that the
undermining underground could reach a value of 1.2m
3 ANALYSIS THROUGH MATHEMATICAL
MODELING
The erosion processes are closely linked to the hydraulic of the
section studied. It is essential to be able to predict and simulate
the water level in a time period simultaneously in a series of
cross sections along the river. Saint Venant´s equations are
based of the physical principals that govern channel flow:
continuity principle (Eq. 1) and conservation of momentum
(Eq. 2), and allow simulate the hydraulic procedures of the
rivers. (Langendoen, 2000 y Chow, et al., 1994).
∂y ∂Q
B + − q = 0 (1)
∂t ∂x
∂Q ∂ Q2 ∂y
+ � � + gA � + Sf � = 0 (2)
∂x ∂x A ∂x
Where: A = flow area (m2), B = width of the water surface (m),
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2), Q = flow (m3/s), q = lateral
flow (m2/s), Sf = slope of the energy line (m/m), t = time (s),
x = distance of the channel (m), y = elevation of the layer of
water (m).
The sediment transportation rates depend on the flow of the
composition of the bed and the sediment load from upstream.
According to the water column area where the sediment
transportation occurs, it can be classified in: bed load and
suspended load. To evaluate a load in suspension, a mass
balance approach is used (Eq. 3); to estimate the bed sediment
transportation, there are in the paper references numerous
methodologies, mainly established through field and laboratory
measurements. Many of these authors (ej. Langendoen, 2000,
Simon et al., 2002 and 2008 ) recommend using the Meyer-
5 Copyright © 2013 by ASME
Peter and Muller equation (Eq. 4), or Shields equation,
depending of the distribution of sediment sizes of the riverbed.
∂Ck ∂u ∙ Ck
+ = Ek −Dk + qsk (3)
∂t ∂x
Where: Ck is the quantity of suspended sediments (gr m2), u =
flow speed (m/s2), Ek = sediment discharge rate (gr m2 s-1), Dk
= sedimentation rate (gr m2 s-1), y qsk = lateral input of
sediment rate (gr m2 s-1)
QB = 8 ∙ Dm1.5 ∙ g 0.5 ∙ (Gs − 1)0.5 ∙ b ∙ 𝐾 1.5 (4)
n′ 1.5 dm ∙Sf
𝐾 = �� � ∙� � − 0.047� (5)
n (Gs−1)∙Dm
Where QB is the transportation of the bed layer of all the
section (m3/s); Dm is the medium diameter of the bed material
(m), Gs is the relative density of particles (-), dm is the medium
depth of the section (m), b is the medium width of the floor
(m).
Hydraulic erosion can be classified by the principle of excess
shear stress (Eq 6).
E = K(τ − τc ) (6)
Excess shear is defined as the difference between the applied
shear flow (τ) and critical shear stress at which the particles are
detached from the bank (τc ). The erodibility of the soil can be
calculated using various expressions relating soil properties or
field measurement using a jet test device (Langendoen, 2000;
Simon et al., 2002).
The stability of the bank before the mass failure depends on the
balance between destabilizing and resisting forces. With the
results of the hydraulic model, it is possible to estimate the
position of the piezometric level and the state of pressure by
matric suction for a window of time analysis, Using the Mohr-
Coulomb theory, in the case of partially saturated soils (Eq 7),
is possible to analyze the precise way of the influence of the
matric suction in the creation of a fault event.
τ = c´ + σ´ tan(∅´) + (µa − µw ) tan(∅b ) (7)
Where τ is the resistance to soil shear, c´ is the effective
cohesion, ∅´ is the angle of internal friction of the material, ∅b
is the angle of internal friction in regards to the matric suction,
µa is the air pressure in the pores, µw is the water pressure in
the pores and the difference (µa − µw ) is the matric suction.
In riverbanks, the analysis of planar and cantilever stability is
employed as common fault mechanisms by using the limit
equilibrium method to determine the security factor of each
cross section. (Eq 6 y 7; Langendoen, 2000).
 cos β ∑ni=1 Li C′i + Ni tan(∅′ i − Ui tan∅bi )
SFplanar = (5)
sin β ∑ni=1(Ni − Fw )
∑ni=1(Li C′ i − Ui tan∅bi )
SFcantilever = (6)
∑ni=1 Wi
Where: Wi = Weight of the slice, Ni = normal force on the basis
of the slice, Si = shear on chop base, Ini = Interstitial horizontal
normal force between slices, Fw = hydrostatic force, ∅′ i = is
the angle of internal friction, Li = length of the base of the slice,
Ui = is the angle surface of suction failure.
Nowadays, there are different computing tools capable of
modeling hydraulic channels, sediment transportation and
morphological processes of rivers to predict erosion rates and
verify the stability of the restoration designs, using different
setting alternatives of the riverbed. (e.g. EROSION 3D,
RiverFLO-2D, CONCEPTS, BSTEM). The input information
required for this type of study includes: channels and sediment
discharge in the border condition of the upstream model,
geometry of the channel, roughness coefficients, composition
of the riverbeds, riverbanks and soil properties such as: critical
shear cutting, erodibility coefficient, cohesion and angle of
internal friction.
The equations formerly presented were found implemented in
computer programs of free distribution BSTEM (Bank-
Stability and Toe-Erosion Model) and CONCEPTS
(CONservational Channel Evolution and Pollutant Transport
System) developed by researchers of the US Department of
Agriculture - Agricultural Research Service - National
Sedimentation Laboratory (USDA-ARS-NSL). In different
research projects, it has been demonstrated that these tools are
useful to predict erosion rate, sediment transportation and to
evaluate stabilizing designs of riverbanks (e.g. Avendaño et al,
2012; Ramírez-Ávila, 2011; Langendoen et al, 2001; y Simon
et al., 2010 )
4 CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DESIGN AND
CONSTRUCTION OF RIVER CROSSINGS
There is a great variety of proposed equations in literature to
estimate the rates of sediment transportation, erosion and
maximum target of undermining of rivers depending on the
overlaps, theories that support it, type of rivers developed and
range of data used to determine the values of the coefficients
involved.
The recommendations for the execution of the underground
intersection are subject to the construction technic employed
and must be done with a basis on the results and proper criteria
of the studies needed for these types of projects.
6 Copyright © 2013 by ASME
To define the length and depth of secure interment of pipes in
the presence of erosion procedures, usually, at the level of the
pipe located at least 2.5 meters under the depth of the
undermining, the total length of the intersection must cover the
width of the digression of the river. Subsequently, a series of
recommendations and labor protection must be taken into
account in regards to river crossing design.
4.1 Subfluvial crossing in a trench in open air
In this type of crossing, the trench is excavated in an alluvial
deposit composed of boulders, gravel, pebbles and sand, in
layers of medium density and high water table.
The crossing as a whole will have pipelines with conventional
ballasts, reinforced concrete codding between 5 and 9
centimeters of thickness. In case, there is not enough to cover
the whole digression, stronger measures must be taken to
protect the riverbanks (scour mats, cork, bolsters, etc.).
In the low trench of the active channel, the filling of the trench
must be made with granulated materials of the place. During
the excavation of the trench, bigger sizes of boulders and rocky
slabs must be selected and stacked up separately in order to
place them in the superior side of the filling, Depending on the
capacity of run-off riverbed materials, the protection of the
riverbed with check dams between 0.5 and 1 meter of
thickness, composed of resistant and durable rocks (sandstone)
with a size of rocky slabs between 0.40 and 0.50m will be
completed
Efforts will be made to ensure that the oversized rocks remain
on the surface of the filling. This check dam will be built on the
width of the surface of the filling of the trench, extending the
upstream twice over the width of the trench and the same will
be done on the downstream once. The check dam should not
protrude the riverbed more than 0.15m.
Finally, it is important to emphasize in the type of crossing, the
excavation of the river trench requires careful supervision of
the channel by the staff, as well as security of the equipment in
case of any river flooding. It is recommended to have equipped
watchtowers, radio telephones or cellphones in strategic places
of the crossing area.
4.2 Subfluvial crossing by directed perforation
In directed perforation, the stratigraphic criteria should prevail
over the undermining; this means that the directed perforation
should be done on a stratus or material that offers continuity
from each side of the river, in absence of layers, bags or
heterogeneous lens materials, and of relative variable density; if
possible, geological faults that cause deviation of the drill bit
and pipelines or as the blocks move, they “catch” the perforated
oil pipeline.
The main limitation of this technic is related with the presence
of alluvial deposits or of other origin that have check dams,
gravel, pebbles and sand. Due to its difficulty to complete with
success the construction of the crossing, the tear of drill bits,
the loss of directions and loss of bentonite slurries necessary to
maintain the integrity of the whole.
To overcome the difficulties by the presence of thick granular
materials in our rivers, it is usually necessary to withdraw these
materials from the entrance as well as the outflow of the
pipeline of perforation through excavations and pits with a
depth equal to the thickness of the deposit.
The length of the river crossing by directed perforation must
overcome the width of the digression of the river, however, it is
limited to the technology available and practices limited to
construction, In case, the width of the digression belt cannot
overcome the location of the entrance and exit of the projected
crossing, stable areas should be located with expertise criteria
from agro technical, geomorphological and undermining
analysis.
5 CONCLUSIONES
The lateral and depth of the undermining is a process that
affects all the channels. It is important to estimate the erosion
rates to achieve that the civil structures remain inside the
profile or limits of the natural undermining of the channel and
of the digression or lateral displacement. Thus, take the
necessary corrective measures to avoid any harm to the
pipelines.
The faults of the riverbanks occur because of the combination
of hydraulic processes that erode the downslope, continued by
the removal of masses causing the collapse of the banks. The
stabilizing measures that help reduce the erosion of the banks
include: a redesign of the geometry of the section, looking to
reduce the slope in order to reduce gravitational force, strong
protection of the downslope to increase resistance of the
riverbank against hydraulic forces; and vegetation of the face of
the slope with the goal of increasing cohesive forces of the soil
and at the same time, protecting from erosion caused by wind
or high flow.
In the erosion processes of river banks, resisting forces are
diminished in a slow manner, continuously and accumulative.
The geotechnical fault presented when forces exerted by flow
and gravitational forces act in situ, exceed the resisting forces
of the material that compose the bank and vegetation.
Even though different alternatives have been developed to
protect the pipes in the place where they are exposed, it is
important to analyze the effects that could have upstream and
downstream given that the river can continue with the
digression and affected lands in the proximity of the location.
7 Copyright © 2013 by ASME
The implementation of computing tools allows to address
migration problems of the channels employing basic concepts
of both geotechnical and hydraulic fields to give us a close
approach of the threat that the channel could generate due to
erosional processes.
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